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 RENEWABLE ENERGY: RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND POLICIES

WIND FARMS
PERFORMANCE, ECONOMIC
FACTORS AND EFFECTS ON
THE ENVIRONMENT

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rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.
 RENEWABLE ENERGY:
RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT
AND POLICIES

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RENEWABLE ENERGY: RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND POLICIES

WIND FARMS
PERFORMANCE, ECONOMIC
FACTORS AND EFFECTS ON
THE ENVIRONMENT

MARIAN DUNN
EDITOR

New York
Copyright © 2016 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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 CONTENTS

Preface vii
Chapter 1 Technical Review of Wind Farm Improved
Performance and Environmental
Development Challenges 1
K. E. Okedu, R. Uhunmwangho,
Peter Ono Madifie and C. C. Chiduole
Chapter 2 Assessing Noise from Wind Farms 49
Valeri V. Lenchine and Jonathan Song
Chapter 3 Power Quality of Offshore Wind Farms:
Measurement, Analysis and Improvement 85
Qiang Yang
Chapter 4 Impact Assessment of Wind Farms on Radio
Devices in Civil Aviation 127
Xiaoliang Wang, Renbiao Wu, Weikun He
and Yuzhao Ma
Index 155
 PREFACE

This book provides current research on the performance, economic factors

and effects on the environment of wind farms. The first chapter provides a
technical review of wind farm improved performance and environmental
development challenges. Chapter Two explores a variety of methods to be
used for assessing noise from wind farms. In Chapter Three, the potential
impact of wind farms on radio devices in civil aviation and a review of the
impact assessment procedure and methods of our research group is presented.
Chapter Four discusses the measurement, analysis and improvement in the
power quality of offshore wind farms.
Chapter 1 – The effective protection of the power converters of a Doubly
Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) Variable Speed Wind Turbine (VSWT),
could go a long way to improve its performance during transient conditions. A
crowbar protection switch is normally used to protect the variable speed drive
power converters during grid fault. The design of the pitch angle controller at
the referenced coupled Rotor Side Converter (RSC) of the variable speed drive
is also important in order to enhance its response during transient. This
research work investigates the performance of a wind farm composed of
variable speed drive considering five scenarios. In the first scenario,
simulations were run for dynamic behaviour of a DFIG VSWT. The second
scenario considers transient analysis for a severe 3LG fault. The third scenario
shows the use of the crowbar switch to further enhance the performance of the
DFIG VSWT in the second scenario. In the fourth scenario, a Flexible AC
Transmission System (FACTS) device called Static Synchronous
Compensator (STATCOM) was used to further enhance the stability of the
variable speed drive. Finally, in the fifth scenario, a Current Controlled
Voltage Source Converter (CC-VSC) was proposed to replace the
viii Marian Dunn

conventional Voltage Controlled Voltage Source Converter (VC-VSC) used in

the other scenarios. The simulated results show that the DFIG VSWT could
perform better in all the scenarios based on the proposed protection and
control techniques employed. Furthermore, some of the challenges of
developing these variable speed wind farms ranging from environmental
concern to government policies were also highlighted. Some opportunities
were presented to make the establishment of these wind farms promising in the
near future.
Chapter 2 – Wind farms have demonstrated impressive growth in
electricity generation capacity over the past decades. Alongside this growth
trend, some communities living in areas adjacent or close to existing and
future wind farm sites have expressed concerns regarding possible health and
environmental implications resulting from wind farm operations. Among the
environmental concerns of wind turbine operations is the noise impact from
wind farms. A wind farm operation should meet certain requirements in terms
of noise impact. These noise limits are normally imposed by regulatory or
planning authorities and are typically one of the strictest limits to be applied to
potential noise sources. In many cases noise from wind farm operations is just
above background or ambient noise present. Therefore monitoring and
compliance checking of wind farm operation noise may be a complex
scientific and engineering task. This chapter explores a variety of methods to
be used for assessing noise from wind farms. The advantages and
shortcomings of each approach to wind farm monitoring are discussed and
considered within this chapter. Recommendations on implementations are
provided based off the practicability and accuracy of results produced.
Chapter 3 – In recent years, with the quick development of offshore wind
farms, there is an urgent and increasing demand on investigating the power
quality of grid-connected offshore wind farm and understanding its impacts on
the operation of power grid. This chapter focuses on addressing the
aforementioned technical challenges and exploits the power quality issues of
offshore wind farms from a number of aspects to enable us to model, analyze
and protect the power quality of large-scale offshore wind farms. This chapter
explores the modeling approach of semi-aggregated equivalent model of
offshore wind farm based on PSCAD/EMTDC, which can be adopted for the
study of measurement, analysis and improvement of power quality at point of
common connection (PCC). Following to this, this chapter attempts to address
this technical challenge through a simulation-based study by the use of
PSCAD/EMTDC models and carries out an assessment of power quality at the
Point of Common Coupling (PCC) in the scenario of offshore wind farm
 Preface ix

integrated into the power network whilst reduce the impact of index
discrepancy and uncertainty. Finally, considering the integration of hybrid
energy storage system (HESS) including battery energy storage system
(BESS) and super-capacitors energy storage system (SCESS) to improve the
power stabilization in power grid, the control strategy on managing the HESS
to stabilize the power fluctuation in a real-time fashion without the need of
predicting wind speed statistics is also presented. The suggested solutions are
assessed through a set of simulation experiments and the result demonstrates
the effectiveness in the simulated offshore wind farm scenarios.
Chapter 4 – Wind power is an attractive clean energy and wind farms
increase with very high speed in recent years. However, as a particular
obstacle, wind farms may degrade the performance of radio devices in civil
aviation obviously. Therefore, wind farms may threaten the flight safety and
correct impact assessment of wind farms on radio devices is important to
guarantee the safety of civil aviation. In this chapter the potential impact of
wind farms on radio devices in civil aviation and a review of the impact
assessment procedure and methods of our research group is presented. The
radio devices discussed in the chapter include surveillance devices such as
primary surveillance radar (PSR) and second surveillance radar (SSR) and
radio navigation devices such as very high frequency omnidirectional range
(VOR) and instrument landing system (ILS). A wind farm usually comprises
several wind turbines with very large size. The proper estimation of the
scattering coefficient or radar cross section (RCS) of the wind turbine is of
great importance to assess the impact of wind farms correctly. However, the
intensity of electromagnetic scattering and the RCS of a wind turbine vary
with several factors. Consequently a review of RCS estimation methods for a
wind turbine of our research group is also presented in this chapter.
In: Wind Farms ISBN: 978-1-63484-841-1
Editor: Marian Dunn © 2016 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

TECHNICAL REVIEW OF WIND FARM

IMPROVED PERFORMANCE
AND ENVIRONMENTAL
DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES

K. E. Okedu1,2, R. Uhunmwangho2,
Peter Ono Madifie2 and C. C. Chiduole2
1
Caledonian College of Engineering, Muscat,
Al Hail South, Sultanate of Oman
2
University of Port Harcourt, Choba,
Rivers State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT
The effective protection of the power converters of a Doubly Fed
Induction Generator (DFIG) Variable Speed Wind Turbine (VSWT),
could go a long way to improve its performance during transient
conditions. A crowbar protection switch is normally used to protect the
variable speed drive power converters during grid fault. The design of the
pitch angle controller at the referenced coupled Rotor Side Converter
(RSC) of the variable speed drive is also important in order to enhance its
response during transient. This research work investigates the
performance of a wind farm composed of variable speed drive
considering five scenarios. In the first scenario, simulations were run for
dynamic behaviour of a DFIG VSWT. The second scenario considers
2 K. E. Okedu, R. Uhunmwangho, Peter Ono Madiefe et al.

transient analysis for a severe 3LG fault. The third scenario shows the use
of the crowbar switch to further enhance the performance of the DFIG
VSWT in the second scenario. In the fourth scenario, a Flexible AC
Transmission System (FACTS) device called Static Synchronous
Compensator (STATCOM) was used to further enhance the stability of
the variable speed drive. Finally, in the fifth scenario, a Current
Controlled Voltage Source Converter (CC-VSC) was proposed to replace
the conventional Voltage Controlled Voltage Source Converter (VC-
VSC) used in the other scenarios. The simulated results show that the
DFIG VSWT could perform better in all the scenarios based on the
proposed protection and control techniques employed. Furthermore, some
of the challenges of developing these variable speed wind farms ranging
from environmental concern to government policies were also
highlighted. Some opportunities were presented to make the
establishment of these wind farms promising in the near future.

