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Brijesh Verma
Ligang Zhang
David Stockwell
Roadside
Video Data
Analysis: Deep
Learning
Studies in Computational Intelligence
Volume 711
Series editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
About this Series
David Stockwell
123
Brijesh Verma David Stockwell
School of Engineering and Technology School of Engineering and Technology
Central Queensland University Central Queensland University
Brisbane, QLD Brisbane, QLD
Australia Australia
Ligang Zhang
School of Engineering and Technology
Central Queensland University
Brisbane, QLD
Australia
Video data analysis has become an increasingly important research area with
widespread applications in automatic surveillance of transportation infrastructure
including roads, rail and airports. As the amount of video data collected grows, so
does the opportunity for further processing with new artificial intelligence methods.
One type of useful video data that has seen little research is the roadside video data
that is collected using video-mounted vehicles. These video data may augment or
replace road-based surveys of the conditions of roadside objects such as trees,
grasses, roads and traffic signs and can be potentially used in many real-world
applications such as roadside vegetation growth condition monitoring, effective
roadside management to reduce the possible hazards to drivers and vehicles, and
developing automatic vehicles that are able to automatically sense roadside objects
and traffic signs.
Most existing studies on video data analysis are primarily focused on analyzing
generic object categories in the data content in public benchmark datasets. Very
limited research has focused on the analysis of roadside video data, although the
significance of developing smart techniques for roadside video data analysis has
been widely recognized. One of the main reasons is probably because there is a lack
of a comprehensive public dataset that was specifically created for roadside objects.
Another reason is the various types of variations and environmental conditions
encountered along road sides, which are still challenging issues in the computer
vision field. The great variability in the appearance and structure of objects as well
as the various types of environmental effects such as underexposure, overexposure,
shadows, and sunlight reflectance make accurate segmentation and recognition of
objects difficult. The current literature lacks a comprehensive review of existing
machine learning algorithms, particularly deep learning techniques, on roadside
data analysis.
This book highlights the methods and applications for roadside video data
analysis. It describes various system architectures and methodologies that are
specifically built upon different types of learning algorithms for roadside video data
processing, with detailed analysis of the segmentation, feature extraction and
classification. The use of deep learning to solve the roadside video data
v
vi Preface
The authors express their gratitude for help from the Department of Transport and
Main Roads in Queensland, Australia for the creation of the data and assistance
with field resources for the fire risk survey. This work was supported under
Australian Research Council’s Linkage Projects funding scheme (project number
LP140100939).
Many students and research fellows in the Centre for Intelligent Systems at
Central Queensland University have contributed to research presented in this book.
The authors would like to thank the following researchers: Dr Sujan Chowdhury,
Dr Tejy Kinattukara Jobachan, Dr Peter Mc Leod, Dr M. Asafuddoula, Mrs. Toshi
Sinha and Mrs. Fatma Shaheen.
vii
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Collection of Roadside Video Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Industry Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Benchmark Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Applications Using Roadside Video Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Outline of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 Roadside Video Data Analysis Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 Pre-processing of Roadside Video Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Segmentation of Roadside Video Data into Objects . . . . . . 18
2.2.3 Feature Extraction from Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.4 Classification of Roadside Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.5 Applications of Classified Roadside Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.1 Vegetation Segmentation and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.2 Generic Object Segmentation and Classification . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4 Matlab Code for Data Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3 Non-deep Learning Techniques for Roadside Video Data
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1 Neural Network Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.2 Neural Network Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.3 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
ix
x Contents
xiii
xiv Abbreviations
xv
xvi List of Figures
xxiii
xxiv List of Tables
Table 3.16 5-fold cross validation results (%) using a linear SVM
classifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Table 3.17 Classification accuracy (%) using the ANN classifier . . . . . . . 91
Table 3.18 5-fold cross validation results using the ANN classifier. . . . . . 91
Table 3.19 Classification accuracy (%) using the KNN classifier . . . . . . . 92
Table 3.20 5-fold cross validation results using KNN with K = 7 . . . . . . 92
Table 3.21 Classification accuracy (%) using the majority voting
approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 92
