UGC NET COACHING -

EDUCATION
UNIT 3: LEARNER AND LEARNING
PROCESS
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
STAGES OF GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
 ASPECTS OF GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
 Physical Development- Includes development of Internal and External Organs of an
Individual
 Intellectual or Mental Development- Development of Intellectual Powers like Reasoning,
Thinking, Imagination, Concentration, Creativity, Sensation, Perception, Memory,
Association, Discrimination and Generalization
 Emotional Development- Development of basic instincts, evolution of various emotions,
emotional maturity
 Moral or Character Development- Evolution of moral sense and development of character.
 Social Development- Development of social skills, learning to behave to the rules and
norms of the society.
 Language Development- Learning of Language for Communication, Development of Skills
and Abilities foe effective use of language.
 PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT

 Principle of Continuity
 Rate of Growth and Development is not Uniform
 Principle of Individual Difference
 Uniformity of Pattern
 Development proceeds from General to Specific
 Principle of Integration
 Principle of Interrelation
 Development is Predictable
 Principle of developmental direction
 Development is spiral and not Linear
 Growth and Development is a joint product of both heredity and
environment
COGNITIVE PROCESSES AND STAGES
OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
PERSONALITY
DEFINITIONS
FREUD THEORY OF PERSONALITY
 CARL ROGERS THEORY OF
PERSONALITY

 Carl Roger (1902-1987) American Psychologist

 Roger’s theory is known as the Self Theory

 Self- concept includes of three components:

1. Self worth or self esteem- What we think of ourselves
2. Self-image- How we see ourselves
3. Ideal Self- who we would like to be
 GORDON ALLPORT THEORY OF
PERSONALITY

 Definition of Personality according to Allport (1937)- “Personality is the dynamic

organisation within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine
his unique adjustment to the environment”.

 Gordon Allport theory is related with motivation and motivation is an important

concept of Personality.

 Allport adopted trait approach in providing a theory of personality.

 Allport’s Theory is known as Allport’s Trait Theory of Personality.

 According to Allport, personality trait are the basic units of the structure of our personality.

 Allport classified the personality traits into three main types-

1. Cardinal Traits- Most active and dominant Traits of one’s personality. Present in a very small
number as one or two. Example, Sense of Humour

2. Central Traits- Frequently employed for identifying and describing one’s personality. Example,
Honesty, Kindness, Shyness, Cruelty etc.

3. Secondary Traits- Traits that play a secondary or insignificant role in identification and description
of one’s personality. Not essential part of one’s personality. Example, Miser, Selfish, Greedy.
MAX WERTHEIMER AND KURT KOFFKA
 Gestalt theory had a central idea of "grouping”.
 The primary factors that determine grouping are
(1) Proximity, elements that are close in space tend to be grouped together and
perceived as one or a few objects
(2) Similarity, items that have some similar characteristics tend to be grouped,
(3) Closure, elements which appear to complete some shape or object tend to be
grouped
(4) Simplicity, the tendency to organize objects into simple figures
 Working with Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka helped establish the theories
of Gestalt psychology. It was Koffka who promoted this new psychology in Europe and
introduced it to the United States. He was responsible for systematizing Gestalt psychology into a
coherent body of theories.

 Koffka extended Gestalt theories to developmental psychology, and his ideas about perception,
interpretation, and learning influenced American educational theories and policies.
MENTAL HEALTH AND MENTAL HYGIENE

 Mental Health: Mental Health stands for the health of the mind.

 It is concerned with the health of one’s mind and it’s functioning in the same way as the physical
health is concerned with the health of one’s physical organs and their functioning.

 The World Health Organization defines health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social
well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”.
 Symptoms of Poor Mental Health

 Emotional unstable and easily upset

 Suspicious and insecure
 Self-critical, empowered with a feeling of guilt
 Lacks self confidence and will power
 No adequate adjustment with the self and the environment
 Failure in setting a proper level of aspiration
 Suffers from frustrations, unresolved conflicts, strains and stresses
 Lacks enduring power and tolerance
 Lacks decision-making ability
 Poor self-concept and achievement motivation
 Unrealistic attitude towards life and people
 Suffers from mental disturbances, disorders, ailments and diseases
 Always dissatisfied with achievements
 Lives in one’s own world of imagination and fantasy
 Symptoms of Good Mental Health

 Know about oneself. Evaluate owns strength and weaknesses.

