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John Seiffertt

Digital Logic
for Computing
Digital Logic for Computing
John Seiffertt

Digital Logic for Computing

John Seiffertt
Truman University
Kirksville, Missouri
USA

ISBN 978-3-319-56837-9 ISBN 978-3-319-56839-3 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56839-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017937652

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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Preface

A traditional Introduction to Digital Logic course can cover all of Chaps. 1, 2, 3,

and 4, selections from Chap. 5, and then all of Chaps. 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 17,
and maybe selections from Chap. 19. I happen to think Chaps. 15 and 18 are of vital
importance, and the case study presented in Chap. 20 really ties the whole book
together, but they are not included in every intro course. What this book adds that
others in the field leave out, through Chaps. 9, 10, and 16, is more depth for
applications in the computing domain. They can be incorporated in an intro course
geared towards computer engineers or computer scientists, and I have used this
material myself, but they can also benefit these students simply by being in the text
as breadth and a good reference for later use even if not directly included in the
course.
The following descriptions detail the contents of each chapter.
Chapter 1—The Digital Electronic Computer
The goals of the text are introduced and the words digital, electronic, and
computer are explored in relation to these goals. The block diagram for a computer
is discussed, the digital abstraction is laid out, and the idea of programmability is
discussed as core to our notion of a computer. The algorithmic approach of the
text—the idea that this text is looking at the digital logic elements as the physical
means by which algorithms are realized—is made clear. This chapter is short and
not too technical and is recommended for all readers.
Chapter 2—Boolean Algebra
The heart of all mathematical engagement with digital logic is through the
structure known as Boolean Algebra. We give a practitioner’s appreciation for
the ideas of Boolean Algebra while remaining rigorous and pointing to where the
mathematics and philosophy underlying it all can take the interested reader. Often
texts get bogged down in “axioms” and the like, but we focus on the uses of the
tools of Boolean Algebra without watering down the sophistication. This is an
absolutely core chapter as it deals with the fundamental definitions used throughout
the text and the entire field of digital design.

v
vi Preface

Chapter 3—Logic Function Synthesis

Truth tables, canonical forms, and the first real stab at digital design properly
understood are introduced in this chapter. Everyone reading this book will want to
be quite familiar with this material. Many examples are walked through, and,
combined with the analytic approach from Chap. 2, after finishing this chapter,
the student will have a full grasp of what it means to specify logic functions and will
have completed step 1 of a larger journey towards full understanding of what it
means to implement algorithms in hardware.
Chapter 4—Basic Logic Function Minimization
Once we have logic functions generated with the methods of Chaps. 2 and 3, we
often want to write them in more efficient forms so that our devices can cost less and
consume less power. This chapter shows how to use Boolean Algebra to reduce
logic functions to minimal forms and also introduces the Karnaugh Map. While
more of a ladder idea than something of direct use to practicing digital designers,
K-maps are ubiquitous in the literature of the field and the rest of this book uses
them extensively to showcase minimal logic forms. It is worth it for the student of
digital logic to at least be able to read a K-map and know what they are all about.
Chapter 5—Advanced Logic Function Minimization
The most important concept in this chapter used throughout the rest of this book
is that of variable-entry K-maps. Almost every K-map presented in later chapters
uses the variable-entry approach, so the reader is encouraged to read enough of this
chapter to understand what they are all about. Working them requires more skill
than the normal K-maps, so any particular reader may be forgiven for not wanting
to pour too much energy into attaining complete mastery of the variable-entry
maps. However, reading them and understanding how they let us get minimal
forms is key. The other topics in this chapter are self-contained and can be skipped
without loss of continuity.
Chapter 6—Logic Gates
This chapter introduces the schematics for the various logic gates for
implementing Boolean Algebra operations. It also shows how to realize them in
hardware using CMOS transistor arrays. While being able to read gate-level dia-
grams is of the utmost importance both for the digital design professional and for
the student of the field, the transistor-level details are best suited for those going on
to VLSI design work. The remainder of the text focuses on the gate-level and
device-level rather than transistors.
Chapter 7—Unsigned Arithmetic
Working with numbers is essential in digital design and computing work. In this
chapter, the student will learn about binary representations and how to construct
addition and other basic arithmetic circuits from logic gates. Beyond the use of
binary numbers, the material in this chapter is relatively self-contained. This is not a
dedicated computer arithmetic text, and as long as the reader understands the device
block diagram for them, the remainder of the chapters ought to be accessible.
Preface vii

Chapter 8—Signed Numbers

The important two’s complement representation is covered. It cannot be
overstated how important this is to readers of this work because of the ubiquity of
two’s complement in all manner of digital devices and computers. Other represen-
tations are also covered, as are signed arithmetic devices.
Chapter 9—Other Digital Representations
Not everything we need to encode within a digital system is a number. This
chapter discusses how to design such representations and emphasizes that overall
the way we express any information is, in fact, an actual design decision. Floating
point numbers are discussed as well, showing how non-place-value representations
composed of fields can be used to form useful encodings. While the BCD represen-
tation is referenced throughout the rest of the text, much of this chapter is self-
contained, and the reader who only wants to study 19 chapters could probably hold
off on this one with minimal effect on the rest of the material.
Chapter 10—Encoding Code
This chapter highlights the text’s unique focus on computing by extending the
work of Chap. 9 in showing how to represent computer programs themselves as
digital information. Assembly language concepts are introduced, and we begin to
see the development of datapaths to support them. How we write selection and
control programming constructs at the machine level is discussed, and for technical
readers who have never before seen this material it is quite the ride. This is a highly
recommended chapter, especially for computer scientists and computer engineers.
One of this book’s unique features is that it ties in later as we often use these
instructions as motivating design elements for our datapaths and datapath controllers.
Chapter 11—Sequential Logic Elements
Sequential logic is a vital, if not defining, feature of digital design. It is through
sequential circuits that we can store information, implement algorithms, and really
harness the power of our digital systems to create tools of such awesomeness that
integrated circuitry is arguably the most transformative technology man has ever
seen. This chapter discusses flip-flops, synchronization signals, and timing diagrams.
Chapter 12—Multiplexers and Comparators
This chapter begins our march towards the full development of digital datapaths
and the implementation of algorithms in hardware. The two devices covered here,
multiplexers and comparators, are shown in the context of the various types of
instructions they can help realize as well as their use in algorithms. These devices
really are core to the field. Every reader of the text should know about them.
Chapter 13—Decoders and Register Files
Building on the development of Chap. 12, this chapter introduces more impor-
tant datapath components and shows how they are used in designs. The decoder, in
particular, is used to illustrate how logic functions may be implemented and gives
the student a strong workout in Boolean Algebra and active-high vs. active-low
logic.
viii Preface

Chapter 14—Counters
The state machine design process, core to the use of sequential networks, is
introduced in this chapter in the context of building counters. Many kinds of
counters are presented and their use in datapath design and signal generation is
discussed. As counters are of critical importance in digital design, and the state
machine design process is good to learn in its simplified form presented here first,
this is a highly recommended chapter.
Chapter 15—Datapaths
This is an important design chapter. The study of datapaths brings together all
the components from previous chapters and ties them into the algorithm concepts at
the core of the text. A successful study of this chapter will help the reader to learn to
take specifications, optimally lay out the design using digital elements, and mini-
mize the required signals for maximum efficiency.
Chapter 16—Basic Computer Datapath
A combination of sorts of Chaps. 9 and 15, in this chapter we discuss how to
construct a datapath of particular importance: that of an actual digital electronic
computer. Of definite interest to computer scientists and computer engineers, even
electrical engineers may enjoy seeing this key specialized application of digital
circuitry.
Chapter 17—State Machines
This is one of the most important chapters. No study of digital design is complete
without full coverage of the design and application of state machines. We begin
with a generalized state machine partitioned into next state logic, output logic, and
state memory. This chapter then develops state diagram, state tables, and
implementations using various flip-flops. Mealy and Moore machines are covered.
Chapter 18—Datapath Controllers
Extending the initial discussion of state machines from Chap. 17, this chapter
looks at their use specifically in conjunction with the datapaths covered in Chap. 15.
Partitioning large digital systems into state machine controller and datapath sec-
tions is common, and through detailed examples this chapter walks through the
lengthy design process. The climax of the text in a way, the design of datapath
controllers brings together everything previously studied. The student who success-
fully works through this chapter has obtained a strong intro-level knowledge of
digital design and is well-positioned for more advanced study in the field.
Chapter 19—State Machine Theory and Optimization
State reduction and assignment are covered in this chapter, and those are
reasonably standard in texts of this kind. This chapter begins, however, with a
discussion of formal languages and automata. These are topics typically reserved
for computer science theory courses, and they are included here to emphasize the
text’s unique focus on computing. The relationship between theoretical models of
computation and their applied counterparts the student has been construction in
previous chapters is made clear. Not intended even as a primer in automata theory,
Preface ix

the goal here is to give just a brief morsel to entice further thinking on the matter.
Too often, the science and engineering sides of the field are kept very far apart from
one another, and this chapter, by drawing parallels between them based on material
relevant to both and covered previously in the text, is an attempt to bridge this gap.
It is certainly not going to serve as a compete study of these topics, but the hope is
that some philosophically inclined readers may see these ideas here for the first time
and be motivated to explore them further.
Chapter 20—Instruction Processor Design
The text ends with a full-design case study of an electronic digital computer. We
take a pedagogical approach here in repeating some concepts from earlier chapters,
intentionally using slightly different language and notation, so the student can see
them really coming together in a solid whole. The idea is that if you try to read this
chapter first, it should feel overwhelming. But, if read after careful study of the rest
of the text, the successful student should be nodding along and say “Yes, I have
this!” as the actual computer is designed from the instruction set on up. The
exercises continue the design process and, if completed, the reader will have
finished the study of digital logic for computing by actually sketching the details
of a functional instruction processor. We feel this chapter is a unique feature of this
text and encourage students to take advantage of it.
Acknowledgments

This work is the result of more than 5 years of teaching digital logic at the Missouri
University of Science and Technology. I thank most of all the fine students of that
great institution whose questions, comments, and feedback shaped my course and
formed the bulk of this text. I am also grateful for the support provided by my
colleagues, in particular Joe Stanley and Donald Wunsch, who taught alongside me
and motivated me to increase my teaching ability both in the classroom and in the
preparation of this manuscript. Many excellent problem types and modes of expla-
nation found in this text are due to their insights. I also want to thank my current
department at Truman State University for their encouragement as I completed
this text.