1. INTRODUCTION
Energy conversion from wind into electrical energy system is rapidly
growing because of the clean and renewable energy nature capability it
possesses [1-3]. Speculations have it that by the end of 2020, the capacity of
wind turbines that are going to be installed should hit 1900 GW [4]. Basically,
a wind farm is a collection of various wind turbines of the same type or of
different types to generate electricity.
Most of the wind turbine generators used in wind energy applications for
sustainable energy production is fixed speed; however, the number of variable
speed wind turbines (VSWTs) is on the increase by day [5-7]. The fact for the
increase use of the VSWT is due to its ability to possibly track the changes in
wind speed by shaft speed adapting; hence helps maintain optimal power
generation. The control techniques of VSWT are very important and till date,
more research is still going on in these areas. Principally, VSWT uses
aerodynamic control systems like pitch blades or trailing devices that are
variable in nature, but expensive and complex to achieve [8, 9].
The main aim of VSWT is power extractor maximization and in order to
achieve this; the tip speed ratio of the turbine should be maintained constant at
its optimum value despite changes of wind energy supplied. However, there
exist mechanical and electrical constraints that are most common on the
generator and the converter system. Therefore, regulation strategy of the
effective power produced by VSWT is always one of the basic aims for the
eminent and rapidly use of the turbine for energy production. Some of the
 Technical Review of Wind Farm Improved Performance … 3

merits of the VSWT over the Fixed Speed Wind Turbine (FSWT) are; cost
effective, capability of pitch angle control, reduced mechanical stress, improve
power control quality, improve system efficiency, reduced acoustic noise, etc.
However, despite some of the above mentioned merits of the VSWT, there are
some demerits of the wind turbine like fragile converter system that is
vulnerable to damage during transient and also has a complex control
topology.
In this study, the Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) is the VSWT.
The DFIG possess reduction of inverter (20-30%) of the total energy system,
potential to control torque and slight increase in efficiency of wind energy
extraction [10]. However, the DFIG based VSWTs are very sensitive to grid
disturbances especially to voltage dips. DFIG is made up of two converter
control systems (rotor side converter and the grid side converter) which has a
restricted over current limit, and needs special attention during transient
conditions to avoid damage. When grid fault or transient occurs in the system,
voltage dip is caused at the terminal voltage of the DFIG, consequently, the
current flowing through the power converter may be very high current. In such
situation, the conventional way could be to block the converters to avoid risk
of damage because of their fragile nature, thereafter, disconnecting the
generator and the wind farm from the grid. This act leads to the establishment
of international grid codes. The grid codes require that wind turbine generators
or wind farms must stay connected to the grid during grid fault or system
disturbances and support or contribute to the network voltage and frequency.
Thus, the DFIG based VSWT must comply with the Fault Ride Through
(FRT) or Low Voltage Ride Through (LVRT) capabilities required by the grid
codes. This practically means some requirements for the safe operation of the
Rotor Side Converter (RSC) of the DFIG, because the rotor current and DC-
link voltage of the wind generator will become very large during grid fault.
This work proposes a crowbar switch with effective resistance value to
disconnect the RSC converter of the DFIG in order to protect it, thus operating
the DFIG VSWT as a FSWT squirrel cage machine at transient conditions. As
a further way of enhancing the DFIG capability, an investigation of different
sizes of the crowbar switch resistor is necessary as different values of the
crowbar resistor result in different behavior of the DFIG. Crowbar switch
consist of set of thyristors or IGBTs that short circuits the rotor windings when
triggered based on set optimal conditions. Consequently, the rotor voltage is
limited, thus providing additional path for the rotor current, with improved
DC-link voltage. Also, the output energy of the wind turbine depends on the
4 K. E. Okedu, R. Uhunmwangho, Peter Ono Madiefe et al.

methods of tracking the peak power points on the turbine characteristics due to
fluctuating wind conditions [11].
An improved maximum power point tracking (MPPT) was employed in
this work, whereby, the wind turbine is allowed to work with a speed close to
its nominal value that permits the maximum power extraction. Thus, the pitch
angle is kept constant at zero degree until the speed reaches a reference speed
of the tracking characteristics. Beyond the reference point, the pitch angle is
proportional to the speed deviation from the reference speed. In a bid to
improve the performance of the VSWT, a detailed modeling of the turbine and
its components were analyzed in this work. Different control strategies were
employed ranging from the use of crowbar switch, FACTS device, different
converter topologies (Voltage and Current controlled Voltage Source
Converters) in addition to the MPPT tracking control system and pitch angle
techniques. Simulations were run using the platform of Power System
Computer Aided Design and Electromagnetic Transient including DC
(PSCAD/EMTDC) visual environment. Dynamic (wind speed changes) and
transient (grid fault) analyses were carried out to show the performance of the
DFIG wind farm system respectively. Some challenges of siting the variable
speed wind farm and some recommendations to enhance its effective operation
were also given.

2. REVIEW OF VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES

The study of variable speed wind energy conversion system based on a
doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) has been widely reported in the
literature. Also, the Fault Ride Through (FRT) and Low Voltage Ride Through
(LVRT) capabilities of this machine based on grid codes have been presented
in the literature. References [12, 13], proposed sliding mode controls of active
and reactive power of DFIG with MPPT for variable speed wind energy
conversion. In these papers, the proposed control algorithm is applied to a
DFIG whose stator is directly connected to the grid and the rotor is connected
to the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) converter. Wind energy integration for
DFIG based wind turbines fault ride through and wind generation systems
based on doubly fed induction machines were investigated in [2, 14, 15]. The
authors did the FRT assessment of a DFIG and a Matlab Simulink for the
DFIG variable speed wind turbine respectively. An MPPT using pitch angle
with various control algorithms in wind energy conversion system was
reported in [16] with the use of various intelligent control schemes in
 Technical Review of Wind Farm Improved Performance … 5

extracting maximum wind power using DFIG. Also, a sensorless MPPT fuzzy
controller for DFIG wind turbine and hybrid sliding mode control of DFIG
with MPPT using three multicellular converters were investigated and reported
in [17, 18] respectively. It was concluded in the literature that the MPPT fuzzy
logic control can capture the maximum wind energy without measuring the
wind velocity and also that the DFIG MPPT connected by rotor side to three
bridges of Multicellular Converters (MCCs), in conjunction with the
Lyapunov stability method could improve the performance of the DFIG
system during grid fault.
The integration of DFIG with a network having wind energy conversion
system was carried out in [1], where two indirect converters associated with
the principle of power distribution can operate the system conversion in a wide
range of speed variation. DFIG with cycloconverter for variable speed wind
energy conversion system for active and reactive power control was reported
in [19]. In this paper, an MPPT control was included in the control system for
improved performance of the DFIG system. Again, the modeling and MPPT
control in DFIG based variable speed wind energy conversion system by using
RTDS was investigated in [20], where the proposed control solution aims at
driving the position of the operating point near the optimal set value.
The use of DC chopper, static series compensators, dynamic voltage
restorer, Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) device, series dynamic
braking resistor, super conducting fault current limiter, passive resistance
network and antiparallel thyristors to improve the performance of DFIG
VSWT have been presented in the literature. This work tends to review how
the DFIG VSWT performance could be improved both in dynamic and
transient conditions considering the magnitude of an active crowbar switch
connected to the RSC of the machine, FACTS device and the power converter
control topologies.

2.1. Crowbar Switch

Crowbar is made up of a symmetric three phase Y- connected resistance.

It is usually connected to the rotor of the DFIG through a controllable breaker.
In practice, the crowbar may be made up of one resistance fed through a
switched rectifier bridge that would be sufficient to assess the overall impact
of the crowbar protection on DFIG VSWT during transient. The breaker is
normally open, but it is closed short-circuiting the rotor through the resistance
if either the rotor current or the DC-link capacitor voltage becomes too high.
6 K. E. Okedu, R. Uhunmwangho, Peter Ono Madiefe et al.

At the same time, the switching of the RSC Route Switch Controller is stopped
[21, 22].
The value of the crowbar resistance is chosen according to [15, 23], as 20
times the rotor resistance. The choice of the crowbar resistance is important
because it determines how much reactive power the DFIG will draw while the
crowbar is inserted.