 Ability to make adjustment in changed circumstances and situations.
 Emotionally mature and stable.
 Socially adjustable. Possess desirable social and health habits.
 Intellectual powers are adequately.
 Ability to think independently and take proper decision.
 Live in the world of reality
 Possess enough courage and power of tolerance to face failures in life
 Possess an adequate sense of belonging and loyalty towards the group of belonging.
 Free from undesirable mental disturbances, disorders, conflicts, anxieties etc
 Self-confident and optimist.
 Lead a well balanced life of work, rest and recreation.
 Satisfied with owns achievement, profession, occupation
 Mental hygiene is a Science which deals with the process of attaining mental health
and preserving mental health in the society.
 Definition:

 American Psychiatric Association has defined mental hygiene as “a science which

suggests measures for prevention of mental illness and restoration of mental health by
the cure of mental illness”.

 It is also defined as “the process of investigation of the laws of mental health, and the
taking of measures for its preservation”.
 SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE

WHAT DOES SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE MEAN?

 You are aware of other people’s thoughts and feelings. You understand why they do
things.

 “When I get ready to talk to people, I spend two thirds of the time thinking what they
want to hear and one third thinking about what I want to say.” -ABRAHAM LINCOLN

 “When people talk, listen completely. Most people never listen.” -ERNEST HEMINGWAY
 Social intelligence refers to a person’s ability

 To understand and manage interpersonal relationships.

 It is distinct from a person’s IQ or “book smarts.”

 It includes an individual’s ability to understand, and act on, the feelings,

thoughts, and behaviors of other people.

 This type of intelligence can take place “in the moment” of face-to-
face conversations but also appears during times of deliberate thinking.

 It involves emotional intelligence and self-awareness.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE - GARDNER
THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
 STENBERG THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

 TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

BY ROBERT STERNBERG

 (Sternberg, 1985)- Intelligence is the

mental activity directed toward
purposive adaptation to, selection
and shaping of real- world
environments relevant to one’s life.
 Sternberg proposed his theory in 1985 as an alternative to the idea of the general
intelligence factor. The general intelligence factor, also known as g, is
what intelligence tests typically measure. It refers only to “academic intelligence.”

 Sternberg argued that practical intelligence—a person’s ability to react and adapt to
the world around them—as well as creativity are equally important when measuring
an individual's overall intelligence. He also argued that intelligence isn’t fixed, but
rather comprises a set of abilities that can be developed. Sternberg's assertions led to
the creation of his theory.
 STENBERG THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

 The Triarchic theory of intelligence  The triarchic theory is comprised of three subtheories,

proposes that there are three each of which relates to a specific kind of intelligence:
1. The contextual subtheory- which corresponds to
distinct types of intelligence:
practical intelligence, or the ability to successfully
practical, distinct, and analytical.
function in one’s environment;
2. The experiential subtheory- which corresponds to
creative intelligence, or the ability to deal with novel
situations or issues; a
3. The componential subtheory- which corresponds to
analytical intelligence, or the ability to solve problems.
 Componential subtheory: The componential theory outlines the various mechanisms that result in
intelligence. According to Sternberg, this subtheory is comprised of three kinds of mental
processes or components:

 Metacomponents enable us to monitor, control, and evaluate our mental processing, so that we
can make decisions, solve problems, and create plans.

 Performance components are what enable us to take action on the plans and decisions arrived
at by the metacomponents.