xi
Contents

1 The Digital Electronic Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Electronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Boolean Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Digital Logic Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Mathematics of Boolean Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 Logic Function Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Normal Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Minterms and Maxterms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Don’t Cares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Day of the Week Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Building a Normal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4 Basic Logic Function Minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Factoring the Sum of Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
A Visual Aid to Factoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5- and 6-variable K-maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Working with the Product of Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5 Advanced Logic Function Minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Variable Entry K-maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Implicants and Implicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
The Quine-McCluskey Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

xiii
xiv Contents

6 Logic Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Programmable Logic Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
XOR, NAND, and NOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Bitwise Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
CMOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Electronic Properties of Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7 Unsigned Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Unsigned Binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Full Adder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
High-Speed Adders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Hexadecimal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8 Signed Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Sign-Magnitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Two’s Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Building an Adder/Subtractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Sign Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Signed Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Ten’s Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
9 Other Digital Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Binary Coded Decimal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Decimal Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Gray Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Alphanumeric Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Fixed Point Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Floating-Point Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Designing an Encoding: Days of the Year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
10 Encoding Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Instructions and Datapaths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Variables and Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Conditionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Digital Representation of Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Hex Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Contents xv

11 Sequential Logic Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

The SR Latch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Building a Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Other Flip Flops: D, JK, and T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
The State Machine Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
12 Multiplexers and Comparators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
13 Decoders and Register Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Register File Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Multi-port Register File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Decoder Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Implementing Logic Functions with Decoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Encoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
14 Counters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Binary Counters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Mod n Counters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Unit-Distance Counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Ring Counters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
15 Datapaths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Example: Guessing Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Example: Minimum Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Example: Detection Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Example: GCD Calculator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Example: Fibonacci Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
16 Basic Computer Datapath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
The Instruction Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
The Fetch Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
The Decode Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Immediate Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Direct Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Indirect Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Displacement Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
The Execute Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
xvi Contents

17 State Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Sequence Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Detecting Two Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Other Flip Flops for State Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
18 Datapath Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
States and Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Example: Greatest Common Divisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Example: Compute Factorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Example: Fibonacci Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
19 State Machine Theory and Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Formal Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
State Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
State Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
20 Instruction Processor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
What Is a Computer? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Design an Instruction Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Data Movement Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Arithmetic and Logic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Program Control Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Instruction Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
The Instruction Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Datapath Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Control Unit Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Chapter 1
The Digital Electronic Computer

Welcome to the study of Computing!

Computers are the transformative technology of our times. In addition to
powering our phones, music players, and laptops, they control the operation of
our cars, maintain the safety and efficiency of power plants, enable low-cost
medical equipment to save lives in remote locations, power GPS devices, and run
nearly all home appliances and electronic toys of every type.
This book will introduce the core concepts and methods associated with the
design and physical construction of digital electronic computers.
Working through this book you will learn how to build a digital electronic
computer from the ground up. This includes understanding the digital abstraction,
seeing how we use electronics to implement our digital system, what digital circuit
elements are important for computers, learning how we relate our high-level
programming constructs and needs to the low systems level, and then bringing it
all together with an overview of basic computer organization.
Specific topics include number systems, Boolean algebra, truth tables, computer
arithmetic, logic gates, CMOS, flip-flops, instruction sets, adders, decoders, multi-
plexers, comparators, finite state machines, and datapath/controller systems.
Those with interest in electrical engineering can use this course of study as a
starting point for investigations into digital electronics while computer scientists
will see how their use of computers is affected by the underlying design of the
machines. Computer engineers will appreciate the entirety of the book as it serves
as an overall introduction to their field in all its diversity.
We conceive of a computer as seen in Fig. 1.1.
We first design the digital logic elements, from the transistor level on up, to build
the datapath component of the computer. It is in this component where the core
“computation” activity that we most associated with instruction processors occurs.
The control unit is heavily discussed in the context of state machines as an
algorithm level topic. Later chapters in the text walk through the construction of
this important component. The memory unit is covered only indirectly; it’s much
more of an intense electrical engineering topic to get into the deep details of how

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

J. Seiffertt, Digital Logic for Computing, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56839-3_1
2 1 The Digital Electronic Computer

Fig. 1.1 Block diagram for

computer system Memory
Unit

Status signals
Control Datapath
Unit
Control signals

computer memory is constructed today. It suffices for our discussion to think of it as

a store of values accessed via labels called addresses. It is from that context that we
operate when viewing the entire computer block diagram as a functioning whole.
Advanced courses on computer architecture and organization will get into the
details of how the interface between memory and the CPU proper (understood to
be the control unit-datapath blocks taken together) is handled. Discussions of cache
memory and its associated tradeoffs and optimizations lay beyond the scope of the
current work.
While the methods and tools of digital logic design are widely applied to many
important electronics applications, and many of these are touched upon herein, we
do use the computer as the overarching motivating example in this text.
Fundamental to our approach is looking at everything from the perspective of the
abstract realities known as algorithms. At the heart of computing science is found
the study of the properties of algorithms, and it can be argued the goal of computer
engineering is the deployment and application of these algorithms. Therefore, we
look at the development of digital logic circuits as the hardware implementation of
algorithms. Our approach to motivating individual components such as multi-
plexers and decoders is through the lense of how they contribute to the overall
workings of the algorithms. Hence, the title of the book: Digital Logic for Com-
puting. We’re focusing on taking the algorithms from the world of code to the world
of metal.

Digital

We can physically compute with analog values in a number of ways. We can pour
water from two buckets into a third: the water now present represents the sum of the
previous two values. We can attach two wires together and see the total voltage
being the sum of the voltages of each. While it may seem ideal to compute in this
fashion because we can represent any number and perform calculations to arbitrary
precisions, what happens in practice is that we lose tiny bits here and there. A few
drops of water fall from a bucket and the wire degrades a bit of the voltage.
Digital 3

Fig. 1.2 High-low 5

digitized transmission
High
2.5

Low
0
D1 D2

All together, this interference, this noise, makes precise computation difficult. It is
for this reason that we consider digital systems in this book.
The word digital derives from the Latin digitum, which means finger. It was
originally used to mean ten: this is why we have digits in our base-10 number
system. In fact, early precursors to modern computers such as Charles Baggage’s
Difference Engine, were digital in this sense: they operated mechanically using
base-10 numbers. We’re going to broaden the sense of the word and refer to a
digital system as one whose values are digitized, that is, whose values are broken
into discrete chunks rather than being capable of representing every possible
number.
Due to the limitations of our underlying technologies, we’re going to digitize to
the maximum extent: we will use only two values within a given range of possible
values. Consider the graph in Fig. 1.2.
We divide our infinity of values from 0 to 5 into two and we call them High and
Low. Device D1 is transmitting a signal to device D2. In order to communicate
effectively, D1 must be assured that when it sends a signal that D2 will be able to
properly interpret it as either High or Low. We see that this system has some
resistance to noise: a signal of 4.5, for example, subject to a shock of .75 might end
up transmitting as 3.75. But that is still OK because it’s in the High range and D2
still interprets it as a High signal. If we were pouring 4.5 ounces of water from one
cup to another and lost .75 ounces along the way we’d have a wildly inaccurate
sum. But in a digital system we’re fine and the computation is not affected by the
noise.
But, what if we transmit a High signal that’s less strong, say 3.0? It’s still within
the High range so our device D1 is satisfied. What if it is hit with a disruption of .75?
Now it’s transmitting a 2.25 signal which D2 interprets as being in the Low range.
We now have a breakdown in communication and our digital system won’t func-
tion. To fix this we need to force the High signals to be really high and the low
signals to be really low. We need to ensure separation between our two values.
Consider the graph shown in Fig. 1.3. Now instead of breaking the entire range
of values 0 through 5 into two categories, we have that High signals are in the range
VH to 5 and low signals in the range 0 to VL while any signal in the range VL to VH
is in the forbidden zone and is therefore not interpreted. Provided we can get VH
close to 5 and VL close to 0, we’ve done a good job here of not confusing High and
Low signals. If we have our 3.0 signal with the .75 shock, so long as 2.25 > VL we
4 1 The Digital Electronic Computer

Fig. 1.3 Using the 5

forbidden zone to help High
digitize transmissions VH

Forbidden Zone
VL

Low
0
D1 D2

Fig. 1.4 Noise margins for 5

digitized transmissions
VOH NMH
Forbidden Zone VIH
VIL
NML
VOL

D1 D2

now can be confident that D2 will not misinterpret our noisy transmission. Instead,
D2 picks up a signal in the forbidden zone. While that’s not ideal, it’s a better case
result than D2 not even being aware a problem exists.
But, we’re not done! We can improve yet upon this configuration. We still have
an issue if we’re sending a signal that is close to VH or VL because just a small
amount of noise can disrupt it and send it into the forbidden zone. What we’d like is
for D2 to recognize signals close to these breakpoints that fall just a little bit into the
forbidden zone. This is demonstrated in Fig. 1.4.
If we make the forbidden zone smaller for the input values then the receiving
device can better understand what the transmitting device is sending even through a
bit of noise. We can now talk about VOH and VOL as the output high and low value
cutoffs and VIH and VIL as the input high and low value cutoffs. The high and low
noise margins NMH and NML can be defined:

NMH ¼ V OH  V IH
NML ¼ V IL  V OL

It’s not quite as simple to digitize our systems as we may think at first. Just
because the devices “are all 1’s and 0’s” doesn’t mean their internals are easy to
design. There are a lot of moving pieces here.
We speak of Logic Families as being devices that can work together. That is,
digital devices within a logic family have their high and low value cutoffs aligned
so that they are always assured accurate transmission. We can also look into
Electronic 5

Table 1.1 TTL and SMOS VIL VIH VOL VOH

logic values
TTL 0.80 2.00 0.40 2.40
CMOS 1.35 3.15 0.33 3.84

intra-family communication. Consider Table 1.1 which gives the details for two
logic families, TTL and CMOS.
We can ask whether a TTL device can transmit to a CMOS device? The VOL of
TTL is .40 which is less than the VIL of CMOS at 1.15 Therefore, we have a NML
in this situation of 1.15–0.40 ¼ 0.85. Looking at the high side, however, we see that
TTL’s VOH is 2.40 while CMOS’s VIH is 3.15. This means the TTL device can
transmit any value greater than 2.40, say 2.75, while the CMOS device won’t
recognize any input less than 3.15 as a high signal. Therefore, communication
fails in this case. A TTL device cannot transmit reliably to a CMOS device.
What about the opposite case? Can a CMOS device transmit to TTL? Well, on
the Low side the CMOS device has a VOL of 0.33 which is less than TTL’s VIL of
0.80 for a NML 0f 0.800.33 ¼ 0.47 which is positive and therefore compatible.
On the High side, we have CMOS with a VOH of 3.84 and TTL with a VIH of 2.00.
This gives us a NMH of 3.842.00 ¼ 1.84 which is fine. Therefore, we can indeed
have a CMOS device transmit to a TTL device.
Be sure to carefully go through these computations so you have the idea of noise
margins, High, and Low signals clear. The entirety of digital design rests upon this
foundation, so it’s a good idea to get to where it makes sense to you.
We want our digital devices to be able to effectively communicate. That is, when
a device sends a logic-1 (high voltage) we want the receiving device to read a logic-
1 and when a device sends a logic-0 (low voltage) we want the receiving device to
read a logic-0.
To this end, devices have tolerances for the voltage levels they interpret as logic-
1 and logic-0 when both sending and receiving signals. In order to build devices that
are as resistant to noise as possible, we have different tolerances for output and
input signals. The values VOH and VOL tell us the cutoff voltages for high and low
output and the values VIH and VIL tell us the cutoff voltages for high and low inputs.
A device can drive another if its VOH is less than the VIH of the receiving device
and if its VOH is less than the VIH of the receiver.
A device can receive signals from another if its VIH is less than the VOH of the
driver and if its VIL is greater than the VOL of the driver.
If devices of two families can both drive and receive signals from each other,
then the families are said to be compatible.

