LSRV121 – Introduction To Cartography

Lecture Notes
INTRODUCTION
CARTOGRAPHY is the art and technology of producing
maps resulting from the science of earth measurement. It
supports the premise that the real world can be modeled such
that information about it can be communicated efficiently and
effectively. Map creation combines and encompasses
evaluation, compilation, design, representation and
reproduction components.
A MAP is a flat representation of the Earth’s surface or a
portion of it.
A PLAN is a flat representation of a small area usually of a
very specific information theme and a unique purpose. (E.g. a
boundary plan, a site plan).
The Science
This involves the evaluation and compilation of the
observation and modeling of the shape and form of the earth
(The study of Geodesy). The subsequent representation of the
three – dimensional (3D) Earth on a flat plane which is the
foundation of a map facilitating angular and linear
measurements (The study of Map Projections).
The Art

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 LSRV121 – Introduction To Cartography
Lecture Notes
The graphical design and representation of the Earth’s real
world features such that visual and appropriate perception is
communicated and understood by the user of the map. This is
the field of Cartographic Design (subset of Cartography).
The Technology
The methodologies utilized for the reproduction and
duplication of finished map. This is the field of Cartographic
Reproduction (subset of Cartography).
The Cartographer must have knowledge of the subject
matter of item being produced.
CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN
The graphical basis of Cartography is used to identify and
represent real world features (natural or manmade) on a map
such that details about the real world, based on the subject
content of the map are understood by the user of the map. In
a sense, graphical representation is a kind of short hand telling
the user of the map what exists in the real world covered by
the map.
In order to successfully convert the features of the real
world onto a paper or computer aided medium for
representation to the user, the map relies on a scale to make
this feasible.

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 LSRV121 – Introduction To Cartography
Lecture Notes
Scale
A scale is a mathematical ratio that equates an element on
one medium to an equivalent element on another medium.
The units of the element can be different in the respective
mediums. For example: the linear distance on a map in
millimeters would equate to a liner distance on the ground in
metres. Mathematically the equation defining a scale would
be given by:

= = =

The scale can be represented:

 in words such as 1mm to 0.5m or 1mm to 500mm
(i.e. 1mm on map represents 0.5m on ground);
 as a ratio such as 1:500. (here the units on both sides
of the ratio are the same, i.e. 1mm to 500mm or 1m to
500m)
 or graphically as a bar scale m

Category of scales
Scales for maps / plans fall into two categories;
1. Large scales, e.g. 1:25, 1:50, 1:100
2. Small scales, e.g. 1:50 000, 1:100 000, 1:1 000 000

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Lecture Notes
The smaller the scale ratio number (e.g. 50), the smaller the
area and greater the detail represented by map/plan, the larger
the scale is said to be.
The larger the scale ratio number (e.g. 50 000), the larger
the area and less the detail represented by the map/plan, the
smaller the scale is said to be.
In other words, at a large scale of 1:50, 1mm on the map
will represent 5cm on the ground. The difference between the
map units and ground units is close, thus only a smaller area
will fit on the paper sheet. The feature’s representation will be
closer to its real world size showing more clarity to its detail.
The reverse is true for the small scales.
A way to remember the difference is the smaller the ratio
number, the larger the scale; the larger the ratio number, the
smaller the scale.
There is no specific cut off scale ratio value for the transition
from small to large scales. It is better to consider the
difference between small and large scales at the comparison
level. Thus a 1:50 000 map is at a smaller scale than a 1:10
000 map or 1:50 map is at a larger scale than a 1:100 map.

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Lecture Notes
The map scale used is a function of the need of clarity of
detail, the size of medium available and the practical purpose
of the map/plan.
Choice of Scale - depends on:
1. Sheet size and ability to vary size of sheet.
2. Purpose of map.
3. Amount of detail to be represented.
4. Degree of clarity and generalization allowable.
5. Accuracy of map.
Visual Elements [re: Cartographic design and production 1980
by J.S. Keates]
The use of a map employs a perceptual process1 through
visual communication. The visual image is the pattern formed
on the retinas of the eyes by the reflection or transmission of
light from the map (two-dimensional plane surface) or graphic
image.
The graphic image or map is composed of visual elements
represented in the form of graphical symbols. The visual
elements in a graphic image can vary in four (4) ways:
1. In location within the visual field.
2. In form (visible aspect or shape).
1
The process where the mind can recognize and understand image stimuli
arriving from map objects.
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3. In two dimensions.
4. In colour.
Graphical symbols occur in the form of points, lines and
areas. These components of graphical symbols vary in
accordance with the four factors identified above but the
variations are not identical for points, line and area symbols.
Theoretically, a point has no dimension or form, only
location;
A line extends in a direction and has form;
An area extends in two directions and has both form and
dimension.
Any component of a graphic image must have some
minimum dimension and form in order to be visible and to be
perceived. All graphical symbols (points, lines & area) can
vary in colour across the colour spectrum.
Cartographic Symbols
Real world features can only be represented on a map by
the geometric shapes or symbols all of which have size, form,
colour and can present information individually or
collectively.
The design of the symbols to be used must take into
consideration the appreciation of form, relative position,