 Knowledge-acquisition components enable us to learn new information that will help us carry
out our plans.
 Kinds of Intelligence
 Each subtheory reflects a particular kind of intelligence or ability:
 Practical intelligence: Sternberg called one’s ability to successfully interact with the everyday
world practical intelligence. Practical intelligence is related to the contextual subtheory.
Practically intelligent people are especially adept at behaving in successful ways in their
external environment.
 Creative intelligence: The experiential subtheory is related to creative intelligence, which is
one’s ability to use existing knowledge to create new ways to handle new problems or cope in
new situations.
 Analytical intelligence: The componential subtheory is related to analytical intelligence, which
is essentially academic intelligence. Analytical intelligence is used to solve problems and is the
kind of intelligence that is measured by a standard IQ test
ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
1. As far as the administrative point of view is concerned the intelligence tests can be classified
into two broad categories namely-
a. Individual Tests: In which only one individual is tested at a time.
b. Group Tests: In which a group of individuals is tested at a time

2. Another way of classifying the intelligence tests is based on the form of the test. Accordingly,
there are two types of tests:
a. Verbal or Language Tests: These tests make use of language. Instructions are given in words
(either in written or oral form or both).
b. Non- Verbal and Non-Language Test: Involve activities in which the use of language is not
necessary. Example. Performance Test
 Intelligence Tests

Individual Tests Group Tests

Verbal Test Verbal Test

Non- Non-
Verbal/Performance Verbal/Performance
Tests Tests
 CONCEPT OF PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem-solving behaviour may be understood as a deliberate and purposeful act on

the part of an individual to realize the set goals or objectives by inventing some novel
methods or following some planned steps for the removal of obstacles on the path of
the realization of these goals, when usual methods like trial and error, habit formation
and conditioning fail.
 Scientific Method of Problem Solving:
Steps

1. Problem-awareness- Concern and aware of the problem

2. Problem-understanding- Analysis of the problem identified

3. Collection of Relevant Information- Collect information from all possible sources.

Reading, Reviving old experiences

4. Formation of Hypotheses or Hunch for Possible Solutions- Think of various possibilities for
solution

5. Selection of a Proper Solution- Think of a proper individual solution

6. Verification of the Concluded Solution or Hypothesis- Solution arrived must be verified

 Strategies of Problem-Solving

1. Algorithms- Algorithm may be defined as a strategy for generating a solution that exhausts
every possible answer till it comes up with the direct solution.

Problem: There is an Anagram UBC. You have to build up a meaningful word using the three letters
U, B and C of this anagram

Solution: Using algorithms, we will put the three letters U, B and C in every possible combinations like
C B U, B U C, B C U until the correct order CUB (a meaningful word) is found.
2. Heuristics- Heuristics are more economical in terms of time and labour. Heuristics represent

problem-solving strategies in which we make use of some mental shortcuts or rules of thumb
for restructuring a problem in a certain way to arrive at its quick solution.

Commonly used heuristics as problem solving strategy are:

i. Sub- Goal Analysis- The complex goal is divided into easily attainable sub-goals.

ii. Mean-End Analysis- Identification and reducing the difference between the current state
and the one that is desired to the nature and solution of the problem

iii. Working Backward- In this strategy for solution, one has to start with the desired result.
Example: In case you have forgotten where you kept the key of a room, you can find it
by working backward

iv. Using an Analogy- In this strategy one makes use of one’s own experience, training and
practice work carried out for the solution of the similar problem
CONCEPT OF CRITICAL THINKING
 CONCEPT OF METAGOGNITION

Metacognition is thinking about one’s thinking. More precisely, it refers to the processes
used to plan, monitor, and assess one’s understanding and
performance. Metacognition includes a critical awareness of a) one’s thinking and
learning and b) oneself as a thinker and learner.
 Metacognition refers to “thinking about thinking” and was introduced as a concept in by John
Flavell, who is typically seen as a founding scholar of the field.
 Flavell said that metacognition is the knowledge you have of your own cognitive processes
(your thinking).
 Flavell (1979). It is your ability to control your thinking processes through various strategies, such as
organizing, monitoring, and adapting. Additionally, it is your ability to reflect upon the tasks or
processes you undertake and to select and utilize the appropriate strategies necessary in your
intercultural interactions.
 Metacognition is considered a critical component of successful learning. It involves self-
regulation and self-reflection of strengths, weaknesses, and the types of strategies you create.
 Characteristics of Metacognition

 It’s relatively stable, like an intuitive model of knowledge and how knowledge works.

 Observable and communicable (you can access the knowledge to reflect on it and talk about
it).

 Fallible. It can lead to mistaken reasoning and incorrect ideas.

