uantum Mechanics: Class Notes

1. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics

Quantum Mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that describes the physical properties of nature
at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. It contrasts with classical mechanics, which deals with
macroscopic objects. Key features of quantum mechanics include:

Wave-particle duality: Particles, such as electrons, exhibit both particle-like and wave-like behavior.

Quantization: Many properties, such as energy, are quantized (discrete rather than continuous).

Superposition: A system can exist in multiple states at once until measured.

Uncertainty principle: It is impossible to simultaneously know certain pairs of properties (e.g., position
and momentum) with arbitrary precision.

2. Key Concepts in Quantum Mechanics

a. Wave-Particle Duality

Louis de Broglie Hypothesis (1924): Suggested that particles, such as electrons, have wave-like
properties.

λ=

Where

λ is the wavelength,
ℎ

h is Planck's constant, and

p is the momentum of the particle.

Double-slit Experiment: Demonstrates the wave-particle duality. When electrons pass through two slits,
they create an interference pattern on a screen, suggesting they behave like waves.

b. Quantization

Energy Quantization: In quantum mechanics, energy is quantized in discrete levels, especially in systems
like atoms or molecules.

For example, in the hydrogen atom, the electron can only occupy specific orbitals with discrete energy
levels.

13.6

eV

=−

2
13.6eV

Where

n is a positive integer, representing the principal quantum number.

c. The Schrödinger Equation

The Schrödinger equation is the fundamental equation of motion for quantum systems. It describes how
the quantum state of a system changes with time.

Time-dependent Schrödinger equation:

^
𝜓

iℏ

∂t

ψ(r,t)=

ψ(r,t)

Where:

ℏ is the reduced Planck's constant.

is the Hamiltonian operator, which represents the total energy of the system.

𝑟
,

ψ(r,t) is the wave function.

Time-independent Schrödinger equation: For stationary states, it simplifies to:

ψ=Eψ

Where

E is the energy eigenvalue.

d. Uncertainty Principle

Proposed by Werner Heisenberg in 1927, the uncertainty principle states that there is a fundamental
limit to the precision with which pairs of physical properties (such as position and momentum) can be
known simultaneously.

Δ
𝑝

ΔxΔp≥

Where

Δx is the uncertainty in position and

Δp is the uncertainty in momentum.

e. Superposition

A system can exist in multiple states simultaneously, described by a superposition of wave functions.
Upon measurement, the system collapses into one of its possible states.

Example: An electron in an atom doesn't have a definite position but rather exists in a superposition of
all possible positions.

3. Wave Function and Probability

The wave function

𝑟
,

ψ(r,t) provides a complete description of the quantum state of a system. The probability density of
finding a particle at a particular position

r is given by

∣ψ(r,t)∣

, the square of the wave function's magnitude.

Normalization: The total probability of finding the particle somewhere in space must be 1:

(
𝑟

∫∣ψ(r,t)∣

dr=1

4. Operators in Quantum Mechanics

In quantum mechanics, physical quantities such as position, momentum, and energy are represented by
operators. These operators act on the wave function.

Position Operator:

(multiplication by

x)

Momentum Operator:
𝑝

=−iℏ

∂x

Energy Operator (Hamiltonian): The Hamiltonian operator is the total energy operator, typically given as
the sum of the kinetic and potential energies.

In the Schrödinger equation, the Hamiltonian acts on the wave function, determining the system’s
energy.

5. Quantum Systems

a. Particle in a Box

One of the simplest quantum systems, where a particle is confined to a region (a "box") with infinite
potential walls. The solution to the Schrödinger equation in this case gives discrete energy levels.
The energy levels for a particle in a 1D box are given by:

2mL

ℏ
2

Where

n is a positive integer,

m is the particle mass, and

L is the length of the box.

b. The Hydrogen Atom

The hydrogen atom is a key example of a quantum system. The electron orbits the nucleus (proton) in
quantized energy levels. The Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom gives energy levels that match
the observed spectral lines of hydrogen.

The energy of the electron in the

n-th orbital is:

13.6
eV

=−

13.6eV

6. Quantum Tunneling

Quantum tunneling occurs when particles move through potential barriers that they classically would
not have enough energy to overcome. This phenomenon has important applications in nuclear fusion
and semiconductor technology.

7. Spin and Pauli Exclusion Principle

Spin: Spin is an intrinsic form of angular momentum carried by particles. Particles such as electrons have
spin

, which means they can be in one of two possible states: spin-up or spin-down.
Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two fermions (particles with half-integer spin) can occupy the same
quantum state simultaneously.

8. Applications of Quantum Mechanics

Quantum Computing: Uses quantum bits (qubits), which can exist in superpositions, enabling quantum
computers to perform certain computations much faster than classical computers.

Quantum Cryptography: Relies on quantum principles to create secure communication channels that are
resistant to eavesdropping.

Semiconductor Technology: Quantum mechanics is fundamental in understanding and developing

9. Conclusion

Quantum mechanics provides a powerful framework for understanding the behavior of matter at
microscopic scales. Its principles have led to revolutionary advances in technology and a deeper
understanding of the universe's fundamental laws.