Electronic

We can implement digital systems using a variety of underlying technologies. The

basic electronic element we’re going to use to design our systems is the transistor,
a device that will either block or permit a signal to pass. We’ll interpret blocking the
6 1 The Digital Electronic Computer

Fig. 1.5 A MOSFET gate

Source drain

n n

SiO2

Fig. 1.6 nFets and pFets nFet pFet

strong 0 strong 1
degraded 1 degraded 0

signal as our Low digital value and allowing it to pass as our High digital value.
In particular, the MOSFET: metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor.
In Fig. 1.5 we see a diagram outlining its construction.
The electric signal moves from the source side out the drain side if the voltage
on the gate is high enough. Chemically, to effect this transition we use two
materials, called n and p, each doped with specific metals (n material is doped
with group II metals and p with group III metals.) We end up with two kinds of
MOSFETS, depending on where we use the n and p materials. In the diagram, we
have an nFET device. If we swap the n and p materials, we would have a pFET
device.
It turns out that nFET and pFET devices have different characteristics. Transis-
tors in the nFET category transmit a Low signal very well but have a hard time
passing a High signal. They end up pulling the High voltage lower, and sometimes
this is more noise than the device can handle and we end up in the forbidden zone.
The pFET devices are the opposite: they are just fine for passing High voltage
signals but pull Low voltages up and make them harder to read.
In technical language, we say the nFET passes a degraded 1 and a strong
0 while the pFET passes a degraded 0 and a strong 1. (In later chapter’s we’ll call
the High voltage a logic-1 and the Low voltage a logic-0.)
The diagram in Fig. 1.6 shows the circuit symbol we use for nFETs and pFETS
as well as summarizes the characteristics relevant for our digital design needs.
In Chap. 6, we’ll get into great detail about how we use these transistors to build
the components necessary to implementing algorithms with our digital logic
Computer 7

elements. For this introductory chapter, it’s sufficient to leave off here with the idea
of underlying technology merely described at a low level.

Computer

In this book we will study the design, operation, and capabilities of the digital
electronic computer, the most widely used commercial embodiment of the idea of
an instruction processor.
But what do we mean by the word computer? Students on the first day of class
often respond to the question “What is a computer?” with a variation on “something
that computes!” The natural follow-up is then “ok, so what is a computation?” That
one is harder to answer. It’s common for non-CS people to think of computation as
“coming up with fancy ways to calculate the square root of a number” and other
related numerical investigations. And while we certainly want to include the
exploration of number within our understanding of computation, we don’t want to
commit to that being the end of the story. Because, more generally, and as stated in
the beginnings of the field of computing science by Alan Turing and other pioneers,
when we think of computations in a true computer science sense we mean not the
processing of numbers only but the processing of language taken more generally.
That’s right! Computations are considered the processing of language! And, this
dovetails nicely with the approach taken in looking at digital logic from the vantage
point of algorithms broadly understood. Because, at the end of the day, some of the
most important things we can say about algorithms involve their expressibilty as
language. The code we write to configure instruction processors to do great things
is, after all, language, and we consider the computer itself as a digital electronic
circuit that responds to this language.
So, the language, more specifically the idea of programmability which involves
the processing of not just one sequence from a language but rather the ability to
handle any expression of a particular language, is central to our understanding of
what a computer is. While we may take ancient devices such as the astrolabe or
abacus as computer in the sense that they do indeed take inputs and produce outputs
based on some internal mechanized computation, they are not programmable so
they do not qualify as a computer.
We can go a step further and look at digital electronic circuits, such as those in a
simple hand calculator, that may excel at computations and, as we’ll study as we
proceed in this text, are indeed the implementation of algorithms expressed in
language. But, these are also not computers because they are not programmable!
You cannot change what they do by writing a new algorithm. These are called
application specific integrated circuits (ASICS) and are the focus of electrical
engineers when they study digital design principles. We’ll certainly talk about
them, and Chap. 18 in particular develops these in great detail, but the text caps
with a chapter on the design of an instruction processor and throughout we are
concerned with the relationship between digital logic and programmability.
8 1 The Digital Electronic Computer

Exercises

1.1 Research the Antikethera mechanism. It is sometimes referred to as the first

computer. It’s certainly not electronic, but is it digital? Also, does it satisfy our
understanding of computer as described in this chapter and pursued in this text?
1.2 In this course we focus on digital electronic computers. However, it is possible
to have computers that are neither digital nor electronic. For this problem,
research historical computers from the nineteenth or twentieth century that are
analog and mechanical. Write a few sentences about each and indicate the
source of your information.
1.3 Consider the following logic families:

VDD VIL VIH VOL VOH

TTL 5 .8 2.0 .4 2.4
CMOS 5 1.35 3.15 .33 3.84
LVTTL 3.3 .8 2.0 .4 2.4
LVCMOS 3.3 .9 1.8 .36 2.7

Answer each of the following questions YES or NO and, if NO, give a reason.
(a) Can a TTL device drive a CMOS device?
(b) Can a TTL device drive a LVTTL device?
(c) Can a TTL device drive a LVCMOS device?
(d) Can a CMOS device drive a TTL device?
(e) Can a CMOS device drive a LVTTL device?
(f) Can a CMOS device drive a LVCMOS device?
(g) Can a LVTTL device drive a TTL device?
(h) Can a LVTTL device drive a CMOS device?
(i) Can a LVTTL device drive a LVCMOS device?
(j) Can a LVCMOS device drive a TTL device?
(k) Can a LVCMOS device drive a CMOS device?
(l) Can a LVCMOS device drive a LVTTL device?
(m) What does “LV” stand for in the LVTTL and LVCMOS families?

1.4 Consider the following logic families:

Family VIL VIH VOL VOH

A 1.0 4.0 0.5 4.5
B 2.0 4.0 1.5 3.5
C 0.5 3.5 0.25 4.0
D 1.5 4.5 1.25 4.75

Which combinations of families are compatible?

Exercises 9

1.5 Consider the following logic families:

Family VIL VIH VOL VOH

A 1.0 4.0 0.5 4.5
B 2.0 4.0 1.5 3.5

(a) Can a device from family A drive a device from family B? Why or why
not?
(b) Can a device from family B drive a device from family A? Why or why
not?

1.6 Suppose a logic family has a high noise margin of NMH ¼ .3. If VIH ¼ 4.5, what
must VOH be?
1.7 There are many ways to design a device which will sequentially execute
instructions. The mathematician John von Neumann was a pioneer in the
development of digital electronic computers, consulting on the construction
of a computer called the EDVAC in the 1940’s. His early writings on computer
design and organization are still relevant today, as most computers are built
using the basic principles he laid out. Research the concept of von Neumann
architecture and write a few sentences about its features.
1.8 Is a sun dial a computer? It takes an input, sunlight, and computes an output,
time of day? So, is it a computer? This is a bit of a jokey question, but also
highlights the importance of the key elements we want in our definition of a
computer. We’re not particularly interested in exploring what a pole stuck in
the ground can do.
Chapter 2
Boolean Algebra

We need a language to discuss the design of the computer. Once upon a time,
humans looked to the stars and developed what we know as Calculus to describe
their motion. It turned out that algebra and calculus based on the real numbers work
quite well to describe systems involving energy, motion, time, and space. The real
numbers are a useful model for those quantities. Within our digital computer,
however, we only have access to two values, logic-1 and logic-0. We don’t have
an infinity of values over which our functions may vary. Therefore, the early
pioneers of computing found themselves faced with a dilemma. They could not
use the classical mathematics they knew and loved; rather, they faced the task of
developing a new mathematics capable of working with only two values.
These engineers were not amused. Developing new mathematics is for mathe-
maticians, they reasoned. So, they did the next best thing. They looked around at
what the mathematicians were doing and instead of crafting a new computer design
mathematics from scratch they happened upon something close to what they
wanted, and they stole it. (OK, they repurposed it.)
It turned out that a nineteenth century schoolteacher and philosopher named
George Boole had worked out a mathematics for how people (or at least how
mathematicians) reasoned through formal problems. Instead of representing quan-
tities such as velocity and mass and curvature, the variables in Boole’s mathematics
represented English statements. Instead of addition, subtraction, and multiplication,
Boole’s mathematics combined variables in the logical operations of and, or, and
not. So far, this isn’t really what the computer engineers were looking for, but the
last key piece of what Boole had developed sealed the deal: all the variables took on
only one of two values! That was it! The engineers needed a two-valued mathe-
matics, and Boole had one. Sure, Boole called the values True and False and the
engineers wanted to call them logic-1 and logic-0, but it was close enough (engi-
neers are all about “close enough”.)
So, here we are: Boolean Algebra is the name given to the mathematics that is
used to describe the behavior of all digital systems, computers included. Let’s check
it out.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 11

J. Seiffertt, Digital Logic for Computing, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56839-3_2
12 2 Boolean Algebra