 Late-developing. This type of knowledge appears in the last stages of development because it
requires the ability to make abstractions
 CONCEPT OF CREATIVITY

 Creativity is the capacity or ability of an individual to create, discover or produce a

new idea or object including the re-arrangement or reshaping of what is already
known to him.

 Stagner and Karwoski, “Creativity implies the production of a ‘totally or partially’ novel
identity.

 Skinner, “Creative thinking means that the predictions and inferences for the
individual are new, original, ingenous, unusual. The creative thinker is one who
explores new areas and makes new observations, new predictions, new inferences.
 Nature and Characteristics of
Creativity

 Creativity is ability to synthesize ideas or objects.

 Creativity is the ability to create new ideas, theories or objects
 Creativity is the ability to develop something original
 Creativity has several dimensions
 Creativity is a process as well as a product
 Creativity is a complex, dynamic and serious process
 Creativity is the capacity to accept challenges
 Creativity is the freedom to exercise choice
 Creativity is the readiness to change self and environment.
 Characteristics of a Creative Person

 Adventurous
 Curious by nature
 Desirous to excel
 Flexible in his thinking, feeling and doing
 Intuitive
 Keen to explore and invent
 Non-Conformist
 Self-disciplined
 Visionary
 Willing to take risk
 PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF
LEARNING: BEHAVIOURISTIC THEORY
Principles and Theories of learning:
Cognitive Theory
Principles and Theories of learning:
Social Theory
 Factors affecting Social Learning

 Developmental status:As stipulated, there are certain points in one’s life that make his abilities
more ready to learn a particular thing. Strengths of one’s memory processing and information
retrieval must be enhanced in order to acquire higher levels of knowledge and understanding.
Therefore, the principle of teaching from simple to complex concepts must be ensured.
 Model prestige and competence: This factor says that learners tend to observe and imitate those
who are viewed of having prestige and high status. This is every significant among young
learners as they would like to see themselves soon to be like the model they are aspiring of.
 Outcome expectations: Definitely, people seek what’s better or even best for the thing they’re
engaged in. With the belief that hardwork will pay off in the future, then “present” actions will be
determined.
 Factors cont…..

 Goal-setting: It says that observers are more likely to attend or imitate models who demonstrate
actions or behaviors that may personally help them in achieving their goals. It is quite common
to hear other persons asking another who is successful in studying and learning about his
“techniques or strategies” to becoming one
 Values: Just like with the factor prestige and competence, observers prefer to imitate the
actions of those who are respected with their values and attitudes in life.
 Self-efficacy: It’s often a relief for many to see people almost similar to them who can exhibit
success in their chosen endeavour. It actually gives an inspiration and optimistic thinking that “If
they can do it, I can too.”
Social Competence
• Social competence can be characterized as the effectiveness of a child to
engage in social interactions with peers and adults (Fabes et al., 2006; Rubin
et al., 1998).
• It is the behavioral manifestation of a child’s emotional and regulatory
competencies while interacting with other people.
• Social competence does not represent a fixed quality but should be viewed as
a construct that in itself marks development: Society expects more
sophisticated interactions with older children.
 Components of Social Competence

 Self-Regulation: Self-regulation includes the abilities to control impulses, delay gratification, resist
temptation and peer pressure, reflect on one’s feelings, and monitor oneself (Kostelnik et al., 2002).
Much of self-regulation involves the management of emotion.
 Interpersonal knowledge and skills: Social competence also includes understanding others’ needs and
feelings, articulating one’s own ideas and needs, solving problems, cooperating and negotiating,
expressing emotion, “reading” social situations accurately, adjusting behavior to meet the demands of
different social situations, and initiating and maintaining friendships Positive self-identity
 Positive self-identity: an intrapersonal category of social competence, includes sense of competence,
personal power, sense of self-worth, and sense of purpose (Kostelnik et al., 2002). Children who feel
good about themselves in these capacities are more likely to have positive interpersonal relationships,
and anticipate success in their encounters with other people
 Cultural competence: Developing cultural competence includes acquiring knowledge of, respect for, and

the ability to interact effectively and comfortably with people of varying ethnic or racial backgrounds.

 Adopting social values: This component of social competence is described as encompassing caring, equity,

honesty, social justice, responsibility, healthy lifestyles and sexual attitudes, and flexibility. Social values are

likely to vary by culture.