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Lecture Notes
distribution and structure of real world features. The location
of symbols on the map is controlled by their position on or
relationship to the ground in the real world, which cannot be
change only modified. The juxtaposition (place side by side)
and separation requirements for symbol placement on the map
must be accounted for and understood as this will influence
the actual appearance of the symbols at any given point on the
map. The map is intended to reflect what is happening in the
real world but condensed to fit onto the medium used for the
map.
The design of symbols must be undertaken in two stages:
Stage1 – the possible graphical variations to distinguish one
symbol from another need to be systematically
checked and modified based on the relationships
between the symbols. E.g. how much generalization
should be applied to show two buildings which are
very close together separately on the map?
Stage2 – the utilization of the graphical variations in relation
to the information to be represented on the map. I.e.
do the variations made still convey the relevant
information about the real world?

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Lecture Notes
Symbol Types
All symbols are classified as points, lines and polygons
(area). The distinction between points, lines and area is not
absolute but rather a function of scale, information to be
conveyed to user and the characteristics of the feature being
represented.

Points
Point symbols represent individual real world features that
in proportion to the scale of the map/plan occupy extremely
small areas. Features such as fire hydrants, bus stops, and
utility poles illustrate data that occupies a single point. Point
symbols will also replace other types of symbols based on the
dictates of scale and information generalization.

Lines
Line symbols represent real world features that have length.
Linear features such as highways, rivers, pipelines, bounding
lines (e.g. building) and divisions between surfaces (e.g.
coastline) illustrate data that occupies lines.
The geometry of a line is given by a series of pairs of
coordinates. For a single straight line, a minimum of two
pairs of coordinates (better with three pairs of coordinates) are
required for its description.

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Lecture Notes
For a simple curve line, a minimum of three pairs of
coordinates are required. As the complexity of the curve line
increases so does the number of pairs of coordinates.
A line symbol could be considered as a connection between
point symbols.
Polygons
Polygon or area symbols represent real world features that
have continuous two-dimensional properties (area). Surface
area features such as lakes, agricultural fields, land parcels
and parking lots illustrate data that occupies area.
Line features (e.g. rivers, buildings and highways) can
migrate to area (polygon) features depending on the level of
information complexity on the map.
On large scale map, a buildings may be represented by lines
defining its correct plan dimensions or in other word its
outline at ground level [see Figure 1A]. In fact, a building
also has area and here a line symbol is being used to
distinguish an area. In effect, the line symbol is used to
separate one surface from another. The same information
could be represented by colouring the surface area of the
building, without any enclosing lines [see Figure 1B]. This

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Lecture Notes
would be the use of an area symbol and the feature is
distinguished by a change in surface appearance on the map.
On a large scale map, a road may be shown as a double
line, with or without colour added in between the lines [see
Figure 1A]. This is a line symbol with linear form (shape) but
also with extent, giving it two dimensions. The width of the
symbol, the space between the lines, may represent the true
width of the road to scale. As above, the same information
could be represented by the colour added between the lines
without any enclosing lines [see Figure 1B]. This would be
the use of an area symbol and the feature is distinguished by a
change in surface appearance on the map.

Figure 1A – Outline Shape Figure 1B –

Solid Shape

Road road

Building Building

Smaller scale maps will have greater generalization of line

and area features as compared to larger scale maps. E.g. at a

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 LSRV121 – Introduction To Cartography
Lecture Notes
smaller scale, an area feature such as building, may be shown
at a generalized shape or as a point. [see Figure 2].
Similarly, a line feature may be shown as a double line
symbol but the separation between the lines will convey no
truth to its width; or it may be shown as a single line which
would indicate the feature exists and usually is aligned along
the centre of the feature. This is often the case with road and
river features.
Figure 2: Generalization of Area Feature

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