Digital Logic Design Process

To get a sense of how Boolean Algebra differs from the algebra and calculus you’re
already familiar with, let’s consider an example. Suppose we have a cabin by a river
and staff it with a robotic sentry to keep out bears and ewoks. The house is equipped
with window, door, and chimney sensors which detect intrusion as well as an
infrared sensor which can determine size, and the sentry can sound a local alarm
or take action against the intruder.
The schematic of the setup can be seen in Fig. 2.1.
We call the door sensor D, the chimney sensor C, the window sensors w0, w1, w2,
and w3 (in the diagram w3 is overlooking the river), and the infrared sensor we’ll
call R. Let’s give names to the sentry’s actions, too: A will be sound the alarm and E
will be to engage the intruder.
Now, let’s see how Boolean Algebra can help us specify how this system works.
First, we would like the sentry to sound an alarm if any of the door or window
sensors activate. We can write this as an equation:

A ¼ D or w0 or w1 or w2 or w3

Yes, that is a Boolean Algebra equation because the logical or is considered a

mathematical operator. The logicians who work with this use the symbol _ to
indicate logical or and would write this as A ¼ D _ w0 _ w1 _ w2 _ w3. While that’s
not so bad, we’d like to avoid new symbols all together if we can. So, in the Boolean

W0 W1
W2

Fig. 2.1 Boolean Algebra Schematic: D is the door sensor, W0, W1, W2 are the window sensors,
R is the infrared sensor, and C is the chimney sensor
Digital Logic Design Process 13

Fig. 2.2 A parabola y

Algebra digital designers use, we represent the logical or operation with a plus sign, +,
and our equation becomes

A ¼ D þ w0 þ w1 þ w2 þ w3

Now we’re getting somewhere! We have an equation where the variables can
take on two values, logic-1 and logic-0, that implements the behavior we’ve
specified. But, we start to wonder, what does it mean to add these strange logic-1
and logic-0 values? I know what 15 + 6 means, but what does logic-1 + logic-
0 mean? To answer that question we have to specify how our OR operation works.
In real-valued algebra and calculus we often graph functions. For example, y ¼ x2
gives us the familiar parabola (Fig. 2.2).
The arrows on the axes and the ends of the parabola indicate these quantities
extend forever, as the real numbers are infinite. We also know the solid lines of the
shape indicate an infinitely dense system of numbers, as no matter how deep we
delve, between 2 and 3, or between 2.5 and 2.6, or between 2.55 and 2.56, there is
always another number to be found.
In our two-valued system, this is not the case. We don’t need to specify how our
operators work using a graph as we do on the real line. Instead, we use a table that
enumerates all possible combinations of inputs, because (at least for small numbers
of input variables) this is quite feasible.
So, here’s the table that tells us how our OR operation works:
On the left we have all four combinations of our two input variables and on the
right we say what the OR operation returns for each combination. Taken as normal
math, the first four make a lot of sense, as there is nothing objectionable to noting
that 0 + 0 ¼ 0, 0 + 1 ¼ 1, or 1 + 0 ¼ 1. However, the last line, claiming 1 + 1 ¼ 1,
gives us pause. It’s clear now we are not working with real numbers. We are in
another world, that of Boolean Algebra. We must remember that the 1’s and 0’s are
not the same 1’s and 0’s that we find on the real number line and the + is not the
same addition we apply to real numbers. Only the equal sign is the same! For us,
1 + 1 ¼ 1 is natural and explains how we want our digital system to work: we want
the entire expression to evaluate to logic-1 as long as any one of the inputs is logic-
1. Going back to our example, we see that we want the alarm to sound, that is, we
want A to be 1, when any of the sensors is 1, so it would be counterproductive to
declare that 1 + 1 ¼ 0 (which is the only other possibility since we don’t have the
symbol 2 available to us) because that would mean that intruders could break in if
only they attack two locations simultaneously. That’s not the behavior we’re
looking for here.
14 2 Boolean Algebra

Table 2.1 is called a truth table and the values of the function are called truth
values. These terms are artifacts from the original application of Boolean Algebra
to matters of propositions, arguments, and the truth of statements. It’s incredibly
important that we realize that while we are using the same underlying mathematics,
our interpretations of the two values in the system are fundamentally different from
traditional Boolean Algebra. For us, the terms True and False have no meaning.
We say “one” and “zero” instead, and, while there is some obvious connection
symbolically between our logic-1 and True and between our logic-0 and False,
carrying that connection too far can impede our ability to design systems effec-
tively. We may think that logic-1, or True, means that a particular device is “on” or
“active” and a logic-0, or False, means the device is “off” or “inactive.” Nothing
could be farther from the truth!
We’ve skipped over this detail so far, but it’s actually crucial to decide what logic-
1 and logic-0 represent in a system. If we say that the variable D ¼ 1 when the door
sensor detects movement and D ¼ 0 when the door sensor does not detect movement,
then we are saying the sensor is active high, that is, that the logic-1 corresponds to the
device being on, or active. However, this doesn’t have to be the case (and, depending
on how the electronics are designed, is often not the case.) We could specify D ¼ 1
when the door sensor does not detect movement and D ¼ 0 when the sensor detects
movement. Then D would be active low, that is, the logic-1 value would be
associated with an inactive device and the logic-0 value with an active device
(Table 2.2). If we think in terms of True and False these electronic realities can be
hard to grasp. It’s much better to think in terms of abstract 1’s and 0’s whose
meanings are determined by the behavior of a given real physical system.
Let’s look back at our example. We’ve assumed the signals A, D, w0, w1, w2,
and w3 are all active-high. What happens if, say, the window sensors become
active-low? Now we want the equation for A to evaluate to a 1 when we get a 1 on D
or a 0 on any of the wi’s. To account for this, we need to introduce a new logic
operator: not.
Table 2.3 shows the truth table for not.

Table 2.1 Logical OR x y x+y

operation
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Table 2.2 Summary of active-high and active-low terminology

Active-high devices generate a logic-1 signal when active and a logic-0 signal when inactive
Active-low devices generate a logic-1 signal when inactive and a logic-0 signal when active

Table 2.3 Logical NOT x not-x

operation
0 1
1 0
Digital Logic Design Process 15

Once you grasp it, this is all pretty straightforward and simple, yet it remains
incredibly useful. We can now keep the basic form of our logic equation for the
alarm A and just replace the active-low signals with their complements (the not of a
variable is called its complement.)

A ¼ D þ x0 þ x1 þ x2 þ x3

If A were active-low, we’d need to complement the entire equation and end up
with

A ¼ D þ x0 þ x1 þ x2 þ x3

The idea is that the sentry will sound the alarm to scare off weak or small
intruders. What if we have a large bear smashing through the window? In this case
we don’t want to sound an alarm which may only serve to further enrage the beast.
So we want our (active-high) Alarm not to sound when the infrared sensor detects a
large creature. Let’s say that happens when R ¼ 1. So, in words we want A to be
1 when the door sensor is active or when any window sensors are active and when
the infrared sensor is inactive.
We have a new logic word: and. Our equation becomes

A ¼ ðD þ x0 þ x1 þ x2 þ x3 Þ and R

While the logicians would use л for and (and call it conjunction to boot), we’re
not going to adopt all their practices and we’ll go ahead and use our familiar
multiplication symbols for the logical and operation:

A ¼ ðD þ x0 þ x1 þ x2 þ x3 ÞR

The truth table for and shows us that this operation is only logic-1 when all its
inputs are logic-1 can be seen in Table 2.4.
The multiplication makes sense here as we know anything times zero is zero. It’s
intuitive and works, so we’ll go with it.
What about the chimney sensor? The idea here is that any intruder bold enough
to enter through the chimney needs to be met head on by the sentry, same as any
intruder sized too large. Let’s make the chimney sensor active-low so that C ¼ 1
when no intruder is detected and C ¼ 0 when one is scurrying down the smokestack.
Our alarm equation is then

Table 2.4 Logical AND x y xy

operation
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
16 2 Boolean Algebra


A ¼ ðD þ x0 þ x1 þ x2 þ x3 ÞRC

Read over this logic and make sure you follow why we have a C at the far right.
It’s easy to get mixed up when dealing with nots and active-low logic.
Let’s write the equation now for the sentry’s engage logic. We want it to engage
when the intruder is large or activity is detected on the chimney sensor (that means
R ¼ 1 and C ¼ 0).

E ¼ RC

We could add a timer T to the system that measures how long the alarm rings. If
the alarm rings long enough to exceed a threshold (T ¼ 1) then the alarm should
shut off and the sentry ought to engage the intruder because the alarm clearly isn’t
working to scare it away. Then our final equations become

 T
A ¼ ðD þ x0 þ x1 þ x2 þ x3 ÞRC
E ¼ RC þ T

Make sure you see where these equations come from and you’ll be on your way
to writing logic equations to describe the behavior of digital systems.

The Mathematics of Boolean Algebra

What we’ve covered so far are the basic elements of logic operations that we’ll need
to use the rest of the book in designing of our digital systems. There is a lot more to
Boolean Algebra and the mathematical approach to logic than we will actually
require problem-to-problem as digital designers. This section delves deeper in the
mathematical structure underlying Boolean Algebra and illustrates some more
ways to conceive of and to work with the symbols we generate to describe our
systems in terms of AND, OR, and NOT.
Mathematics is about getting to the essence of certain kinds of things and then
drawing connections among these essences. Where laymen see a 5 and a plus sign +
and a 7 and think “Yes, 5 apples and 7 apples makes a dozen, thank you very much,”
mathematicians ask things like “what, really, are 5 and 7,” what is “addition,” and
“what fun is there to be had if we can tinker with each of these?”
The normal answer is that 5 and 7 are real numbers and addition + is an
operation on these real numbers. But what if 5 and 7 were instead members of
the set {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8) and addition were now an operation on this set of integers?
We’d have to define 5 + 7 in another way. Maybe we’d just wrap around so that
5 + 7 ¼ 4. We can call this modular arithmetic and run with it a great distance,
tinkering this way and that as our system gets more and more interesting.
Algebra’s essence, then, is that we have some variables which take on values
from a set (or sets), we have operations that follow certain rules, and we have some
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Let thy holy Spirit, who on the first day of the week descended in
miraculous gifts on thy apostles, descend on me thy unworthy
servant, that I may be always in the spirit on the Lord’s day. Let his
blessed inspiration prevent and assist me in all the duties of this thy
sacred day, that my wandring thoughts may all be fixed on thee, my
tumultuous affections composed, and my flat and cold desires
quickned into fervent longings and thirstings after thee. O let me
join in the prayers and praises of thy church with ardent and
heavenly affection, hear thy word with earnest attention and a fixed
resolution to obey it. And when I approach thy altar, pour into my
heart humility, faith, hope, love, and all those holy dispositions,
which become the solemn remembrance of a crucified Saviour. Let
me employ this whole day to the ends for which it was ordained, in
works of necessity and mercy, in prayer, praise, and meditation; and
let the words of my mouth, and the meditation of my heart be
always acceptable in thy sight.