 Planning and decision-making skills: The ability to act in a purposeful way, by making choices, developing

plans, solving problems, and carrying out positive actions to achieve social goals has been described as

another important component of social competence

Concept of Social Cognition
 Social Relationship

Broadly defined, social relationships refer to the connections that exist

between people who have recurring interactions that are perceived
by the participants to have personal meaning. This definition includes
relationships between family members, friends, neighbors, coworkers,
and other associates but excludes social contacts and interactions
that are fleeting, incidental, or perceived to have limited significance
(e.g., time-limited interactions with service providers or retail
employees).
 Socialization Goals

•Socialization prepares people to participate in a social group by

teaching them its norms and expectations.
•Socialization has three primary goals:
•teaching impulse control and developing a conscience,
•preparing people to perform certain social roles, and
•cultivating shared sources of meaning and value.
The role of socialization is to acquaint individuals with the norms of a given social
group or society. It prepares individuals to participate in a group by illustrating
the expectations of that group.

Socialization is very important for children, who begin the process at home with
family, and continue it at school. They are taught what will be expected of them
as they mature and become full members of society. Socialization is also
important for adults who join new social groups. Broadly defined, it is the process
of transferring norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors to future group members.
In his 1995 paper, “Broad and Narrow Socialization: The Family in the Context of
a Cultural Theory,” sociologist Jeffrey J. Arnett outlined his interpretation of the
three primary goals of socialization.
1. First, socialization teaches impulse control and helps individuals develop a
conscience. This first goal is accomplished naturally: as people grow up within
a particular society, they pick up on the expectations of those around them
and internalize these expectations to moderate their impulses and develop a
conscience.
2. Second, socialization teaches individuals how to prepare for and perform
certain social roles—occupational roles, gender roles, and the roles of
institutions such as marriage and parenthood.
3. Third, socialization cultivates shared sources of meaning and value.
Through socialization, people learn to identify what is important and valued
within a particular culture.
 Guidance: Meaning

To guide means to indicate , to point out or to show the way. It is a sort of help, assistance or suggestions
for progress. It is a process by which individuals are assisted in making adequate adjustments in life
situations. Guidance is a general term which means helping people to make wise choices and solve their
educational, vocational and personal problems.
DEFINITIONS:-
1. Ruthstrange, “Guidance is a process of helping every individual through his own efforts, to discover &
develop his potentialities for his personal happiness &social usefulness.”
2. Jones, ”Guidance involves personal help given by someone , it is designed to assist a person in
deciding to assist a person in deciding where he wants to go, what he wants to do or how he can
best accomplish his purpose, it assists him in solving problems that arise in his life”
 Nature of Guidance

1. Guidance is promotion of growth of the individual in self direction.

2. Guidance is a process that never ceases. It remains dynamic. In this process, an individual
understands himself, learns use maximum his own capacities ,interests and other abilities.
3. Guidance is accepted as individualized help. Through guidance an individual's personal
development is provided a direction and not to a group. Hence, it is a process of individualized
assistance.
4. Guidance helps the person in his adjustment in different situations. This process allows to learn to
adjust with different types of problems.
5. The process of guidance is helpful in preparing a person for his future.
6. It is one of the main characteristics of guidance not to impose one’s view point on others.
 Principles of Guidance

1. Principle of Universality

2. Principle of Continuity

3. Principle of Individualism

4. Principle of Flexibility in Methods and Procedures

5. Principle of co-operation

6. Principle of planning
 Need of guidance

1. Total Development of Individual 8. Conservation and Proper Utilization of

2. Proper Choice of Courses Human Resources

3. Proper choice of careers 9. Reducing Economic Crisis

4. Vocational Development 10. Psycho-Social Development

5. Self understanding and self direction 11. Changing conditions of work

6. Social and Personal Adjustment 12. Proper utilization of Leisure Time

7. Leading better family life 13. Improvement in Status

 Types of Guidance

1. Personal Guidance
2. Educational Guidance
3. Vocational Guidance
4. Social Guidance
5. Health guidance
6. Moral and Religious Guidance
7. Socio-civic Guidance
8. Economic Guidance
9. Leadership Guidance
10. Personality Guidance
 Educational Guidance