2.2. Concept of DFIG Pitch Control and MPPT

A lot of work have been done in the area of DFIG pitch control and MPPT
techniques in the literature. However, how the crowbar switch affects some of
the parameters of the DFIG VSWT would be investigated in this work. With
the advancements in variable speed system design and control mechanisms of
wind energy systems, energy capture and efficiency or reliability are
paramount. Intelligent control techniques have been used to improve the
performance and reliability of wind energy conversion system as reported in
[24]. A further research was also carried out by same authors using fuzzy
controller along with Hill Climbing Search (HCS) algorithm. As a brief, pitch
control is the most common means for regulating the aerodynamic torque of
the wind turbine and it works by searching for the peak power by varying the
speed in the desired direction. The operation of the generator however, is in
accordance with the magnitude and direction of change of active power.
The power gotten from wind energy systems depend on the power set
point traced by MPPT. Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) affects the mechanical power
from the wind turbine and thus, is defined as the ratio of turbine rotor tip speed
to the wind speed. For a given wind speed, optimal TSR occurs during the
maximum wind turbine efficiency. And in order to maintain this, the turbine
rotor speed changes as the wind speed changes, thus extracting maximum
power from wind. TSR calculation requires the measured value of wind speed
and turbine speed data, but in the other hand, wind speed measurement
increases the system cost and also leads to practical complexities.

2.3. Description of DFIG VSWT Simulation Models

One of the salient reasons for the wide use of the doubly fed wind
induction generators connected to grid system is its ability to supply power at
constant voltage and frequency, while the rotor speed varies. DFIG VSWT
 Technical Review of Wind Farm Improved Performance … 7

uses a wound rotor induction machine in addition to rotor winding supplied

from the power/frequency converters. Thus, providing speed control together
with terminal voltage and power factor control for the overall system. The use
of the transient simulation analysis helps as a tool for the design of the rotor
overcurrent protection and DC-link overshoot during transient. The
overcurrent and over voltage protection mechanism in this study known as the
crowbar, is used to protect the rotor side frequency converter during
disturbances in the network [25, 26]. Space vector theory, based on model of a
slip ring induction machine [27, 28] is the conventional approach to modeling
the DFIG VSWT. This method provides sufficient accuracy also in cases when
the voltage dips due to one or two phase faults in the network [29, 30]. The
transient analyses of the DFIG wind turbine have been studied in [31, 32],
where the crowbar switching is realized by using six anti-parallel thyristors.

2.4. Merits of VSWTs over FSWTs

Recent and sophisticated wind turbines are capable of flexible speed

operations. The major advantages of flexible or adjustable speed generators
compared to fixed speed generators are [33]:

 They are cost effective and provide simple pitch control; controlling
speed of these wind generators allow the pitch control time constants
to become much longer. Thus, reducing pitch control intricacies and
peak power requirements. During cut-in or lower wind speed, the
pitch angle is normally fixed. Pitch angle control is performed only to
limit maximum output power at high wind speed.
 They reduce mechanical stresses; gusts of wind can be absorbed, i.e.,
energy is stored in the mechanical inertia of the turbine, creating an
elasticity that reduces torque pulsations.
 The wind generators effectively compensate for torque and power
pulsations caused by back pressure of the tower. This back pressure
causes noticeable torque pulsation at a rate equal to the turbine rotor
speed times the number of rotor wings.
 Improved power quality; torque pulsation can be reduced due to
elasticity in the wind turbine system. This eliminates electrical power
variations, i.e, less flicker.
8 K. E. Okedu, R. Uhunmwangho, Peter Ono Madiefe et al.

 System efficiency enhancement; turbine speed is adjusted as a

function of wind speed to maximize output power. Operation at
maximum power point can be realized over a wide power range.
 Reduction in acoustic noise, due to lower speed operation is possible
at lower conditions.

2.5. Advantages of DFIG in Wind Turbine Systems

DFIG phasor model is the same as the wound rotor asynchronous machine
with the following two key points of difference [14]:

 Only positive sequence is taken into account, the negative has been
eliminated.
 A trip input has been added. When this input is high, the induction
generator is disconnected from the grid and from the rotor converter.

The basic advantages of DFIG in wind turbine system are as follows:

 The active and reactive power independent control through rotor

current.
 Achieving magnetization of the generator through the rotor circuit and
not basically through the grid.
 DFIG has ability to produce reactive power that is injected via the
grid side converter (GSC).
 The converter size is normally 20-30% of the rated DFIG machine
and is not based on the total power of the wind generator but on the
speed range of the machine and therefore the slip range.
 Based on the economical optimization and increased performance of
the system, the chosen speed range is decided accordingly.

3.1. Wind

Wind effect is one of most vital factors in modeling wind turbines. Wind
models describe wind fluctuations in wind speed, which causes power
fluctuation in generators. Basically, four components are paramount in
describing a wind model [34] as shown below:
 Technical Review of Wind Farm Improved Performance … 9

Vwind  Vbw  Vgw  Vrm  Vnm

(1)

where, Vbw ,Vgw ,Vrm ,Vnm are the Base wind, Gust wind, Ramp wind
and Noise wind components respectively in (m / s) . The base component is a
constant speed; wind gust component could be described as a sine or cosine
wave function or combination; a simple ramp function and a triangular wave
may describe the ramp and the noise components respectively. The wind speed
used in this study shows some of the wind components described above for the
dynamic analysis of the system. A fixed wind speed was used for the transient
analysis, because it is assumed that the wind speed did not change
dramatically during the short time interval when the grid fault occured.

3.2. Equivalent Circuit of DFIG System

Figure 1 shows the equivalent circuit of the DFIG system. Due to its
simplicity for deriving control laws, the  representation of the induction
generator model will be used. It is important to note that from a dynamic point
of view, the rotor and the stator leakage inductance have the same effect.
Therefore, it is possible to use a different representation of the park model in
which the leakage inductances are placed in the rotor circuit, the so called 
representation of the induction machine [35]. The name is due to the formation
of a shape like`  `of the inductances as shown in Figure 2. This model is
described by the following space-vector equations in stator coordinates [36].

d s s
V ss  R s is s 
dt (2)

d s R
V R s  R Ri R s   j r  s R
dt (3)

Subscript s indicates stator coordinates. The model can also be described

in synchronous coordinates as

d s
V s  R si s   j 1 s
dt (4)
10 K. E. Okedu, R. Uhunmwangho, Peter Ono Madiefe et al.

DFIWG

Rs RR j r Rs s
igs iss L
+ - iR +
RSC
+ +

E gs V ss LM VRs
- - -

i sf Rf GSC
Lf
 

V s 
f C dc V dc
 

Grid Filter DC Link

Figure 1. Equivalent circuit of DFIG system.

Figure 2.  representation of induction generator referred to the reference frame of the

stator of DFIG.

d R
V R  R Ri R   j 2 R
dt (5)

where:

V s Stator voltage;
V R Rotor voltage;
 Technical Review of Wind Farm Improved Performance … 11

is Stator current;
iR Rotor current;
1 Synchronous frequency;
s Stator flux
 R Rotor flux
R s Stator resistance
R R Rotor resistance
2 Slip frequency
The stator flux, rotor flux and electromechanical torque are given by

 s  L M (i s i R ) (6)

 R  (L M L  )i R L M i s   s L  i R (7)

T e  3n p I m[ s i* R ] (8)

where L M is the magnetizing inductance, L  is the leakage inductance, and n p

is the number of pole pairs. Finally, the mechanical dynamics of the induction
machine are described by [36, 37].

Jd  r
 T e T s
n p dt
(9)

where, J is the inertia and T s is the shaft torque. The quantities and
parameters of the  model relate to the park model (or the T representation) as
follows:

V R  V R (10)
12 K. E. Okedu, R. Uhunmwangho, Peter Ono Madiefe et al.

ir
i R
 (11)

 R   r (12)

L s  L m
 
Lm
(13)

R R  2R r (14)

L    L s  2 L r (15)

L M   Lm (16)

Grid Filter Model

Figure 3 shows the equivalent circuit of the grid filter. It is made of an
inductance Lf and its resistance Rf. Application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law to
the equivalent circuit gives the synchronous coordinates model [35] in eqn. 17.

di f
E g  ( R f  j 1 L f )i f  L V f
f dt (17)

Figure 3. Grid-filter model of DFIG.

 Technical Review of Wind Farm Improved Performance … 13

In eqn. 17 above, Eg is the grid voltage, if is the grid-filter current, and Vf

is grid-filter voltage supplied from the grid-side converter.

3.3. Modeling of DFIG Wind Turbine

For electrical analysis, it is more convenient to use a simplified

aerodynamic model of wind turbine as described by the set of equations in this
section. The modeling of wind turbine is based on the steady-state power
characteristics of the turbine. Thus, in order to effectively simulate the
dynamic behavior of the wind turbine, the torque that it exerts on the
mechanical shaft must comply with the following equation below [14]:

(18)

Where Pm is the output power of the turbine, which is the mechanical

power extracted from the wind, and is given as [36, 37]:

(19)

Where, ρ is the air density in kg/m3

A is turbine swept area m2
Cp is the performance coefficient of the wind turbine
Vw is wind speed in m/s
λ is the tip speed ratio of the rotor blade tip speed to wind speed
β is the blade pitch angle in deg.
Ωt is the mechanical speed of the wind turbine in rad/s

(20)

Also, the torque coefficient is expressed as

(21)

Thus, the mechanical shaft could be defined as

(22)
14 K. E. Okedu, R. Uhunmwangho, Peter Ono Madiefe et al.