I know, O Lord that thou hast commanded me, and therefore it is

my duty, to love thee with all my heart, and with all my strength. I
know thou art infinitely holy and overflowing in all perfection, and
therefore it is my duty so to love thee.

I know thou hast created me, and that I have neither being nor
blessing but what is the effect of thy power and goodness.

I know thou art the end for which I was created, and that I can
expect no happiness but in thee.

I know that in love to me, being lost in sin, thou didst send thy
only Son, and that he being the Lord of glory, did humble himself to
the death upon the cross, that I might be raised to glory.

I know thou hast provided me with all necessary helps for

carrying me through this life to that eternal glory, and this out of the
excess of thy pure mercy to me, unworthy of all mercies.
 I know thou hast promised to be thyself my exceeding great
reward. Though it is thou alone who thyself workest in me, both to
will and to do, of thy good pleasure.

Upon these and many other titles, I confess it is my duty, to love

thee my God, with all my heart. Give thy strength unto thy servant,
that thy love may fill my heart, and be the motive of all the use I
make of my understanding, my affections, my senses, my health, my
time, and whatever other talents I have received from thee. Let this,
O God, rule my heart, without a rival: let it dispose all my thoughts,
words, and works; and thus only can I fulfil my duty and thy
command, of loving thee with all my heart, and mind, and soul, and
strength.

O thou infinite goodness, confirm thy past mercies to me, by

enabling me for what remains of my life, to be more faithful than I
have hitherto been, to this thy great command. For the time I have
yet to sojourn upon earth, O let me fulfil this great duty. Permit me
not to be in any delusion here: let me not trust in words, or sighs, or
tears, but love thee even as thou hast commanded. Let me feel, and
then I shall know what it is, to love thee with all my heart.

O merciful God, whatsoever thou deniest me, deny me not this

love. Save me from the idolatry of loving the world, or any of the
things of the world. Let me never love any creature, but for thy
sake, and in subordination to thy love. Take thou the full possession
of my heart, raise there thy throne, and command there, as thou
dost in heaven. Being created by thee, let me live to thee; being
created for thee, let me ever act for thy glory; being redeemed by
thee, let me render unto thee what is thine, and let my spirit ever
cleave to thee alone!
 Let the prayers and sacrifices of thy holy church offered unto
thee this day, be graciously accepted; cloath thy priests with
righteousness, and pardon all thy people who are not prepared
according to the preparation of the sanctuary. Prosper all those who
are sincerely engaged in propagating or promoting thy faith and love
(――) ¹: Give thy Son the Heathen for his inheritance, and the
utmost parts of the earth for his possession: that from the rising up
of the sun unto the going down of the same, thy name may be great
among the Gentiles. Enable us of this nation, and especially those
whom thou hast set over us in church and state, in our several
stations, to serve thee in all holiness, and to know the love of Christ
which passeth knowledge. Continue to us the means of grace, and
grant we may never provoke thee by our non-improvement to
deprive us of them. Pour down thy blessing upon our universities,
that they may ever promote true religion and sound learning. Shew
mercy, O Lord, to my father and mother, my brothers and sisters, to
all my friends (――) ¹ relations and enemies, and to all that are in
affliction. Let thy fatherly hand be over them, and thy holy Spirit
ever with them; that submitting themselves entirely to thy will, and
directing all their thoughts, words and works to thy glory, they and
those that are already dead in the Lord, may at length enjoy thee, in
the glories of thy kingdom, through Jesus Christ our Lord, who liveth
and reigneth with thee and the Holy Ghost, one God, blessed for
ever.

¹ Here mention the particular persons you would pray for.

S U N D A Y E V E N I N G.

General questions which a serious Christian may propose to himself,

before he begins his evening devotions.
 1. With what degree of attention and fervour did I use my
morning prayers, public or private?

2. Have I done any thing without a present, or at least a previous

perception of its direct, or remote tendency to the glory of God?

3. Did I in the morning consider, what particular virtue I was to

exercise, and what business I had to do in the day?

4. Have I been zealous to undertake, and active in doing what

good I could?

5. Have I interested myself any farther in the affairs of others,

than charity required?

6. Have I, before I visited, or was visited, considered how I might

thereby give or receive improvement?

7. Have I mentioned any failing or fault of any man, when it was

not necessary for the good of another?

8. Have I ♦unnecessarily grieved any one by word or deed?

♦ “necessarily” replaced with “unnecessarily” per Errata

9. Have I before, or in every action considered, how it might be a

means of improving in the virtue of the day?

Particular questions relative to the love of God.

1. Have I set apart some of this day, to think upon his perfections
and mercies?

2. Have I laboured to make this day, a day of heavenly rest,

sacred to divine love?
 3. Have I employed those parts of it in works of necessity and
mercy, which were not employed in prayer, reading, and meditation?

O MY Father, my God, I am in thy hand; and may I rejoice above

all things in being so: do with me what seemeth good in thy
sight: only let me love thee with all my mind, soul, and strength.

I magnify thee for granting me to be born in thy church, and of

religious parents; for washing me in thy baptism, and instructing me
in thy doctrine of truth and holiness; for sustaining me by thy
gracious providence, and guiding me by thy blessed Spirit; for
admitting me, with the rest of my Christian brethren, to wait on thee
at thy public worship: and for so often feeding my soul with thy
most precious body and blood, those pledges of love, and sure
conveyances of strength and comfort. O be gracious unto all of us,
whom thou hast this day [or at any time] admitted to thy holy table.
Strengthen our hearts in thy ways against all our temptations, and
make us more than conquerors in thy love.

O my Father, my God, deliver me, I beseech thee, from all violent

passions: I know how greatly obstructive these are, both of the
knowledge and love of thee; O let none of them find a way into my
heart, but let me ever possess my soul in meekness. O my God, I
desire to fear them more than death; let me not serve these cruel
tyrants; but do thou reign in my breast; let me ever be thy servant
and love thee with all my heart.
 Deliver me, O God, from too intense an application to even
necessary business. I know how this dissipates my thoughts from
the one end of all my business, and impairs that lively perception I
would ever retain of thee standing at my right-hand. I know the
narrowness of my heart, and that an eager attention to earthly
things leaves it no room for the things of heaven. O teach me to go
through all my employments with so truly disengaged a heart, that I
may still see thee in all things, and see thee therein as continually
looking upon me, and searching my reins; and that I may never
impair that liberty of spirit, which is necessary for the love of thee.

Deliver me, O God, from a slothful mind, from all lukewarmness,

and all dejection of spirit: I know these cannot but deaden my love
to thee; mercifully free my heart from them, and give me a lively,
zealous, active and chearful spirit; that I may vigorously perform
whatever thou commandest, thankfully suffer whatever thou chusest
for me, and be ever ardent to obey in all things thy holy love.

Deliver me, O God, from all idolatrous love of any creature. I

know infinite numbers have been lost to thee, by loving those
creatures for their own sake, which thou permittest, nay, even
commandest to love subordinately to thee. Preserve me, I beseech
thee, from all such blind affection: be thou a guard to all my desires,
that they fix on no creature any farther than the love of it tends to
build me up in the love of thee. Thou requirest me to love thee with
all my heart: Undertake for me, I beseech thee, and be thou my
security, that I may never open my heart to any thing, but out of
love to thee.
 Above all, deliver me, O my God, from all idolatrous self-love. I
know, O God (blessed be thy infinite mercy for giving me this
knowledge) that this is the root of all evil. I know, thou madest me,
not to do my own will but thine. I know, the very corruption of the
devil is, the having a will contrary to thine. O be thou my helper
against this most dangerous of all idols, that I may both discern all
its subtleties, and withstand all its force. O thou who hast
commanded me to renounce myself, give me strength, and I will
obey thy command. My choice and desire is, to love myself, as all
other creatures, in and for thee. O let thy almighty arm so stablish,
strengthen and settle me, that thou mayst ever be the ground and
pillar of all my love.

By this love of thee, my God, may my soul, be fixed against its

natural inconstancy: by this may it be reduced to an entire
indifference as to all things else, and simply desire what is pleasing
in thy sight. May this holy flame ever warm my breast, that I may
serve thee with all my might; and let it consume in my heart all
selfish desires that I may in all things regard, not myself but thee.

O my God, let thy glorious name be duly honoured and loved by

all the creatures which thou hast made. Let thy infinite goodness
and greatness be ever adored by all angels and men. May thy
church, the Catholic seminary of divine love, be protected from all
the powers of darkness. O vouchsafe to all, who call themselves by
thy name, one short glimpse of thy goodness. May they once taste
and see how gracious thou art, that all things else may be tasteless
to them; that their desires may be always flying up towards thee,
that they may render thee love, and praise, and obedience pure and
chearful, constant and zealous, universal and uniform, like that the
holy angels render thee in heaven.
 Send forth thy blessed Spirit into the midst of these sinful
nations, and make us a holy people: stir up the heart of our
sovereign, of the royal family, of the clergy, the nobility, and of all
whom thou hast set over us, that they may be happy instruments in
thy hand, of promoting this good work: be gracious to the
universities, to the gentry and commons of this land, and comfort all
that are in affliction; let the trial of their faith work patience in them,
and perfect them in hope and love (――). ¹

¹ Here mention the particular persons you would pray for.

Bless my father, &c. my friends and relations, and all that belong
to this family; all that have been instrumental to my good, by their
assistance, advice, example, or writing, and all that do not pray for
themselves.

Change the hearts of mine enemies, and give me grace to forgive

them, even as thou for Christ’s sake forgivest us.

O thou Shepherd of Israel, vouchsafe to receive me this night

and ever, into thy protection; accept my poor services, and pardon
the sinfulness of these and all my holy duties. O let it be thy good
pleasure shortly to put a period to sin and misery, to infirmity and
death, to compleat the number of thine elect, and to hasten thy
kingdom; that we, and all that wait for thy salvation, may eternally
love and praise thee, O God the Father, God the Son, and God the
Holy Ghost, throughout all ages, world without end.

Our Father, &c.

M O N D A Y M O R N I N G.

General questions, which may be used every morning.

 Did I think of God first and last?

Have I examined myself how I behaved since last night’s

retirement?

Am I resolved to do all the good I can this day, and to be diligent

in the business of my calling?