 It is a process of helping the individual to place him/herself continually in the most favourable setting
or environment for his/her education. It is concerned with helping the individual to plan wisely his/her
educational programme and to put him/herself in position to carry forward successfully that
programme along lines that society considers wholesome both for itself and for him/her. It is primarily
concerned with the problems related to courses, curriculum and study.
 Ruth Strang has defined educational guidance as an assistance. According to him, “Educational
guidance is intended to aid the individual in choosing an appropriate programme and in making
progress in it.”
 Jones has also described educational guidance as an assistance to be provided to the pupils so that
they may adjust in the schools with curricula and school life.
 Need of Educational guidance

1) Due to individual differences.

2) Selecting study courses or subjects.
3) Adjustment of students in the school.
4) To Solve the problem of wastage and stagnation in education.
5) Providing awareness for future job opportunities.
6) Awareness about the vocations.
7) Organizing co-curricular activities.
8) Helping slow learners and under achievers.
9) Causes for unsuccessful students.
10)Solving the problem of indiscipline.
11)Providing remedial instruction for teaching-learning
 Vocational Guidance

Vocational / Career guidance is the process of assisting the individual to choose an occupation
career, prepare for it, enter upon and progress in it. Vocational / career guidance concerns itself
with students in the academic courses in high school, college, in the trade and commercial courses
categories as well as vocational courses
 Need of Vocational Guidance

1. Individual Difference
2. Variety of Vocations
3. Vocational Progress
4. Stable Future of Students
5. Need from Economic Point of View
6. Need due to Changing Conditions
7. For proper utilisation of Human Potentialities
8. Establishing Co-ordination between Family and Vocational Life
9. For unsuitable Occupations
 Personal Guidance

Especially personal guidance is a type of assistance offered to an individual to overcome his

emotional problems and to help him to control his emotions which do occur in the individual’s life.
A sound and satisfactory personality of an individual can be developed if he becomes able to
check and control different powerful emotions such as anger, fear, anxiety, jealousy, nervousness,
joy and tensions in different context of life.
 Health Guidance

Health is regarded as the wealth. Total health i.e. preventive and curative is the goal of health
guidance. The health guidance may be a cooperative effort of Principal, Doctors,
Counsellor/psychologist, Teachers, Students and parents. For promoting preventive care the
conditions of school hostel, canteen needs to be checked. Similarly health education through
formal classes and information is essential in school education stages. In the present day the
concern of health guidance also pertains to guidance in HIV/AIDs.
 Social Guidance

Individuals some time may face problems in adjustment and social relationship. It is very important
to help people in acquiring the feeling of security and being accepted by the group; in
developing social relationship and in becoming tolerant towards others. This is the task of social
guidance. Formally social guidance can be given by educational institutions whereas informal
guidance may be provided by Family, religious institutions, Media etc.
 Counselling- Meaning

 Counseling is the heart of guidance programme. Without it, guidance is incomplete. It helps
students to resolve their educational as well as personal and vocational problems. It makes an
effective use of the information collected about the individual or the group to provide insight
into the problems for a better guidance programme. It may be viewed as an applied art that
seeks deliberately to change the behavior of an individual. This part of chapter is an attempt to
present the basic concepts in counseling to acquaint the readers with the fundamentals of it.
 Definitions

According to Webster’s Dictionary, Counseling is defined as, “Counseling; mental interchange

of opinions; deliberating together.”
Strang defines Counseling as, “face to face relationship in which growth takes place in the
counselor as well as the counselee.”
Traxler defines Counseling as “the application of the personal resources of the school or other
institutions to the solution of the problems of individuals.”
 Principles of Guidance