Cp in equation 19 is the power coefficient which can be expressed as a

function of the tip speed ratio and pitch angle given by:

12.5
116 i
C p ( , )  0.22(  0.4  5)e
i (23)

1
i  (24)
1 0.035
(  3 )
  0.08   1

3.4. Control Strategies of Variable Speed Wind Turbine

The operating principle of the power flow for the DFIG system is
explained as follows:
The mechanical power and the stator electric power output are defined by
[36-38],

(25)

(26)

For a loss less generator, the mechanical equation is,

(27)

For a loss less generator and in steady state at fixed speed, we have

(28)

(29)

It means that

(30)

where,
 Technical Review of Wind Farm Improved Performance … 15

(31)

is defined as the slip of the generator.

Generally, Pr is only a fraction of Ps that is the absolute value of slip is
much lower than unity and the sign of Pr is opposite to the slip sign. Pr is
transmitted to or taken out of DC bus capacitor. The control of grid converter
permits to generate or absorb the power in the grid in order to keep the DC
link voltage constant. However, in steady state, for a loss less converters, the
grid power is equal to Pr.
The converters have the capability of generating or absorbing reactive
power and could be used to control the reactive power or the voltage at the
grid terminals. The Rotor Side Converter (RSC) is used to control the wind
turbine output power and the voltage (or reactive power) measured at the grid
terminals. The Grid Side Converter (GSC) is used to regulate the voltage of
the DC link bus capacitor. It is also used to generate or absorb the reactive
power.

3.4.1. Active and Reactive Power Control of VSWT

The power is controlled in order to follow a pre-defined power speed
characteristics. An example of such a characteristic showing also tracking of
the reference power is shown in the MPPT nature in Figure 4 below [39]. The
actual speed of the turbine r is measured and the corresponding mechanical
power of the tracking characteristic is used as the reference power for the
power control loop.
We can see from the red line in the figure, the tracking characteristic is the
locus of the maximum power point of the turbine (MPPT) i.e., maximum of
the turbine power versus turbine speed curves.
For the power control loop, the actual electrical output power, measured at
the grid terminals of the wind turbine, is added to the total power losses
(mechanical and electrical) and is compared with the reference power obtained
from the tracking characteristics. A Proportional Integral (PI) regulator is used
and its output is the reference rotor current that must be injected in the rotor by
the rotor converter. This is the current component that produces the
electromagnetic torque Tem.
The reactive power at grid terminals or the voltage is controlled by the
reactive current flowing in the rotor converter. When the wind turbine is
operated in var regulation mode, the reactive power at grid terminals is kept
constant by a var regulator.
16 K. E. Okedu, R. Uhunmwangho, Peter Ono Madiefe et al.

Figure 4. Turbine Characteristic with Maximum Power Point Tracking.

The output of the voltage regulator or the var regulator is the reference d-
axis current that must be injected in the rotor by the rotor converter. The same
current regulator as for the power control is used to regulate the actual direct
rotor current of positive sequence current to its reference value. The RSC
ensures a decoupled active and reactive stator power control according to the
reference torque delivered by the MPPT control. The GSC controls the power
flow exchange with the grid via the rotor, by maintaining the DC link bus
voltage at constant by imposing the reactive power at zero.
The pitch angle is kept constant at zero degree until the speed reaches a
point speed of the tracking characteristics. Beyond that point the pitch angle is
proportional to the speed deviation from the point speed.

3.5. Detailed Structure of DFIG VSWT and Its Protection

Schemes

The general block diagram showing the model of the DFIG system with
its ancillary components and protection schemes, including power exchange of
the converter systems and the grid system is shown in Figure 5.
The DFIG system in Figure 5 above is basically made up of two converter
systems; the Rotor Side Converter (RSC) and the Grid Side Converter (GSC).
A DC line with voltage Vdc is connected between both converter systems to
store energy.
 Technical Review of Wind Farm Improved Performance … 17

Figure 5. Protection Model for DFIG System.

The topology of the DFIG system is AC in the RSC to DC in the DC link

voltage and again AC in the GSC system. The gearbox system in Figure 5
helps in matching the slow speed of the wind turbine to the very high speed of
the generator system through proper mechanical coupling. The crowbar system
is connected to the RSC and disconnects the RSC of the DFIG system during
transient, thus making the DFIG behave like IG. After the fault is cleared as
would be seen in the simulation results in the subsequent section, the crowbar
reconnects the RSC of the DFIG system and normal operation of the wind
turbine begins. The pitch angle control helps regulate the speed of the blade
during high speed operation of the DFIG system against over speed to avoid
damage of the wind turbine. It also reduces the risk of shutting down the wind
turbine when high dynamics is experienced. The MPPT control helps regulate
the obtained reference power of the wind turbine that is used to generate the
reference switching voltages of the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) in the
RSC converter system. The RSC is controlled and coordinated by the MPPT
reference power, active power of the stator Ps and the reactive power of the
stator of the DFIG system Qs. Also, the GSC of the DFIG system is controlled
and coordinated by line power and reactive power at the grid side converter PL
and QL respectively, in addition to the DC-link voltage Vdc and its reference.
18 K. E. Okedu, R. Uhunmwangho, Peter Ono Madiefe et al.

The description of the control systems in each unit of the DFIG shown in
Figure 5 are discussed in the next session. A STATCOM external
compensation device is also connected at the terminal of the DFIG system
with the aim of providing further reactive power during transient. A Current
Controlled Voltage Source Converter (CC-VSC) is further used to manipulate
the DFIG control instead of the Conventional Voltage Controlled Voltage
Source Converter (VC-VSC) system.

3.5.1. Rotor Side Converter (RSC) Control System

The block diagram for the RSC control system and its various control
strategies is shown in Figure 6 below.
During steady state operation, the RSC initiates the electric power Ps and
the absorbed reactive power Qg by the DFIG. In Figure 6, the Phase Lock
Loop (PLL) angle ϴPLL is obtained from the generator rotor position as the
effective angle for the abc-dq0 transformation for the reference currents and
voltages obtained respectively. The difference between the stator power of the
DFIG and the reference MPPT power obtained from the DFIG is passed
through the first Proportional Integral (PI-1).
The tuning of the PIs used in this study is by the conventional trial and
error method until the best results are obtained. The direct axis component
current Idr is used to regulate the generator power factor to unity, hence, the
reactive power reference that would be absorbed Qref is equivalent to 0 value.
This is done by using Idr to control Vqr*. Also, the absorbed reactive power at
the grid connection end Qg of the DFIG is compared to the reference and the
error is sent to the third PI controller (PI-3) as shown in Figure 6, to evaluate
the reference current Iqr for the quadrature component.

Figure 6. Rotor Side Converter of the DFIG Control System.