O GOD, who art the giver of all good gifts, I thy unworthy servant,
entirely desire to praise thy name for all the expressions of
thy bounty towards me. Blessed be thy love for giving thy Son to die
for our sins, for the means of grace, and for the hope of glory.
Blessed be thy love for all the temporal benefits which thou hast
with a liberal hand poured out upon me; for my health and strength,
food and raiment, and all other necessaries with which thou hast
provided thy sinful servant. I also bless thee that, after all my
refusals of thy grace, thou still hast patience with me, hast
preserved me this night, (――) ¹ and given me yet another day, to
renew and perfect my repentance. Pardon, good Lord, all my former
sins, and make me every day more zealous and diligent to improve
every opportunity of building up my soul in thy faith, and love, and
obedience: make thyself always present to my mind, and let thy love
fill and rule my soul, in all those places, and companies, and
employments, to which thou callest me this day. In all my passage
through this world, suffer not my heart to be set upon it: but always
fix my single eye, and my undivided affections on the prize of my
high calling! This one thing let me do; let me so press toward this,
as to make all things else minister unto it; and be careful so to use
them, as thereby to fit my soul for that pure bliss, which thou hast
prepared for those that love thee!

¹ Here you may mention any particular mercy received.

 O thou, who art good and dost good, who extendest thy loving-
kindness to all mankind, the work of thine hands, thine image,
capable of knowing and loving thee eternally: suffer me to exclude
none, O Lord, from my charity, who are the objects of thy mercy;
but let me treat all my neighbours with that tender love, which is
due to thy servants and to thy children. Thou hast required this
mark of my love to thee: O let no temptation expose me to
ingratitude, or make me forfeit thy loving kindness which is better
than life itself! But grant that I may assist all my brethren with my
prayers, where I cannot reach them with actual services. Make me
zealous to embrace all occasions that may administer to their
happiness, by assisting the needy, protecting the oppressed,
instructing the ignorant, confirming the wavering, exhorting the
good, and reproving the wicked. Let me look upon the failings of my
neighbour as if they were my own; that I may be grieved for them,
that I may never reveal them but when charity requires, and then
with tenderness and compassion. Let thy love to me, O blessed
Saviour, be the pattern of my love to him. Thou thoughtest nothing
too dear to part with, to rescue me from eternal misery: O let me
think nothing too dear to part with to set forward the everlasting
good of my fellow Christians. They are members of thy body;
therefore I will cherish them. Thou hast redeemed them with an
inestimable price; assisted by thy holy Spirit, therefore I will
endeavour to recover them from a state of destruction: that thus
adorning thy holy gospel, by doing good according to my power, I
may at last be received into the endearments of thy eternal love,
and sing everlasting praise unto the Lamb, that was slain and sitteth
on the throne for ever.
 Extend, I humbly beseech thee, thy mercy to all men, and let
them become thy faithful servants. Let all Christians live up to the
holy religion they profess; especially these sinful nations. Be
intreated for us, good Lord; be glorified by our reformation, and not
by our destruction. Turn thou us, and so shall we be turned: O be
favourable to thy people; give us grace to put a period to our
provocations, and do thou put a period to our punishment. Defend
our church from schism, heresy, and sacrilege, and the king from all
treasons and conspiracies. Bless all bishops, priests and deacons,
with apostolical graces, exemplary lives, and sound doctrine. Grant
to the council wisdom from above, to all magistrates integrity and
zeal, to the universities quietness and industry, and to the gentry
and commons, pious and peaceable, and loyal hearts.

Preserve my parents, my brothers and sisters, my friends and

relations, and all mankind, in their souls and bodies (――) ¹. Forgive
mine enemies, and in thy due time make them kindly affected
towards me. Have mercy on all who are afflicted in mind, body, or
estate: give them patience under their sufferings, and a happy issue
out of all their afflictions. O grant that we, with those who are
already dead in thy faith and fear may together partake of a joyful
resurrection, through him who liveth and reigneth with thee and the
Holy Ghost, one God, world without end.

¹ Here mention the particular persons you would pray for.

M O N D A Y E V E N I N G.

Particular questions relating to the love of our neighbour.

1. Have I thought any thing but my conscience, too dear to part

with, to please or serve my neighbour?

2. Have I rejoiced or grieved with him?

 3. Have I received his infirmities with pity, not with anger?

4. Have I contradicted any one, either where I had no good end

in view, or where there was no probability of convincing?

5. Have I let him, I thought in the wrong (in a ♦trifle) have the
last word?

♦ “triflle” replaced with “trifle”

M OST great and glorious Lord God, I desire to prostrate myself

before thy divine Majesty, under a deep sense of my
unworthiness, and with sorrow, and shame, and confusion of face,
to confess I have, by my manifold transgressions, deserved thy
severest visitations, Father, I have sinned against heaven, and am no
more worthy to be called thy son: O let thy paternal bowels yern
upon me, and for Jesus Christ’s sake graciously receive me. Accept
my imperfect repentance, and send thy Spirit of adoption into my
heart, that I may again be owned by thee, call thee Father, and
share in the blessings of thy children.

Adored be thy goodness for all the benefits thou hast already
from time to time bestowed on me: for the good things of this life,
and the hope of eternal happiness. Particularly, I offer to thee my
humblest thanks for thy preservation of me this day, (――) ¹. If I
have escaped any sin, it is the effect of thy restraining grace: if I
have avoided any danger, it was thy hand directed me. To thy holy
name be ascribed the honour and glory. O let the sense of all thy
blessings have this effect upon me, to make me daily more diligent
in devoting myself, all I am, and all I have to thy glory.

¹ Here mention the particular persons you would pray for.

 O my God, fill my soul with so entire a love of thee, that I may
love nothing but for thy sake, and in subordination to thy love. Give
me grace to study thy knowledge daily, that the more I know thee,
the more I may love thee. Create in me a zealous obedience to all
thy commands, a chearful patience under all thy chastisements, and
a thankful resignation to all thy disposals. May I ever have awful
thoughts of thee, never mention thy venerable name, unless on just,
solemn, and devout occasions; nor even then, without acts of
adoration. O let it be the one business of my life to glorify thee, by
every thought of my heart, by every word of my tongue, by every
work of my hand; by professing thy truth, even to the death, if it
should please thee to call me to it; and by engaging all men, as far
as in me lies, to glorify and love thee.

Let thy unwearied and tender love to me, make my love

unwearied and tender to my neighbour, zealous to pray for, and to
procure and promote his health and safety, ease and happiness; and
active to comfort, succour, and relieve all whom thy love and their
own necessities recommend to my charity. Make me peaceful and
reconcilable; easy to ♦forgive, and glad to return good for evil. Make
me like thyself, all kindness and benignity, all goodness and
gentleness, all meekness and long-suffering. And, O thou lover of
souls, raise in me a compassionate zeal to save the life, the eternal
life of souls, and by affectionate and seasonable advice, exhortations
and reproof, to reclaim the wicked, and win them to thy love.

♦ “give” replaced with “forgive” per Errata

Be pleased, O Lord, to take me, with my father and mother,

brethren and sisters, my friends and relations, and my enemies, into
thy almighty protection this night. Refresh me with such comfortable
rest that I may rise more fit for thy service. Let me lie down with
holy thoughts of thee, and when I awake let me be still present with
thee.
 Shew mercy to the whole world, O Father of all; let the gospel of
thy Son run and be glorified throughout all the earth. Let it be made
known to all infidels, and obeyed by all Christians. Be merciful to this
church and nation; give unto thy bishops a discerning spirit, that
they may make choice of fit persons to serve in thy sacred ministry;
and enable all who are ordained to any holy function, diligently to
feed the flocks committed to their charge, instructing them in saving
knowledge, guiding them by their examples, praying for and blessing
them, exercising spiritual discipline in thy church, and duly
administring thy holy sacraments. Multiply thy blessings on our
sovereign, on the royal family, and on the nobles, magistrates,
gentry and commons of this land; that they may all, according to the
several talents they have received, be faithful instruments of thy
glory. Give to our schools and universities, zeal, prudence and
holiness, visit in mercy all the children of affliction, (――) ¹. Relieve
their necessities, lighten their burthens; give them a chearful
submission to thy gracious will, and at length bring them and us,
with those that already rest from their labours, into the joy of our
Lord, to whom with thee, O Father, and thee, O Holy Ghost, be all
praise, now and for ever.

¹ Here mention the particular persons you would pray for.

T U E S D A Y M O R N I N G.
O ETERNAL and merciful Father, I give thee humble thanks
(increase my thankfulness, I beseech thee) for all the
blessings, spiritual and temporal, which in the riches of thy mercy
thou hast poured down upon me. Lord, let me not live but to love
thee, and to glorify thy name. Particularly I give thee most unfeigned
thanks for preserving me from my birth to this moment and for
bringing me safe to the beginning of this day (――) ¹ in which, and
in all the days of my life, I beseech thee that all my thoughts, words,
and works may tend to thy glory. Heal O Father of mercies, all my
infirmities (――), strengthen me against all my follies; forgive me all
my sins (――), and let them not cry louder in thine ears for
vengeance, than my prayers for mercy and forgiveness.

¹ Here mention the particulars you would pray for.

 O blessed Lord, enable me to fulfil thy commands, and command
what thou wilt. O thou Saviour of all that trust in thee, do with me
what seemeth best in thine own eyes: only give me the mind which
was in thee: let me learn of thee to be meek and lowly. Pour into me
the whole Spirit of humility; fill, I beseech thee, every part of my
soul with it, and make it the constant, ruling habit of my mind, that
all my other tempers may arise from it: that I may have no
thoughts, no desires, no designs, but such as are the true fruit of a
lowly spirit. Grant that I may think of myself as I ought to think, that
I may know myself, even as I am known. Herein may I exercise
myself continually, when I lie down and when I rise up, that I may
always appear poor, and little, and mean, and base, and vile in mine
own eyes. O convince me, that I have neither learned wisdom, nor
have the knowledge of the holy. Give me a lively sense that I am
nothing, that I have nothing, and that I can do nothing. Enable me
to feel that I am all ignorance and error, weakness and uncleanness,
sin and misery; that I am not worthy of the air I breathe, the earth I
tread upon, or the sun that shines upon me. And let me be fully
content when all other men think of me as I do of myself. O save me
from either desiring or seeking the honour that cometh of men.
Convince me that the words of praise, when smoother than oil, then
especially are very swords. Give me to dread them more than the
poison of asps, or the pestilence that walketh in darkness. And when
these cords of pride, these snares of death do overtake me, suffer
me not to take any pleasure in them, but enable me instantly to flee
unto thee, O Lord, and to complain unto my God. Let all my bones
cry out, Thou art worthy to be praised; so shall I be safe from mine
enemies.
 Bless, O gracious Father, all the nations whom thou hast placed
upon the earth, with the knowledge of thee, the only true God: But
especially bless thy holy catholic church, and fill it with truth and
grace; where it is corrupt, purge it; where it is in error, rectify it;
where it is right, confirm it; where it is divided and rent asunder,
heal the breaches thereof, O thou holy one of Israel. Replenish all
whom thou hast called to ♦any office therein, with truth of doctrine
and innocency of life. Let their prayers be as precious incense in thy
sight, that their cries and tears for the city of their God may not be
in vain.