1. Counseling is a process. It is necessary for the counselor to understand that counseling is a process and a slow
process. Failure to understand this will result in annoyance and disappointment.
2. Counseling is for all. Especially in the school situation counseling is meant for all the students and not only for
those who are facing problems or other exceptional students. As we have already discussed in the school
situation Counseling is more developmental and preventive than remedial in nature.
3. Counseling is based on certain fundamental assumptions. (a) every individual in this world is capable of
taking responsibilities for him/herself. (b) every individual has a right to choose his/her own path, based on the
principles of democracy
4. Counselor does not deprive the right of self-choice but simply facilitates choice. The counselor should give
due respect to the individual and accept him/her as he/she is
5. Counseling is not advice giving
6. Counseling is not thinking for the client, but thinking with the client. Counseling is for enabling
the client to do judicious thinking.
7. Counseling is not problem solving. The counselor simply assist the person to find solution on
his/her own.
8. Counseling is not interviewing but conversing with the client in order to help him/her develop
self-understanding.
9. The counselor should determine individual differences and provide for them.
10. The counselor has to prepare the client to open to criticism including self-criticism.
11. The counselor acts as a facilitator or catalyst only. He creates an atmosphere which is
permissive and non-threatening, through his warm and accepting relationship with the client
which helps the client to explore himself/herself and understand himself/herself better
 Need of Counselling

 Achievement of Positive Mental Health

 Problem Resolution
 Counselling for Decision Making
 Improving personal effectiveness
 Helping to change
 Behaviour modification
 Types of Counselling

There are three major types/approaches to counselling.

The directive approach
The non-directive approach and
The eclectic approach
 Directive Counselling

 This approach envisages a more active role for the counsellor.

 The counsellor employs varying degrees of direction to help the counselee to reach sound
solutions.
 Also, through his/her own specialized knowledge and experience in scientific diagnosis and
interpretation of data, counselees are helped to reach earlier solutions for their problems.
 Steps in Directive Counselling

Directive counselling involves six stages. They are as follows:

a) Analysis This involves collecting from various sources the data needed for an adequate
understanding of the client.
b) Synthesis This refers to summarizing and organizing the data so obtained, as to reveal the assets,
liabilities, adjustments and maladjustments of the counselee.
c) Diagnosis This stage is concerned with formulating conclusions regarding the nature and the
course of the problems exhibited by the counselee/client. Drawing conclusions from the results of
psychological testing, administration of questionnaires etc. are done here.
d) Prognosis This refers to predicting the future course of development of the counselee’s problem
in the light of conclusions as made earlier.
e) Counselling This is the most important and time consuming step in the whole process. Counselling
involves (a) assisting the student in self-appraisal, i.e. identifying his/her interests motives and
capabilities (b) helping him/her to plan a course of action which utilizes the capabilities and
potentialities so identified and (c) finally is establishing an adaptive life style
f) Follow-up Follow-up is is needed to ensure that if a new problem occurs or the earlier problem
recurs the client is able to deal with the situation.
 Non-Directive Counselling

 In this approach, the counsellor provides an atmosphere in which the client can fully explore
his/her own thoughts and feelings freely without any fear or pressure.
 Thus by making the counselee understand his/her potentialities the counsellor acts as a catalytic
agent.
 Here the source of data is the client himself/herself and the responsibility for change rests with the
counselee rather than the counsellor.
 The counsellor should not be as passive as trying to keep out of clients way nor should be as
active as to shift the focus from client to counsellor
 Eclectic Counselling