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so extensive that it was acknowledged alike in the hovel of the
peasant and in the council chamber of the king. Their powerful
individuality survived the cruel impositions which repressed their
enterprise, but could not damp their ardor; and the patriotism which
attached them to a country in which they were only tolerated as
exiles, was sufficient to induce their descendants to heartily aid, by
every means in their power, the famous princes and warriors whose
capacity and resolution supported, amidst continuous disaster and
defeat, the doubtful fortunes of the struggling monarchy of Castile.
In their application to the mechanical arts, and in their
development of architecture, the Visigoths disclosed rather an
imitative faculty than a spirit of marked originality. What is known to
us as the Gothic style owes nothing to that nation to which popular
belief has ascribed its invention, and, in fact, was not introduced into
Spain until the thirteenth century. The name has been arbitrarily
given it to distinguish the pointed arch—its principal characteristic—
from the rounded one peculiar to the edifices of Rome. The rude and
primitive structures of the German forests, constructed of logs,
stained with mud, and designed solely for purposes of shelter and
defence, could neither suggest nor transmit traditions of architectural
elegance and beauty. The sight of the noble memorials of Roman
genius which had escaped the destructive impulses of the predatory
barbarian, erelong inspired the uncouth conqueror with the spirit of
emulation. In the Iberian Peninsula these vast and splendid
structures abounded. The walls which once encompassed the seats
of its proconsul; the fanes from whence had arisen the incense to its
gods; the colonnades which adorned its capitals; the aqueducts
rising to prodigious heights, and surmounting difficulties which would
have perplexed any engineer save a Roman, were worthy of one of
the richest provinces of the empire. From such models the Visigothic
architect, wholly destitute of experience, yet animated by the desire
of imitating an excellence which had awakened his admiration,
designed the palace and the basilica. The wealth which, from the
earliest times, Spain has lavished upon her children, furnished the
means, while the religious spirit which pervaded every class of
society afforded the incentive, for public display and private
munificence. An innumerable body of slaves and dependents,
available at a moment’s notice, facilitated the rapid construction of
edifices of the largest proportions. Churches grand in dimensions
and barbaric in decoration were erected by priests, abbots, and
private individuals, whose generosity was commensurate with their
devotion. Before the shrines of these temples were deposited vases,
reliquaries, diptychs, crosses, of precious materials and curiously
intricate patterns. The religious enthusiasm of the Gothic princes,
mingled perhaps with a certain share of worldly ambition, impelled
them to a generous rivalry, and nourished in the bosom of each the
desire to surpass his predecessor in liberality to the Church. Hence
the various temples were, under each successive reign, enriched
with royal gifts of inestimable value and ostentatious magnificence.
Sacramental tables of gold studded with emeralds, diamonds, and
sapphires, whose wondrous beauty and richness Saracen tradition
has transmitted to posterity, with monstrances and ciboria of
ingenious design and encrusted with jewels, formed a portion of the
pious donations of the sovereigns of the Goths. The influence of the
arts and taste of Byzantium, communicated through the channels of
commerce, the interchange of civilities, and the frequent intercourse
between the courts of Constantinople and Toledo, appears in the
mural ornamentation of the temples and in the vessels of their
shrines, as well as in the habitations, utensils, and trinkets of the
people. Geometric forms and floral designs—afterwards so popular
among the Moors, who unquestionably derived them largely from
this source—were almost exclusively employed by the Gothic
goldsmiths and architects. Vines, leaves, buds, and quatrefoils enter
into almost every combination in great variety and with charming
effect. The churches were dimly lighted by means of marble slabs
pierced with intersecting cruciform apertures, which increased the
mystery and awe of the interior, devices which are visible to-day in
places of worship as widely separated and of as originally diverse
character as the chapels of the Asturias and the Mosque of Cordova.
As soon as the rage and hatred inspired by the resistance of their
enemies—and which was wreaked upon the edifices of the latter
with hardly less vindictiveness than upon the ranks of their legions—
had been allayed, a desire to profit by the skill and experience of
their Roman subjects became paramount; new structures of simple
design and enduring materials arose in the cities; the ancient
monuments were spared; and the superior state of preservation
which distinguishes the Roman remains in the Peninsula affords
incontrovertible evidence of the enlightened appreciation of the
Visigoths.
In the encouragement of the useful and elegant arts, the Visigoths
displayed an enterprising spirit considerably in advance of the other
branches of the great Teutonic nation. Manufactures of clothing,
glass, armor, weapons, thread, and jewelry are known to have
existed in their dominions. But it is in the fabrication of church
furniture, votive offerings, and utensils designed for the service of the
altar, that the labors of their artisans are best known to us. In the
province of Guarrazar, a few miles from Toledo, was accidentally
discovered, in the middle of the last century, a deposit of objects
which had evidently been hastily buried by the priests on the
approach of the Saracen invader. It was composed of a number of
votive crowns—some of which were inscribed with the names of the
donors—sceptres, censers, crosses, candlesticks, lamps, chains,
girdles. All of these were of gold enriched with precious stones. The
ignorance, fear, and avarice of the peasants who discovered this
treasure resulted in the dispersion and loss of the most precious
portion of it; but the crowns were saved, and are now in the Hotel de
Cluny at Paris, and the Royal Armory at Madrid. These articles
enable us to form an excellent idea of the condition of the arts at the
beginning of the eighth century. The accounts given by Christian and
Arab historians of the Visigothic kings, and of the enormous booty
obtained by the Moors, had, until this discovery was made, been
ridiculed by critics as exaggerations, due to the national vanity of
both conquered and conqueror. From even a cursory examination of
these objects—unique in the world—can readily be detected the
taste and style of the Byzantine, whose influence over the artistic
traditions of the Peninsula, far from disappearing with the Gothic
dynasty, was exhibited in some of the most magnificent creations of
the Moslem domination. The clumsy but massive patterns of the
crowns show that the value of the materials was taken into
consideration, quite as much as the labor that was expended upon
them. From their ornamentation is revealed a not inconsiderable
familiarity with the art of the enameller. Some of the settings are of
polished silicates, inserted, probably by way of contrast, at intervals
in lines of uncut gems. The accuracy with which they are adjusted
and their points united is indicative of long practice and extraordinary
skill. A separate intaglio belonging to the same treasure discloses a
hitherto unsuspected degree of perfection in the glyptic art. The
carving of stones as hard as the jacinth gives us a still further
acquaintance with the skill of the Gothic lapidary, and the delicacy of
the filigree borders is of almost equal excellence with the best work
of modern Italy.
While the manufactures of Gothic Spain were due to the talents
and industry of slaves, its commerce was monopolized by foreigners.
The genius of the barbarian, fearless in adventure upon land but too
indolent for application to mercantile employments, instinctively
shrank from the perils and the hardships incident to protracted
navigation of the seas. In agriculture, however, great progress was
made. Pastoral occupations had been largely superseded by the
tillage of the soil. The character of the various enactments relating to
real property shows the importance with which that branch of the law
was already invested, and the attention its occupancy and its tenures
had received from the legislative power. In literature the Visigoths
could boast of few productions of merit, and what we designate by
the name of science was to them totally unknown. But a single
name, that of San Isidoro of Seville, one, however, famous in every
department of knowledge—historian, polemic, commentator,
theologian, and saint—has emerged from the chaos of literary
obscurity which enveloped the life of Visigothic times. His
acquirements were prodigious for the age. The oracle of
ecclesiastical councils, his writings were perhaps more voluminous
than those of any other author that Spain has ever produced, and
they are still regarded by Catholic divines as authoritative in settling
controverted points of doctrine.
The practice of medicine—in addition to being subordinated to the
irresponsible intervention of the priesthood, whose imposture reaped
a profitable harvest by the working of spurious miracles and by the
application of relics—was hampered by the prejudices of the
ignorant, and by the absurd restrictions imposed by the jealousy of
an ecclesiastical legislature. No matter how pressing the necessity, a
physician was not permitted to attend a free woman unless her male
relatives were present. If great weakness resulted from his treatment
he could be heavily fined, and in case death ensued he was
abandoned to the vengeance of the family of his patient. The law,
however, as a partial compensation for the inconveniences to which
he was subjected, exempted him from imprisonment for all crimes