♦ “an” replaced with “any” per Errata

O Lord, hear the king in the day of his trouble; let thy name, O
God, defend him. Grant him his heart’s desire, and fulfil all his mind.
Set his heart firm upon thee, and upon other things only as they are
in and for thee. O defend him and his royal relations from thy holy
heaven, even with the saving strength of thy right-hand.

Have mercy upon this kingdom, and forgive the sins of this
people: turn thee unto us, bless us, and cause thy face to shine on
our desolations. Inspire the nobles and magistrates with prudent
zeal, the gentry and commons, with humble loyalty. Pour down thy
blessings on all seminaries of true religion and learning, that they
may remember and answer the end of their institution. Comfort all
the sons and daughters of affliction, especially those who suffer for
righteousness sake. Bless my father and mother, my brethren and
sisters, my friends and relations, and all that belong to this family.
Forgive all who are mine enemies, and so reconcile them to me and
thyself, that we all, together with those that now sleep in thee, may
awake to life everlasting, through thy merits and intercession, O
blessed Jesus; to whom with the Father and the Holy Ghost, be
ascribed by all creatures, all honour, and might, and wisdom, and
glory, and blessing.
 T U E S D A Y E V E N I N G.

Particular questions relating to humility.

1. Have I laboured to conform all my thoughts, words and

actions to these fundamental maxims; I am nothing, I have nothing,
I can do nothing?

2. Have I set apart some time this day, to think upon my

infirmities, follies and sins?

3. Have I ascribed to myself any part of any good which God did
by my hand?

4. Have I said or done any thing, with a view to the praise of

men?

5. Have I desired the praise of men?

6. Have I taken pleasure in it?

7. Have I commended myself, or others, to their faces, unless for

God’s sake, and then with fear and trembling?

8. Have I despised any one’s advice?

9. Have I, when I thought so, said, I am in the wrong?

10. Have I received contempt for things indifferent, with

meekness: For doing my duty, with joy?

11. Have I omitted justifying myself where the glory of God was
not concerned? Have I submitted to be thought in the wrong?

12. Have I, when contemned, first prayed God it might not

discourage, or puff me up: secondly that it might not be imputed to
the contemner: thirdly that it might heal my pride?
 13. Have I, without some particular good in view, mentioned the
contempt I had met with?

I DESIRE to offer unto thee, O Lord, my evening sacrifice, the

sacrifice of a contrite spirit. Have mercy upon me, O God, after
thy great goodness, and after the multitude of thy mercies do away
mine offences. Let thy unspeakable mercy free me from the sins I
have committed, and deliver me from the punishment I have
deserved (――) ¹. O save me from every work of darkness, and
cleanse me from all filthiness of flesh and spirit, that, for the time to
come, I may with a pure heart and mind follow thee the only true
God.

¹ Here mention the particulars you would pray for.

O Lamb of God, who both by thy example and precept didst

instruct us to be meek and humble, give me grace throughout my
whole life, in every thought, and word and work, to imitate thy
meekness and humility. O mortify in me the whole body of pride:
grant me to feel that I am nothing and have nothing, and that I
deserve nothing but shame and contempt, but misery and
punishment. Grant, O Lord, that I may look for nothing, claim
nothing, and that I may go through all the scenes of life, not seeking
my own glory, but looking wholly unto thee, and acting wholly for
thee. Let me never speak any word that may tend to my own praise,
unless the good of my neighbour require it. And even then let me
beware, lest to heal another, I wound my own soul. Let my ears and
my heart be ever shut to the praise that cometh of men, and let me
refuse to hear the voice of the charmer, charm he never so sweetly.
Give me a dread of applause, in whatsoever form, and from
whatsoever tongue it cometh. I know that many stronger men have
been slain by it, and that it leadeth to the chambers of death. O
deliver my soul from this snare of hell; neither let me spread it for
the feet of others. Whosoever perish thereby, be their blood upon
their own head, and let not my hand be upon them.
 O thou giver of every good and perfect gift, if at any time thou
pleasest to work by my hand, teach me to discern what is my own
from what is another’s, and to render unto thee the things that are
thine. As, all the good that is done on earth, thou dost it thyself, let
me ever return to thee all the glory. Let me, as a pure chrystal,
transmit all the light thou pourest upon me; but never claim as my
own what is thy sole property.

O thou who wert despised and rejected of men, when I am

slighted by my friends, disdained by my superiors, overborn, or
ridiculed by my equals, or contemptuously treated by my inferiors,
let me cry out with thy holy martyr ¹, “It is now that I begin to be a
disciple of Christ.” Then let me thankfully accept, and faithfully use
the happy occasion of improving in thy meek and lowly Spirit. If for
thy sake men cast out my name as evil, let me rejoice, and be
exceeding glad. If for my own infirmities, yet let me acknowledge
thy goodness, in giving me this medicine to heal my pride and
vanity, and beg thy mercy for those physicians of my soul, by whose
hands it is administered to me.

¹ Ignatius.

Make me to remember thee on my bed, and think upon thee

when I am waking: thou hast preserved me from all the dangers of
the day past: thou hast been my support from my youth up until
now: under the shadow of thy wings let me pass this night in
comfort and peace.
 O thou Creator and preserver of all mankind, have mercy upon
all conditions of men: purge thy holy Catholic church from all heresy,
schism, and superstition. Bless our sovereign in his person, in his
actions, in his relations, and in his people. May it please thee to
endue his council, and all the nobility, with grace, wisdom, and
understanding; the magistrates with equity, courage and prudence;
the gentry with industry and temperance; and all the commons of
this land, with increase of grace, and a holy, humble, thankful spirit.

O pour upon our whole church, and especially upon the clergy
thereof, the continual dew of thy blessing. Grant to our universities
peace and piety, and to all that labour under affliction, constant
patience and timely deliverance. Bless all my kindred, (especially my
father and mother, my brothers and sisters) and all my friends and
benefactors (――) ¹. Turn the hearts of my enemies (――); forgive
them and me all our sins, and grant that we and all the members of
thy holy church, may find mercy in the dreadful day of judgment,
through the mediation and satisfaction of thy blessed Son Jesus
Christ, to whom with thee and the Holy Ghost the comforter, be all
honour, praise and thanksgiving, in all the churches of the saints for
ever.

¹ Here mention the particulars you would pray for.

W E D N E S D A Y M O R N I N G.
O THOU who dwellest in the light which no man can approach, in
whose presence there is no night, in the light of whose
countenance there is perpetual day: I thy sinful servant, whom thou
hast preserved this night, who live by thy power this day, bless and
glorify thee, for the defence of thy almighty providence, (――) ¹ and
humbly pray thee, that this, and all my days may be wholly devoted
to thy service. Send thy Holy Spirit to be the guide of all my ways,
and the sanctifier of my soul and body. Save, defend, and build me
up in thy fear and love; give unto me the light of thy countenance,
peace from heaven, and the salvation of my soul in the day of the
Lord Jesus.

¹ Here mention the particulars you would pray for.

O Thou who art the way, the truth, and the life, thou hast said no
man can follow thee, unless he renounce himself. I know, O Saviour,
that thou hast laid nothing upon us but what the design of thy love
made necessary for us. Thou sawest our disease, our idolatrous self-
love, whereby we fell away from God, to be as gods ourselves, to
please ourselves, and to do our own will. Lo, I come! May I ever
renounce my own, and do thy blessed will in all things!

I know, O God, thou didst empty thyself of thy eternal glory, and
tookest upon thee the form of a servant. Thou who madest all men
to serve and please thee, didst not please thyself, but wast the
servant of all. Thou O Lord of the hosts of heaven and earth, didst
yield thy cheeks to be smitten, thy back to be scourged, and thy
hands and feet to be nailed to an accursed tree. Thus didst thou, our
great Master, renounce thyself: And can we think much of
renouncing our vile selves? My Lord and my God, let me not
presume to be above my master! Let it be the one desire of my
heart, to be as my master, to do not my own will, but the will of him
that sent me.
 O thou whose whole life did cry aloud, Father, not mine, but thy
will be done, give me grace to walk after thy pattern, to tread in thy
steps. Give me grace to take up my cross daily, to inure myself to
bear hardship. Let me exercise myself unto godliness betimes,
before the rains descend and the floods beat upon me: Let me now
practise what is not pleasing to flesh and blood, what is not
agreeable to my senses, appetites, and passions, that I may not
hereafter renounce thee, for fear of suffering for thee, but may
stand firm in the day of my visitation.

*O thou, who didst not please thyself, altho’ for thy pleasure all
things are and were created, let some portion of thy spirit descend
on me, that I may deny myself and follow thee. Strengthen my soul
that I may be temperate in all things; that I may never use any of
thy creatures but in order to some end thou commandest me to
pursue, and in that measure and manner which most conduces to it.
Let me never gratify any desire, which has not thee for its ultimate
object. Let me ever abstain from all pleasures, which do not prepare
me for taking pleasure in thee, as knowing that all such war against
the soul, and tend to alienate it from thee. O save me from ever
indulging either the desire of the flesh, the desire of the eye, or the
pride of life. Set a watch, O Lord, over my senses and appetites, my
passions and understanding, that I may resolutely deny them every
gratification, which has no tendency to thy glory. O train me up in
this good way, that when I am old I may not depart from it: that I
may be at length of a truly mortified heart, crucified unto the world,
and the world crucified unto me.