Here the counsellor bases his/her counselling on concepts taken from various available
viewpoints. He/she owes no specific theoretical allegiance. Instead, incorporates those
procedures and techniques which he/she believes to be most effective in the case of that
particular counselee, without any prejudice or bias to any particular school of thought
According to R.C. Thorne following are the main steps involved in eclectic counseling:
1. Counseling may be preceded by an intake interview.
2. During the opening phase of counseling the counselor tries to establish rapport and may
have to do structuring so that the client understands what to expect of counseling.
3. Often a tentative diagnosis is made which may include the collection of a case history
and a plan for counseling is formulated.
4. To enhance the client’s self understanding about him.
5. Educational, occupational and social information if needed by the client may be
supplied to him.
6. During the closing face the client makes decisions and plans and modifies behavior and
solves his problems.
7. There may be follow up contacts
Approaches to Counselling
 Cognitive- Behavioural Counselling
(Albert Ellis-REBT)
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a type of psychotherapeutic treatment that helps
people learn how to identify and change the destructive or disturbing thought patterns
that have a negative influence on their behavior and emotions.
Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on changing the automatic negative thoughts that
can contribute to and worsen our emotional difficulties, depression, and anxiety. These
spontaneous negative thoughts also have a detrimental influence on our mood.
Through CBT, faulty thoughts are identified, challenged, and replaced with more
objective, realistic thoughts.
Types of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy:
CBT encompasses a range of techniques and approaches that address our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
Some of the specific types of therapeutic approaches that involve cognitive behavioral therapy include:
Cognitive therapy centers on identifying and changing inaccurate or distorted thought patterns, emotional
responses, and behaviors.
Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) addresses destructive or disturbing thoughts and behaviors while
incorporating treatment strategies such as emotional regulation and mindfulness.
Multimodal therapy suggests that psychological issues must be treated by addressing seven different but
interconnected modalities: behavior, affect, sensation, imagery, cognition, interpersonal factors, and
drug/biological considerations.4
Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) involves identifying irrational beliefs, actively challenging
these beliefs, and finally learning to recognize and change these thought patterns.
What Is Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy?
Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) is a type of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) developed
by psychologist Albert Ellis. REBT is an action-oriented approach that’s focused on helping people
deal with irrational beliefs and learn how to manage their emotions, thoughts, and behaviors in a
healthier, more realistic way.
Three key insights that REBT teaches are:
 You are worthy of self-acceptance no matter what even when you struggle or make mistakes; there
is no need for shame or guilt.
 Others are also worthy of acceptance, even when their behavior involves something that you don’t
like.
 Negative things will sometimes happen in life, and that doesn’t mean that things are happening in a
way they shouldn’t be. Life is not positive all of the time, and there’s no rational reason to expect it
to be.
 Humanistic Counselling

 Humanistic counselling recognises the uniqueness of every individual.

 It assumes that everyone has an innate capacity to grow emotionally and psychologically
towards the goals of self-actualisation and personal fulfilment.
 Humanistic therapy grew out of humanistic psychology, a perspective that stresses that
people are innately good.
 This approach tends to be more holistic and looks at the whole person rather than just a
single area of a person's life. By emphasizing a person's skills and positive characteristics, it
encourages people to heal and find personal fulfillment.
 A humanistic therapist will work to create a safe, supportive space where clients will be able to
explore themselves and their potential, ultimately working towards developing their own personal
growth - mentally, emotionally and spiritually.
 The humanistic approaches are especially suited to anyone feeling lost, struggling with low self-
esteem or generally looking to improve well-being. Humanistic therapists will also work with people
living with specific conditions, such as anxiety, panic disorders, addiction, depression, obsessive-
compulsive disorder (OCD), bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.
 People who are having relationship issues (including family relationships) may also benefit.
 Humanistic therapy is all about self-exploration. It helps to increase self-awareness, and direct you
towards finding a greater sense of purpose in life.
 Person-centred Counselling (Carl
Rogers)

 Person- centred therapy, also known as person- centred or client- centred counselling, is a
humanistic approach that deals with the ways in which individuals perceive themselves
consciously, rather than how a counsellor can interpret their unconscious thoughts or ideas.
 Created in the 1950s by psychologist Carl Rogers, the person-centred approach ultimately
sees human beings as having an innate tendency to develop towards their full potential.
However, this ability can become blocked or distorted by certain life experiences, particularly
those experiences which affect our sense of value.
Theories of Counselling
Behavioristic Theory
Rational Emotive Theory
Reality Theory
 Dr. William Glasser developed this method in 1965. He used reality therapy in psychiatric
hospitals, prisons, and jails. Glasser has written many books on the subject, and the William
Glasser Institute still teaches his methods today.
According to choice theory and reality therapy, these five needs drive all human behavior:
1.Survival and safety: including the need to survive, basic needs like food and shelter met, and
the need to feel safe and secure
2.Love and belonging: the need to have close, healthy, strong relationships with others and to feel
loved, accepted, and connected
3.Power and achievement: the need to feel in control of ourselves and our lives, as well as the
need to grow, progress, and achieve things in order to feel fulfilled
4.Freedom and independence: free will and the ability to make choices, be independent, and feel
a sense of autonomy
5.Fun and enjoyment: the need to spend time doing things that bring a sense of pleasure,
enjoyment, and personal satisfaction