save that of murder. A limited knowledge of anatomy and some,
acquaintance with the fundamental principles of surgery were
possessed by these practitioners, as is disclosed by their successful
operations for cataract. Their compensation was regulated by
statute, and was, besides, subject to special agreement; but, in case
the patient was not cured, no fee could be collected, and the
physician was liable, at all times, to prosecution for flagrant acts of
malpractice.
The empire of the Visigoths, during the period of its greatest
prosperity, extended from the valleys of the Loire and the Garonne to
the Mediterranean. The surrender of a portion of this territory to
Clovis consolidated the power of both the kingdoms of France and
Spain, by adopting for their common boundary the natural rampart of
the Pyrenees. The tastes and traditions of the Teutonic nation,
heretofore averse to sedentary occupations, and considering all
labor, and especially the cultivation of the soil, as degrading to the
character of a freeman, caused such employment to be abandoned
to the former subjects of the Roman Empire; nor was it until several
centuries had elapsed, and the advantages resulting from
industrious tillage had been demonstrated, that this prejudice was in
some degree removed. At all times during the sway of the Visigoths,
every species of manual labor was largely performed by slaves. The
institution of colleges of artificers—a custom inherited from the most
polished nation of antiquity—had been adopted by the barbarian
conquerors, and the slaves composing these bodies, where the
talents of the father were transmitted to the son, were naturally
ranked among the most valuable of personal possessions. Large
numbers of these artisans were the property of the Crown and of the
Church, being respectively under the control of the Royal Treasurer
and the Bishop, and the unique specimens of the goldsmith’s skill
which the fortunate discovery at Guarrazar has preserved for us,
reveal to what proficiency in the mechanical arts these accomplished
bondmen had attained.
The greatest luxury and pomp were indulged in by the Visigothic
nation, a people which the world still calls barbarian. Their palaces
were encrusted with precious marbles. The furniture of their
apartments was of the most expensive character. The garments of
the nobility were of silken fabrics embroidered with gold. The ladies
of the court used for their ablutions basins of silver, and admired
their beauty in exquisitely chased mirrors set with jewels. The horses
of the royal household were covered with harnesses and trappings
blazing with the precious metals. A hundred wagons laden with
baggage and all the paraphernalia of boundless extravagance
followed in the train of the monarch. Such was the lavish expenditure
of even the middle and lower classes, that it became necessary to
enact a law prohibiting the bestowal of a dowry of more than one-
tenth of the property of a bridegroom upon the bride.
Not only did the Visigoths strive to imitate their Roman subjects in
the style and finish of their edifices, but in every public employment,
in every department of art and labor, was the potent influence of the
subjugated people visible. The organization of the various corps and
divisions of the army was modelled after that of the legion. The most
popular amusements were, with the exception of gladiatorial
combats, identical with those which had excited to frenzied
enthusiasm the vast audiences of Rome and Constantinople in the
circus and the amphitheatre. The dress of the citizen, the armor of
the soldier, were Roman; the ornaments of the ladies, the insignia of
royalty, the decorations of the churches, were Byzantine. The
language in common use was a barbarous and bastard Latin. The
fusion of hostile races, the amalgamation of the conqueror and the
conquered, that political problem which has taxed the skill of the
wisest statesmen, was almost brought to a successful solution by the
broad statesmanship of the Visigothic sovereigns. The adoption and
enforcement of a uniform and well-conceived body of laws did much
to accomplish this end. But the acceptance of orthodox Christianity
as the recognized form of national faith, and the legalizing of
intermarriage between the different peoples of the Peninsula, by
their tendency to remove the formidable barriers raised by caste,
which had hitherto isolated the various classes of society, did far
more to promote the union of the discordant elements of society. The
Basques—constant types of the primitive Iberian—alone, among the
multifarious tribes which acknowledged the supremacy of the court
of Toledo, have preserved their nationality, and have obstinately
refused to surrender those distinctive racial peculiarities that have
made them for centuries the subject of the entertaining speculations
of the ethnologist.
In some respects a striking parallel, in others a decided contrast
existed between Goth and Arab, representatives of the Aryan and
Semitic branches of the human family, who crossed swords in
Europe for the first time in history, on the plains of the Spanish
Peninsula. Between these two great ethnographical divisions, a spirit
of irreconcilable enmity has always prevailed. No fusion between
them has ever been effected. Where one has obtained ascendency
in any part of the world, the other has either preserved its special
traits or gradually become extinct. Considerations of political
expediency, the claims of divine revelation, the benefits of trade, the
ultimate prospect of national union and social equality, have not
been sufficient to counteract the influence of an antagonism which
anticipates all human records in its antiquity. The customs of
nomadic peoples are proverbially persistent; their occupation
frequently survives the change of residence, the accidents of
migration, and the influence of new and radically different
associations. Both the Goths and the Arabs placed their principal
dependence upon their flocks and herds, but neither ever hesitated
to exchange the crook of the shepherd for the spear of the robber.
The love of war and violence was the predominating characteristic of
both. They had a common admiration for courage as the greatest of
virtues; a common appreciation of the noble qualities of personal
liberty, of private honor, of generous hospitality. Their habits were
slothful, their existence precarious. Their jealousy of power forbade
their acknowledgment of royal authority. They considered all
industrial employments as beneath the dignity of manhood. Their
worship was tainted with the most objectionable features of idolatry,
—the adoration of stones, the practice of fetichism, the horrors of
human sacrifice. Alike were they drunkards and desperate
gamesters, who eagerly placed their liberty at stake, whose revels
resounded with brawling, and whose disputes were settled with the
sword. They recognized no permanent ownership in the soil,
possessed little portable wealth, were ignorant of the arts and
without the knowledge of letters. Like all barbarians, they believed
disease and insanity to be caused by demoniacal possession. With
both, love of poetry was a passion, and the personality of the bard
the object of almost idolatrous reverence. Such were the traits
common to two nations, separated by a distance of eighteen
hundred miles, ignorant of each other’s existence, and living under
entirely dissimilar climatic conditions. The atmosphere of the Baltic
was perpetually cold and damp, that of Arabia dry and torrid almost
beyond endurance. Eastern Europe was covered with dense forests,
traversed by noble rivers, and dotted with impassable swamps. In
the Desert nothing was so rare as a tree or rivulet. The physical
conformation of the Goth and the Arab respectively was controlled
by his environment to an even greater degree than was the mental
constitution of either. The former was of giant stature and strength,
and of fair complexion; the latter slender. nervous, and swarthy. With
the Goth, female chastity was held in the highest esteem; with the
Arab, it was the subject of caustic epigram, of jest, and of satire. The
Goth, a monogamist, knew nothing of the pleasures of gallantry; the
polygamous Arab placed indulgence in them second only to the
excitement of battle. The Goths were among the first and most
devout proselytes of Christianity; the Arabs have ever obstinately
refused to acknowledge the divinity of Christ or the superior authority
of the Gospel.
That invincible prowess which, nurtured by poverty and an
abstemious life, was displayed with equal distinction and success
amidst the forests of Europe and on the sandy plains of Africa, was
the potent weapon which obtained for each of these great nations
supremacy over their adversaries; an advantage which, through
internal dissension, sectarian prejudice, and social corruption, was
eventually lost; but not until the moral and physical peculiarities of
both had impressed themselves upon their contemporaries, so
deeply as to insure their transmission, with but little modification, to
subsequent ages.
The spirit of the Visigoths was, almost from the first, decidedly
progressive. This general tendency towards improvement, and a
desire for the blessings of civilization, stimulated commercial activity,
increased domestic happiness, and opened a field for the
development of art, the advancement of science, the strict
administration of justice, and the consequent decrease of brutality
and crime. The wisdom of the Gothic polity and the equity of its laws
afford a pleasing and instructive example of the capacity of a people
to raise itself unaided from barbarism—a people which, in addition to
the romantic interest attaching to its history, is entitled to the grateful
remembrance of mankind for the beneficent influence it has exerted
upon the political institutions and the social order of Europe; as well
as for the creation of a judicial system whose merits and whose
principles, confirmed by the experience of centuries, are still
acknowledged by the most august tribunals of the civilized world.
 CHAPTER V
THE INVASION AND CONQUEST OF SPAIN

