CRIMINOLOGICAL

THEORY

STEPHEN G. TIBBETTS
California State University, San Bernardino

USAGE
LosAngeles | London | New Delhi
Singapore | Washington DC
 Detailed Contents

Preface xiii

xvii
Acknowledgments

Chapter 1. Introduction to the Book: An Overview of Issues in

Criminological Theory 1

What Is Criminology, and How Does It Differ From Other Examinations of Crime? 2
2
What Is Theory?
What Is Crime? 3
4
How Are Criminological Theories Classified? The Major Theoretical Paradigms
Additional Ways to Classify Criminological Theories 5

Characteristics of Good Theories 6

9
Criteria for Determining Causality
Measures of Crime 11

The Uniform Crime 11

Report
The National Crime Victimization 14
Survey
Studies of Crime 16
Self-Report
What Do the Measures of Crime Show Regarding the Distribution of Crime? 17
20
The Baby-Boom Effect
21
Regional and City Differences in Rates of Crime
Race and Ethnicity Rates of Crime 24
25
Policy Implications
26
Chapter Summary
Terms 26
Key
Discussion Questions 27

Web Resources 27

2. Preclassical and Classical Theories of Crime 29

Chapter
Preclassical of Crime and Punishment 30
Perspectives
The Age of Enlightenment 32

The Classical School of Criminology 34

Influences Beccaria and His 34

on Writings
Reforms and Ideas of Justice 34
Beccarias Proposed
 37
Beccarias Ideas Regarding the Death Penalty
Beccarias Concept of Deterrence and the Three Key Elements of Punishment 39

of Specific and General Deterrence 41

Beccarias Conceptualization
Policy 42
Summary of Beccarias Ideas and His Influence on

43
Impact of Beccarias Work on Other Theorists
45
The Neoclassical School of Criminology
Theory 46
Loss of Dominance of Classical and Neoclassical
46
Policy Implications
48
Conclusion
48
Chapter Summary
49
Key Terms
49
Discussion Questions
50
Web Resources

Chapter 3. Modern Applications of the Classical Perspective: Deterrence,

Rational Choice, and Routine Activities or Lifestyle Theories of Crime 51
52
Rebirth of Deterrence Theory and Contemporary Research
Rational Choice Theory 56

Routine Activities Theory 58

60
Policy Implications
Conclusion 62
62
Chapter Summary
Terms 63
Key
Discussion Questions 63

Web Resources 64

Positive School Perspectives of Criminality 65

Chapter 4. Early
Lombrosos Theory of Atavism and Born Criminals 68

of Crime 68
Lombrosos Theory
Lombrosos List of Stigmata 69

Lombroso as the Father of Criminology and the Father of the Positive School 70

Lombrosos Policy Implications 71

The IQ Testing Era 73

76
Body-Type Theory: Sheldon's Model of Somatotyping
79
Policy Implications
Conclusion 80

Chapter Summary 81

Key Terms 82
Discussion Questions 82
Web Resources 83

Chapter 5. Modern Biosocial Perspectives of Criminal Behavior 85

Nature Versus Nurture: Studies Examining the Influence of Genetics and Environment 86

Family Studies 86
Twin Studies 87
 88
Adoption Studies
Birth 89
Twins Separated at
90
Cytogenetic Studies: The XYY Factor
Behavior 92
Hormones and Neurotransmitters: Chemicals That Determine Criminal
94
Brain Injuries
95
Central and Autonomic Nervous System Activity
97
Biosocial Approaches Toward Explaining Criminal Behavior
99
Policy Implications
99
Conclusion
99
Chapter Summary
100
Key Terms
101
Discussion Questions
101
Web Resources

103
Chapter 6. Early Social Structure and Strain Theories of Crime
104
Early Theories of Social Structure: Early to Mid-1800s
Comte 104
Auguste
Andre"-Michel Guerry and Adolphe Quetelet 105

Durkheim and the Concept of Anomie 106

110
Strain Theories
110
Merton's Strain Theory
110
Cultural Context and Assumptions of Strain Theory
Cohen and Cloward and Ohlin 116
Variations of Merton's Strain Theory:
120
General Strain Theory
of Strain Theories 123
Summary
124
Policy Implications
124
Conclusion
125
Chapter Summary
125
Key Terms
125
Discussion Questions
126
Web Resources

127
Chapter 7. The Chicago School and Cultural and Subcultural Theories of Crime
127
The Ecological School and the Chicago School of Criminology
128
Cultural Context: Chicago in the 1800s and Early 1900s
129
Ecological Principles in City Growth and Concentric Circles
Shaw and McKay's Theory of Social Disorganization 131

Reaction and Research on Social Disorganization Theory 134

135
Cultural and Subcultural Theories of Crime
136
Early Theoretical Developments and Research in Cultural and Subcultural Theory
137
Criticisms of Cultural Theories of Crime
137
Policy Implications
138
Conclusion
138
Chapter Summary
139
Key Terms
 Discussion Questions 139
Web Resources 139

Chapter 8. Social Process and Learning Theories of Crime 141

Learning Theories 142
Differential Association Theory 142
Differential Reinforcement Theory 146
Neutralization Theory 150
Summary of Learning Theories 152
Control Theories 152
Early Control Theories of Human Behavior 154
Early Control Theories of Crime 156
Modern Social Control Theories 160
Integrated Social Control Theories 165
A General Theory of Crime: Low Self-Control 166
of
Summary Control Theories 168
Policy Implications 168
Conclusion 169
Chapter Summary 170
Key Terms 170
Discussion Questions 171
Web Resources 171

Chapter 9. Social Reaction, Critical, and Feminist Models of Crime 173

Labeling and Social Reaction Theory 173
Marxist Theories of Crime 176
Evidence Regarding Marxist Theories of Crime 177
Conflict Theories of Crime 177
Evidence Regarding Conflict Theories of Crime 179
Feminist Theories of Crime 180
Evidence Regarding Feminist Theories of Crime 182
Policy Implications 182
Conclusion 183
Chapter Summary 184
Key Terms 184
Discussion Questions
184
Web Resources
185

Chapter 10. Life-Course Perspectives of Criminality 187

Developmental Theories 187
Antidevelopmental Theory: Low Self-Control Theory 188
Sampson and Laub's Developmental Model 189
Moffitt's Developmental Taxonomy
191
 192
Policy Implications
Conclusion 193
193
Chapter Summary
194
Key Terms
Discussion Questions 194

Web Resources 194

of Crime 195
Chapter 11. Integrated Theoretical Models and New Perspectives
196
Integrated Theories
The Need for Integrated Theories in Criminology 196

Different Forms of Integrated Theories 197

Levels of Analysis of Integrated Theories 201

Additional Considerations Regarding Types of Integration 202

Criticisms and Weaknesses of Integrated Theories 205

208
Examples of Integrated Criminological Theory
221
Policy Implications
Conclusion 221
222
Chapter Summary
222
Key Terms
Discussion Questions 223

Web Resources 223

Applying Criminological Theory to Policy 225

Chapter 12.
225
Policy Applications Derived From the Classical School: Deterrence Theory
Law Enforcement 226

Courts, Diversion Programs, and Corrections 227

229
Policy Applications Derived From Biosocial Theories
229
Policy Applications Derived From Social Structure Theories
230
Policy Applications Derived From Social Process Theories
231
Policy Applications Derived From Social Reaction and Conflict Theories
232
Policy Applications Derived From Integrated and Developmental Theories
Conclusion 233
233
Chapter Summary
Discussion Questions 233

Web Resources 234

235
Glossary
Credits and Sources 247

Index 249

About the Author 269