Table 3.22 5-fold cross validation results using the majority voting
approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 92
Table 3.23 Comparisons of classification rates between classifiers
using 5-fold cross validations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 93
Table 3.24 Summary of the single factor ANOVA test . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 94
Table 3.25 Results of the ANOVA test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 94
Table 3.26 Class accuracy (%, ± standard deviation) of pixel versus
patch based features on the cropped roadside
object dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 111
Table 3.27 Confusion matrix of six classes obtained using the
SCSM on the natural roadside object data . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 113
Table 3.28 Performance (%) comparisons with state-of-the-art
methods on the stanford background dataset . . . . . . . . . . . ... 114
Table 3.29 Confusion matrix of eight classes on the stanford
background dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Table 4.1 A brief review of typical types of CNNs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Table 4.2 Accuracy (%) using an ensemble of CNNs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Table 4.3 Accuracy (%) using an ensemble of MLPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Table 4.4 Accuracy (%) using a single CNN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Table 4.5 Accuracy (%) using a single MLP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Table 4.6 Performance (%) comparisons with previous approaches
on the Stanford background dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 145
Table 4.7 Confusion matrix for eight objects on the Stanford
background dataset (SVR, global accuracy 81.2%) . . . . . . ... 147
Table 4.8 Performance (%) comparisons with previous approaches
on the MSRC dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 148
Table 4.9 Confusion matrix for 21 objects on the MSRC dataset
(SVR, global accuracy 85.5%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 150
Table 4.10 Performance (%) comparisons with previous approaches
on the SIFT Flow dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 152
Table 5.1 Samples categorized into sparse, moderate, and dense
grasses based on human observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 172
Table 5.2 Objective biomass and estimated VOCGP (i.e. VocANN
and VocCNN for using ANN and CNN respectively) for
sparse, moderate and dense grasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 174
List of Tables xxv
This chapter presents brief background information and datasets for roadside video
data analysis. It also shows some relevant applications of video data analysis and
presents a detailed outline of this book.
1.1 Background
The roadside is a specific region that is of great significance to many fields such as
agriculture, forestry, transportation, power and telecommunications, national
security and environmental authorities. Being able to acquire accurate information
about roadside conditions can be potentially useful for assisting a wide range of
practical applications, such as effective roadside management, vegetation growth
condition monitoring, and road hazard assessment. For instance, accurately
estimating the site-specific parameters of roadside vegetation such as biomass,
height, coverage, density and greenness can be critically important for monitoring
the real-time growth conditions of roadside grasses and trees. This supports the
design and implementation of effective vegetation management strategies by rele-
vant government authorities, preserving the road assets and improving the safety of
the driving public. Tracking the changes in these parameters is an effective way to
detect and quantify the possible effects on vegetation such as diseases, dryness, soil
nutrients and water stress. From the perspective of safety, roadside vegetation
(e.g. grass and tree) with high biomass can present a major fire hazard to the
security of drivers and vehicles, particularly in remote and low-population regions
without regular and frequent human checks on roadside grass growth conditions.
The current practice of monitoring roadside conditions by relevant authorities is
heavily dependent on manual measurements by humans, which suffer from high
investments in terms of labor, time, effort and cost. The necessity and importance of
developing automatic roadside video data analysis techniques have been widely
A robust and reliable machine learning technique, including deep learning algo-
rithms, is expected to be consistently effective on both local roadside datasets
collected for a specific purpose and general scene datasets taken from various
real-world scenarios. To enable direct and fair comparisons of the techniques
described in this book with other state-of-the-art approaches, this section introduces
four industry datasets and five widely used benchmark datasets.
The datasets used for evaluating machine learning techniques in this book come
from the roadside video data collected by the Department of Transport and Main
Roads (DTMR) using vehicle-mounted cameras in the Fitzroy region, Central
Queensland, Australia. Four cameras are mounted on the front, left, right and rear
directions of the vehicle, which runs across main state roads in Queensland each
1.2 Collection of Roadside Video Data 3
year. All video data is in an AVI format with a frame resolution of 1632 1248
pixels at approximately 10 meters apart, totaling more than 500 GB. The data from
the left-view camera primarily focuses on roadside vegetation regions, and thus can
be used to monitor vegetation growth conditions and find potential fire-prone areas,
whereby steps can be taken subsequently to eliminate the fire hazard.