710–713

General Conditions and Physical Features of the Spanish Peninsula—

Various Classes of the Population—Supremacy of the Church—
Tyranny of the Visigothic Kings—Fatal Policy of Witiza—
Accession of Roderick—Count Julian—Invasion of Tarik—Battle
of the Guadalete—Its Momentous Results—Progress of the
Moslems—Arrival of Musa—His Success—Immense Booty
secured by the Victors—Quarrel of Tarik and Musa—Interference
of the Khalif—Submission of the Goths—Musa’s Vast Scheme of
Conquest—The Two Generals ordered to Damascus—The
Triumphal Procession through Africa—Fate of Musa—Causes
and Effects of the Moslem Occupation of Spain.
The encroaching spirit of Islam, dominated by the potent motives
of avarice, ambition, and fanaticism, was not content with its
marvellous achievements and the possession of two continents, it
aspired to universal conquest. The submission of Africa was now
complete. The sovereignty of the Byzantine Empire had vanished
forever from the southern coast of the Mediterranean. The tact and
military skill of Musa had won the confidence, and inspired the
respect, of the treacherous, warlike, and hitherto intractable, tribes of
Mauritania. A large number of the latter had embraced
Mohammedanism. A still greater proportion who, either from
association, policy, or conviction, professed attachment to the law of
Moses, maintained an intimate correspondence with their oppressed
brethren of the Spanish Peninsula. The latter in secret brooded over
the accumulated wrongs of centuries, and, under an appearance of
resignation, harbored designs that boded ill to the temporal and
ecclesiastical tyrants of the Visigothic monarchy. The restless glance
of the Arabian general had long contemplated with envy, mingled
with an insatiable desire for plunder, the rich and splendid cities of
ancient Bætica; its teeming mines; its pastures, with their myriads of
cattle; its plains, traversed by innumerable canals and rivers; where
even a careless and incomplete system of cultivation produced
harvests almost rivalling in luxuriance those of the famous valleys of
the Euphrates and the Nile. A strait, of less than eight miles in width
in its narrowest part, now presented the sole physical impediment to
the further progress of the conqueror. It was defended upon the
African side by the fortress of Ceuta, whose governor was a vassal
or tributary of the Visigothic king, and whose valor had rendered
nugatory the efforts of the bravest Moslem captains, who, fully
appreciating the strategic importance of this stronghold, had made
repeated and desperate attempts to capture it. This promontory,
which formed one side of the channel, familiar for ages to the
Phœnicians, and supposed by the ignorant to be the end of the
world, was protected from foreign intrusion by the portentous fables
and prodigies invented by Tyrian artifice. Facing it, on the Spanish
shore, stood the Temple of Hercules, with its dome of gilded bronze,
its columns of electrum, and its mysterious altars raised to Art, Old
Age, and Poverty. Unlike other Pagan shrines—for it contained no
visible representation of a divinity—it was always approached by the
Phœnician mariner with feelings of gratitude and awe. It was
associated with his naval superiority over the other nations of
antiquity. It was intimately connected with the increase of his wealth;
with the continuance of his prosperity; with the discovery of lands
unknown to his contemporaries and rivals; with the preservation of
his stores of occult wisdom, whose sources he explored with such
acuteness and concealed with such success. Every device of fable
and superstition had been employed to clothe this locality with such
a character as might effectually check the efforts of an inquiring or
aggressive commercial spirit. To the accomplishment of this end, the
phenomena of Nature lent their powerful aid. The contracted
passage between two of the greatest bodies of water known to the
ancients was of unfathomable depth. On both sides, despite the
agitation of the waves, its level remained the same. Even during both
the ebb and flow of the tide, the current always ran strongly towards
the east. Its force was steady, constant, invariable; the waxing and
waning of the moon, the most furious tempests, exerted no
appreciable influence over the inflexible regularity of its motion. It
was not without reason that the apparent suspension of the laws of
equilibrium and of the forces of Nature was attributed by the
superstitious to the divinity whose temple guarded the famous
portals upon which he had imposed his name. It has been
maintained by scholars that within this shrine was preserved, as a
sacred relic, a fragment of magnetic ore, of great antiquity, known to
the Tyrian navigator as a priceless talisman—the precursor of the
mariner’s compass—which had guided his course to distant Britain,
and assured to his countrymen the empire of the seas. According to
popular belief, through this channel the way led to the realm of
Chaos. To brave its unknown and dreaded perils was sacrilege, and
to none, save those authorized by the priests of Melcareth, was this
undertaking permitted. In subsequent times, invested with little less
mystery, this region had bequeathed not a few of its reminiscences
to the Roman, and awakened the curiosity of the Arab, as he fixed
his gaze upon the white-topped waves sparkling in the sunlight
between continent and continent and sea and sea, like the facets of
a precious gem; or, in the beautiful imagery of the Oriental chronicler,
“like a diamond between two emeralds and two sapphires, the
master-stone in the ring of empire.”
In the beginning of the eighth century the kingdom of the Visigoths
presented every appearance of prosperity and power. Its inherent
weakness was imperfectly disguised by the pomp of its hierarchy
and the luxury of its court, which veiled the defects of its constitution
and the abuses of its government with a false and delusive splendor.
Its licentious sovereign retained none of the primitive virtues of his
ancestors, whose intrepid spirit and resistless valor had sustained
them on a hundred fields of battle, and had borne their arms in a
long succession of triumphs from the Baltic to the Mediterranean.
The successor of Reccared and Wamba had degenerated into a
feeble tyrant, who reigned by a disputed title, and in whose sensual
nature neither the rites of hospitality, the obligations of friendship, the
dignity of the regal office, nor the infirmities of age, interposed any
obstacle to the indulgence of his unbridled passions.
A haughty nobility decimated by the sanguinary feuds promoted
by a contested succession, and divided into factions whose
members hated each other with far greater intensity than that which
they bore to a common enemy; unaccustomed to the exercise of
arms; destitute of faith and honor; concealing treasonable
sentiments under the semblance of enthusiastic loyalty, endeavored
to sustain, by vainglorious boasts and barbaric ostentation, the
dignity of their order and the majesty of the throne. The martial ardor
of the legions which had for centuries upheld the greatness and the
renown of the Roman name had been supplanted by the zeal and
avarice of the monastic hordes, who defended by every expedient of
fraud and violence the rising cause of the church militant. The
crosier, in the hands of an arrogant caste which monopolized the
learning of the age, had become far more potent than the sword or
the sceptre, and the origin of all political measures of national
importance was to be sought not in the palace but in the cathedral.
The wise, tolerant, and judicious policy of the early ecclesiastics, that
had animated and directed the councils of the Church, which by its
humanizing influence had softened the prevailing rudeness of the
age, and framed laws whose equitable maxims have served as
models for succeeding legislators, had been abandoned for the
degrading but profitable occupation of hunting down and plundering
heretics. The proud and exclusive hierarchy of the Visigoths refused
to acknowledge the supremacy, or respect the edicts, of the See of
Rome. When the Pope interfered in the spiritual affairs of the
Peninsula—an occurrence, however, that rarely took place—he did
so rather in the capacity of a mediator, or even a suppliant, than as a
mighty ruler, the head of Christendom, and the Vicar of God. His
titles were assumed and his prerogatives usurped by the Spanish
prelates; his infallibility was questioned, not only by the higher clergy,
whose ministrations were declared to be endowed with equal virtue,
but even by the sovereign and the nobles, who openly ridiculed his
pretensions and defied his authority. The evil example of royal
profligacy had infected every grade of the priesthood. The episcopal
palace became the scene of daily turmoil and midnight orgies, which
scandalized the populace, itself far from immaculate; while the
excellence of the wines and the beauty of the female companions of
priest and primate were matters of public jest and infamous notoriety.
The relative positions of the great officials of Church and State had,
by reason of the peculiar functions exercised by the former, who had
entirely usurped the legislative power, been reversed. The prelate,
while still retaining the outward insignia of his sacred profession,
had, from the practice of the generous and self-sacrificing duties of a
minister of grace and mercy, descended to the ignoble arts of an
active, scheming, unscrupulous politician. The nobility, after having
virtually surrendered to their spiritual advisers the complete control of
the administration, preserved, to a pharisaical degree, the outward
semblance of devotion. In private life, the morals of both classes
were stained with degrading vices and crimes which were thinly
veiled by a more or less rigid observance of the prescribed forms of
religious worship.
No country in Europe had, from the earliest times of which history
makes mention, constantly offered such inducements to the
enterprise and prowess of an invader as Spain. The Orient and the
Occident met upon her shores. Every material advantage which
could attract the attention of man, which could stimulate his ambition,
increase his wealth, insure his comfort, supply his necessities, and
minister to his happiness, was hers. The balmy air of her southern
provinces—whose skies for months were unobscured by a single
cloud—was tempered by the breezes of the Atlantic and the
Mediterranean. The varied landscape of hill and plain, seamed with a
net-work of artificial rivulets, was covered with a mantle of perpetual
verdure. Her orchards furnished an inexhaustible supply of the most
delicious fruits. The products of her mines had made the fortune of
every possessor—Phœnician, Carthaginian, Roman, Vandal, and
Goth. Her gold and silver had embellished the thrones of Babylon,
the shrines of Tyre, the palaces of Memphis, the temple of
Jerusalem. Her coasts, easy of access from every point, offered a
succession of safe and commodious harbors. The Visigoths, despite
their barbarian prejudice against manual labor, recognized the
importance of agriculture. The provinces of the realm were
apportioned among the nobility. A stated tribute was required of their
vassals by the great landed proprietors, who rarely had the justice to
grant indulgence for a failure of the harvests or a deficiency resulting
from public or private misfortune. The cultivators were attached to
the glebe, which could not be alienated without them, and, forming
an hereditary caste, were, to all intents and purposes, slaves;
although, under the Gothic polity, their position was nominally
superior to that of the unfortunate who was exposed for sale in the
market. From these two classes, dispirited by generations of arduous