Hear also my prayers for all mankind, and guide their feet into
the way of peace: for thy holy Catholic church, let her live by thy
Spirit, and reign in thy glory. Remember that branch of it which thou
hast planted in these kingdoms; especially the stewards of thy holy
mysteries; give them such zeal, and diligence, and wisdom, that
they may save both themselves and those that hear them.
 Preserve, O great King of heaven and earth, all Christian princes,
especially our sovereign and his family. Grant that his council, and all
that are in authority under him, may truly and indifferently
administer justice. And to all thy people give thy heavenly grace,
that they may faithfully serve thee all the days of their life. Bless the
universities with prudence, unity, and holiness. However the way of
truth be evil spoken of, may they walk in it even to the end.
Whoever forget or blaspheme their high calling, may they ever
remember, that they are a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, an
holy nation, a peculiar people: and accordingly, shew forth the praise
of him, who hath called them out of darkness into his marvellous
light.

With a propitious eye, O gracious Lord, behold all my enemies,

and all that are in affliction; give them patience under their
sufferings, and grant that they, and all the members of thy church,
may find rest, where the wicked cease from troubling, and mercy in
the great day of trial. In particular I commend to thy mercy, my
father and mother, my brethren and sisters, my friends and relations
(――) ¹. Lord, thou best knowest all their wants; O suit thy blessings
to their several necessities.

¹ Here mention the particulars you would pray for.

Let these my prayers, O Lord, find access to the throne of grace,

through the Son of thy love, Jesus Christ the righteous: to whom,
with thee, O Father, in the unity of the Spirit, be all love and
obedience now and for ever!

W E D N E S D A Y E V E N I N G.

Particular questions relating to mortification.

1. Have I done any thing merely because it was pleasing?

 2. Have I not only ♦not done what passion sollicited me to, but
done just the contrary?

♦ “done” replaced with “not done” per Errata

3. Have I received the inconveniences I could not avoid, as

means of mortification chosen for me by God?

4. Have I contrived pretences to avoid self-denial? In particular,

5. Have I thought any occasion of denying myself too small to be

embraced?

6. Have I submitted my will to the will of every one that opposed

it; except where the glory of God was concerned?

7. Have I set apart some time for endeavouring after a lively

sense of the sufferings of Christ and my own sins? For deprecating
God’s judgment, and thinking how to amend?

O ALMIGHTY Lord of heaven and earth, I desire with fear and

shame to cast myself down before thee, humbly confessing
my manifold sins and unsufferable wickedness. I confess, O great
God, that I have sinned grievously against thee by thought, word
and deed (particularly this day). Thy words and thy laws, O God, are
holy, and thy judgments are terrible! But I have broken all thy
righteous laws, and incurred thy severest judgments; and where
shall I appear when thou art angry?

But, O Lord my Judge, thou art also my Redeemer! I have

sinned, but thou, O blessed Jesus, art my advocate! Enter not into
judgment with me, lest I die; but spare me, gracious Lord, spare thy
servant, whom thou hast redeemed with thy most precious blood. O
reserve not evil in store for me against the day of vengeance, but let
thy mercy be magnified upon me. Deliver me from the power of sin,
and preserve me from the punishment of it.
 Thou whose mercy is without measure, whose goodness is
♦unspeakable, despise not thy returning servant, who earnestly begs
for pardon and reconciliation. Grant me the forgiveness of what is
past, and a perfect repentance of all my sins, that for the time to
come I may with a pure spirit do thy will, O God, walking humbly
with thee, conversing charitably with men, possessing my soul in
resignation and holiness, and my body in sanctification and honour.

♦ “unspeakble” replaced with “unspeakable”

*My Lord and my God, I know that unless I am planted together

with thee in the likeness of thy death, I cannot in the likeness of thy
resurrection. O strengthen me, that by denying myself and taking up
my cross daily, I may crucify the old man, and utterly destroy the
whole body of sin. Give me grace to mortify all my members which
are upon earth, all my works and affections which are according to
corrupt nature. Let me be dead unto sin, unto every transgression of
thy law, which is holy, merciful and perfect. Let me be dead unto the
world, and all that is in the world, the desires ♦ of the flesh, the
desire of the eye, and the pride of life. Let me be dead unto
pleasure, so far as it tendeth not to thee, and to those pleasures
which are at thy right-hand for evermore. Let me be dead unto my
own will, and alive only unto thine. I am not my own; thou hast
bought me with a price, with the price of thine own blood. And thou
didst therefore die for all, that we should not henceforth live unto
ourselves, but unto him that died for us. Arm thou me with this
mind; circumcise my heart and make me a new creature. Let me no
longer live to the desires of men, but to the will of God. Let thy holy
Spirit enable me to say with thy blessed apostle, I am crucified with
Christ: nevertheless I live, yet not I, but Christ liveth in me.

♦ “of the flesh, the desire” added per Errata

 O thou great Shepherd of souls, bring home unto thy fold all that
are gone astray. Preserve thy church from all heresy and schism,
from all that persecute or oppose the truth: and give unto thy
ministers wisdom and holiness, and the powerful aid of thy blessed
Spirit. Advance the just interests, and preserve the persons of all
Christian princes, especially our sovereign: give to him and his royal
family, and to all his subjects, in their several stations, particularly
those that are in authority among them, grace to do thy will in this
world, and eternal glory in the world to come.

Bless, O Lord, all our nurseries of piety and schools of learning,

that they may devote all their studies to thy glory. Have mercy on all
that are in affliction: remember the poor and needy, the widow and
fatherless, the friendless and oppressed: heal the sick and
languishing, give them a sanctified use of thy rod, and when thou
seest it expedient for them, receive them into the number of thy
departed saints, and with them into thine everlasting kingdom.

O my God, I praise thee for thy continual preservation of me, for

thy fatherly protection over me this day. (――) ¹. For all the comforts
with which thou surroundest me, spiritual and temporal; particularly
for leave now to pray unto thee. O accept the poor services, pardon
the sinfulness of this and all my holy duties, and bless me, my
friends and relations, my benefactors and mine enemies, (this night
and ever) with the blessings of thy children.

¹ Here mention the particulars you would pray for.

These my prayers, O most merciful Father, vouchsafe to hear,

through the mediation of Jesus Christ our Redeemer, who with thee
and the Holy Ghost is worshipped and glorified, in all churches of the
saints, one God blessed for ever!

T H U R S D A Y M O R N I N G.
O ETERNAL God, my Sovereign Lord, I acknowledge all I am, all I
have is thine. O give me such a sense of thy infinite
goodness, that I may return to thee all possible love and obedience.

I humbly and heartily thank thee for all the favours thou hast
bestow’d upon me; for creating me after thine own image, for thy
daily preserving me by thy good providence, for redeeming me by
the death of thy blessed Son, and for the assistance of thy holy
Spirit: for causing me to be born in a Christian country, for blessing
me with plentiful means of salvation, with religious parents and
friends, and frequent returns of thy ever blessed sacrament. I also
thank thee for all thy temporal blessings; for the preservation of me
this night, (――) ¹ for my health, strength, food, raiment, and all the
comforts and necessaries of life. O may I always delight to praise thy
holy name, and, above all thy benefits, love thee my great
benefactor.

¹ Here mention the particulars you would pray for.

And, O Father of mercies, shut not up thy bowels of compassion

towards me a vile and miserable sinner; despise not the work of
thine own hands, the purchase of thy Son’s blood. For his sake I
most humbly implore forgiveness of all my sins. Lo, I come now, to
do thy will alone; and am resolved by thy assistance, to have no
longer any choice of my own, but with singleness of heart to obey
thy good pleasure: Father not my will, but thine be done, in all my
thoughts, words, and actions!

*O thou all-sufficient God of angels and men, who art above all,
and through all, and in all; from whom, by whom, and in whom are
all things; in whom we live, move, and have our being; may my will
be as entirely and continually derived from thine, as my being and
happiness are!
 I believe, O sovereign goodness, O mighty wisdom, that thou
dost sweetly order and govern all things, even the most minute,
even the most noxious, to thy glory, and the good of those that love
thee! I believe, O Father of the families of heaven and earth, that
thou so disposest all events, as may best magnify thy goodness to
all thy children, especially those whose eyes wait upon thee. I most
humbly beseech thee teach me to adore all thy ways, though I
cannot comprehend them: teach me to be glad that thou art king,
and to give thee thanks for all things that befall me; seeing thou
hast chosen that for me, and hast thereby set to thy seal that they
are good. And for that which is to come, give me thy grace to do in
all things what pleaseth thee, and then, with an absolute submission
to thy wisdom, to leave the issues of them in thy hand.

O Lord Jesu, I give thee my body, my soul, my substance, my

fame, my friends, my liberty, my life; dispose of me, and all that is
mine, as it seemeth best unto thee. I am not mine, but thine; claim
me as thy right, keep me as thy charge, love me as thy child! Fight
for me when I am assaulted, heal me when I am wounded, and
revive me when I am destroyed.

O help me with thy grace, that whatsoever I shall do or suffer

this day may tend to thy glory. Keep me in love to thee, and to all
men. Do thou direct my paths, and teach me to set thee always
before me. Let not the things of this life, or my manifold concerns
therein, alienate any part of my affections from thee; nor let me
ever pursue or regard them, but for thee, and in obedience to thy
will.
 Extend, O Lord, thy pity to the whole race of mankind: enlighten
the Gentiles with thy truth, and bring into thy flock thy ancient
people the Jews. Be gracious to the holy Catholic church; and grant
she may always preserve that doctrine and discipline which thou
hast delivered to her. Grant that all of this nation, especially our
governors and the clergy, may, whatsoever they do, do all to thy
glory. Bless all nurseries of true religion and useful learning, and let
them not neglect the end of their institution. Be merciful to all that
are in distress, (――) ¹ that struggle with pain, poverty or reproach:
be thou a guide to them that travel by land or by water: give a
strong and quiet spirit to those who are condemned to death, liberty
to prisoners and captives, and ease and chearfulness to every sad
heart. O give spiritual strength and comfort to scrupulous
consciences, and to them that are afflicted by evil spirits. Pity idiots
and lunatics, and give life and salvation to all to whom thou hast
given no understanding. Give to all that are in error the light of thy
truth; bring all sinners to repentance, (――) and give to all heretics
humility and grace to make amends to thy church, by the public
acknowledgement of an holy faith. Bless all my friends and relations,
acquaintance and enemies: (――) unite us all to one another by
mutual love, and to thyself by constant holiness; that we, together
with all those who are gone before us in thy faith and fear, may find
a merciful acceptance in the last day, through the merits of thy
blessed Son, to whom with thee and the Holy Ghost, be all glory,
world without end!

¹ Here mention the particulars you would pray for.

T H U R S D A Y E V E N I N G.

Particular questions relating to resignation and meekness.

1. Have I endeavoured to will what God wills, and that only?

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