toil and constant oppression, were recruited the rank and file of the
army, who were expected to fight for the preservation of their tyrants’
possessions and the continuance of their own degradation. The lot of
the serf under later Visigothic rule was, in general, far more grievous
than that of the slave had been under the Roman. The Teutonic
custom which encouraged the imposition of personal service in
return for protection was unknown under the Empire. The rendering
of this obligation an hereditary charge—a cardinal principle of the
German constitution, but which became in a measure obsolete under
the later Visigothic kings—added to the aggravation which attended
its performance. The restrictions upon marriage, the separation of
families, the severity of punishment imposed for even trifling
offences, added to the humiliation and hardships of the servile
condition. While the Arian heresy was predominant, the burdens of
serfdom were lightened, and its state had been gradually improved.
The generosity of the bishops was displayed in every way that
kindness and consideration could suggest; in the diminution of labor;
in rewards for fidelity; in attendance in sickness; in sympathy in
misfortune. The unhappy serf, deceived by these concessions and
favors, not unnaturally concluded that they portended increased
liberty and ultimate emancipation. The clergy gave color to this
presumption by frequent declarations from the pulpit that slavery was
contrary to the teachings of the Gospel. In time, with the increase of
influence, the control of royal elections, and the absolute dictation of
the policy of the throne, these spiritual statesmen found it expedient
to forget the benevolent precepts of government which they had
formerly so earnestly inculcated. After the acceptance of the
orthodox faith, the inherent evils of the servile system were
magnified to an unprecedented degree. The high rank, sacred
character, and practically unlimited power of the great prelates of the
Church, offered unusual opportunities for the indulgence of the
passions of tyranny and avarice. The dependents of bishops walked
in the processions, by which were celebrated the great festivals of
the Church, attired in silken liveries embroidered with gold. The
appointments of their palaces and the magnificence of their trains
surpassed even those of the sovereign. The estates of these
dignitaries were the most extensive and important of the kingdom; in
many instances they exceeded in value the royal demesnes.
Immense numbers of slaves were employed upon them, not merely
in the cultivation of the soil, but in the producing and perfecting of
every article, then known, which could contribute to the pleasure of
their luxurious lords. For these unhappy laborers, whose tasks each
year became more arduous, and whose aspirations for liberty,
cherished during many generations, were now destroyed, the
prospect of relief from their unsupportable burdens seemed
absolutely hopeless. Inferior in numbers to these two classes of
agricultural serfs, and the individuals condemned by the accident of
birth, or the process of law, to perpetual bondage, but vastly superior
to them in intelligence, in shrewdness, and in all the arts of deceit,
were the Jews. A sweeping decree of the Seventeenth Council of
Toledo had confiscated their possessions and sentenced them to
servitude. A hundred thousand of these sectaries, in whose breasts
rankled a spirit of fierce and sullen hatred, born of hostility handed
down for ages, and aggravated by a system of repression scarcely
justifiable even by the sternest demands of political necessity,
constituted an element of a far more dangerous character than all of
the others whose machinations and discontent had undermined the
fabric of the Visigothic empire. The national sentiment of superiority
—born of theocratic government, of the claims of an arrogant
priesthood, of the alleged favor of the Almighty, and of the traditions
of three thousand years—was then, as now, all-powerful in the minds
of the Jewish people. The defective annals of that age have failed to
furnish us with data by which we can determine with what degree of
strictness the laws against the Hebrews were enforced. It is
probable, however, that in the cities, where a higher condition of
intelligence existed and more correct ideas of justice obtained,
observance of these inhuman edicts was frequently evaded. In the
villages and hamlets the fanaticism and jealousy of the peasantry
undoubtedly inflicted every hardship and indignity upon the Jews. In
vain might the favored steward or counsellor of the noble, who still
retained his residence in the palace, and continued to supply by his
own talents and experience the deficiencies produced by his
employer’s sloth and incapacity, attempt to alleviate the
wretchedness of his countrymen. With the ignorant rabble, the
possession of wealth and the exertion of political power by heretics
were always unpardonable crimes. The clergy, on all occasions, for
ends of their own, fomented the popular discontent, lauded this cruel
policy as acceptable to God, and by every device sought to
perpetuate the ancient antagonism of the Aryan and Semitic races,
in which is to be sought one cause of the irrational and widely-
diffused prejudice against the Jew. This feeling was also intensified
by the current tradition that, during the reign of Leovigild, the
Hebrews had, with unconcealed alacrity, aided the heterodox clergy
in persecuting members of the Roman Catholic communion. Under
these circumstances, too much importance cannot be attached to
the part played in the Moorish occupation of Spain by this numerous
and enterprising sect, skilled in all the arts of dissimulation, and
exasperated by centuries of oppression, which the Visigothic
kingdom nourished in its bosom. Without the information afforded by
its members the Arab attack would probably have never been
undertaken. Without its support and co-operation it is certain that the
subjugation of a nation of six million souls could never have been
accomplished in the space of a few months by a mere handful of
undisciplined horsemen.
No nation has ever flourished under the rule of a hierarchy. The
circumstances indispensable for the security and happiness of the
subject are incompatible with the demands of the alleged
representatives of divine inspiration and omnipotent power. The
narrow policy inseparable from protracted ecclesiastical domination
is inevitably productive of national ruin and disgrace. In this instance,
it dispossessed the Spanish people of the richest part of their
inheritance for eight hundred years. Under the monarchs of the
Austrian line—incapable of profiting by the experience of their
predecessors and deaf to the warnings of history—similar acts of
imprudence and folly contributed more than aught else to deprive the
Spanish Crown of the political supremacy of Europe.
 The events in the annals of Spain which relate to the close of the
seventh and the commencement of the eighth century are involved
in more than ordinary obscurity. It was a period fraught with political
and social disturbance. Treason and regicide, crimes from which,
heretofore, the Gothic people had been proverbially exempt, were
now considered justifiable expedients by every ambitious noble who
aspired to raise himself to the throne. The degrees of favor and
absolution which the successful traitor could expect from the clergy
were directly proportionate to the value of the gifts which he was
able to deposit in the treasury of the Church. Every offence, no
matter how flagrant, was pardonable after satisfactory pecuniary
intercession with the priest. The fulminations of the Holy Council
were denounced against all who refused allegiance to the royal
assassin, whose election had been ratified by the votes of the
assembled prelates. Where the aspirant to kingly power lacked the
courage for deeds of blood, a resort to fraud was deemed excusable,
provided it was attended with success and the customary liberal
contribution for ecclesiastical purposes was not forgotten. To such a
depth of degradation had fallen the descendants of the loyal, brave,
and generous warriors of the Teutonic race!
The greatness of the Visigothic monarchy had departed with the
reign of Wamba, the last of its heroes, and one illustrious for the
practice of every public and every private virtue. Deprived of his
crown by an artifice which reflected more credit on the astuteness
than on the integrity of his successor, he was condemned to pass
the latter portion of his life in a convent. The new king Ervigius, after
an uneventful reign, left his kingdom to his son-in-law Egiza. The
character of the latter monarch, while not destitute of the manly
virtues of courage and resolution, was tarnished by insatiable
rapacity. He was as persevering in his pursuit of wealth as he was
unscrupulous in his methods of obtaining it. He commuted the
enforcement of penal laws for the payment of fines, which varied
with the pecuniary ability of the culprit to discharge them, without
regard to the degree or the circumstances of the crime. Under trivial
pretexts, he banished wealthy citizens and confiscated their property.
He imposed excessive taxes. Emboldened by the impunity of power,
he did not hesitate to resort even to forgery; and, by means of
spurious documents, implicated in offences against the state such
wealthy individuals as had the hardihood to resist his importunate
demands. And, worst of all, he lost no opportunity to appropriate the
revenues of the Church, under whatever pretence his ingenuity or
his audacity might suggest. By an unprincipled and tyrannical
hierarchy the former misdemeanors might be overlooked, but the
latter offence was tainted with the double reproach of oppression
and sacrilege. After formal and unavailing remonstrance, a plot was
formed in 692 by Sisebert, Archbishop of Toledo, which had for its
object the assassination of the King and his entire family. Some of
the most powerful nobles were involved in this conspiracy, which
was hatched by the principal ecclesiastics of the capital. Timely
information of the plot having reached the ears of the sovereign, the
most vigorous means were taken to counteract it. The metropolitan
was arrested and deposed. A number of the chief conspirators were
executed or exiled. Scarcely had this conspiracy been suppressed,
before the existence of a still more formidable one was revealed.
The Hebrews, whose condition under this and the preceding reign
had been more favorable than for many years, evincing no gratitude
for the leniency with which they had been treated, and remembering
only past indignities, exulting in their numbers and influence, and
assured of aid from Barbary, made arrangements for a general
revolt, with a view to a complete reorganization of the government
and the metamorphosis of Spain into an absolutely Jewish kingdom.
This treasonable design was discovered, however, almost at the
moment when it was ripe for execution. The authorities took
measures to insure their safety with exemplary severity. A council
was convoked and a decree passed, by which the Jews were
condemned to be banished, enslaved, stripped of their possessions,
and deprived of their children. The outrageous cruelty of the
measure, however, caused an almost immediate reaction, and it was
not generally enforced. The discontented sectaries, grieving under
their accumulated wrongs, and exasperated by the miscarriage of
their plans, continued to hope for assistance from abroad, and
embraced every opportunity to send information of the public
disorders to their sympathetic brethren in Africa. The reign of Egiza,
agitated hitherto by almost incessant political convulsions, was now
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