Like similar real-world video datasets, the DTMR video data lacks pixel-wise
annotation of ground truths of all objects that are present in video frames, which
would require intensive labor efforts considering the huge number of all videos and
the high resolution of frames. However, ground truths are critically important for
designing and evaluating machine learning algorithms, as well as promoting future
research efforts in this field. In this book, we document four image datasets based
on the video captured using the left or frontal camera.
We manually cropped a total of 650 small regions from 230 frames for seven types
of objects (100 regions per object except for sky which has 50 regions), including
brown grass, green grass, tree leaf, tree stem, soil, road, and sky as shown in
Figs. 1.1 and 1.2. All frames were selected from the video captured by the left
camera, and thus they primarily focus on the vegetation area rather than the road
area. To simulate realistic conditions as closely as possible, the frames were
selected to cover a wide range of vegetation types, and different scene content, day
times and locations, etc. A set of local regions was then cropped from these frames
and each region was ensured to belong to only one object. It should be noted that
the resulting rectangular regions have different resolution and shapes. The cropped
regions represent various types of appearance of roadside objects, and have very
challenging characteristics in terms of variations in the appearance and content
within the same object, as well as between objects, making them suitable for
evaluating the performance of machine learning algorithms in natural conditions.
Fig. 1.1 Illustration of small regions cropped from DTMR video frames. The white blocks in the
figures give an indication of the location, size and shape of the cropped regions. Note that only a
proportion of representative cropped regions are included in the final cropped roadside object
dataset
4 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.2 Samples of cropped regions for seven roadside objects. There are big variations in the
appearance of the same object and high similarity between objects (e.g. green grass and tree leaf),
which are challenges for accurate object classification. These regions are rescaled to the same
shape and size only for illustration
The cropped grass dataset was created to evaluate the performance of classifying
sparse versus dense grasses, and it comprises 110 color images including 60 for
dense grasses and 50 for sparse grasses. The images taken are color images under
natural lighting conditions. To cover various types of grasses in real-world situa-
tions, different canopy sizes were selected as shown in Fig. 1.3. All images were
stored in a JPEG format with a resolution of 900 500 pixels.
1.2 Collection of Roadside Video Data 5
Fig. 1.3 Sample images for (top) sparse and (bottom) dense grasses
We manually selected 50 images from left-view video data as shown in Fig. 1.4
(independent from those used for the cropped roadside object dataset). These
images were selected to be representative of roadside scenes in different real-world
cases, covering various types of vegetation and other objects, such as soil, road, and
sky. All pixels were manually annotated by a researcher in the computer vision field
into six categories of objects, including brown grass, green grass, tree, soil, road,
Fig. 1.4 Sample images in the natural roadside object dataset (left) with their corresponding
pixel-wise ground truths (right) for six types of roadside objects
6 1 Introduction
and sky, and they serve as ground truths for performance evaluations. The uncertain
regions were labeled as unknown. Unlike the cropped roadside object dataset, two
categories of tree leaf and stem were combined into one category of tree, due to
relatively small sizes of tree stems in the images.
The natural road object dataset was generated to evaluate the performance of object
detection in frontal view road conditions. More than 400 images were extracted
from DTMR video sequences that were captured using a frontal view camera. The
images were taken under different lighting conditions and natural settings, rescaled
to a resolution of 960 1280 pixels, and stored in a JPEG format. The images
primarily focus on road lanes, but also include other objects such as tree, grass, sky
and traffic sign. The presence of three objects, including road, sky and traffic sign,
was manually annotated to serve as ground truths for road object detection.
A sample set of images used is shown in Fig. 1.5.
Fig. 1.5 Sample images in the natural road object dataset. The images were captured using a
frontal view camera
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
essere tutta apposta agli uomini che ora salgono al governo. Il male
era interno, e nasceva da uno squilibrio tra le forze che reggevano
l’impero. L’impero è governato da un senato, nel quale si raccoglie
veramente il fiore delle famiglie ricche e colte delle province, dalla
Gallia all’Africa e alla Siria: un’aristocrazia di cui il mondo antico non
aveva ancor visto l’eguale, per numero, per coltura, per ricchezza,
per raffinatezza di gusti, per nobiltà d’aspirazioni, per varietà di
attitudini. In questa aristocrazia le virtù austere del romanesimo sono
fecondate dalla cultura greca nella più splendida varietà di attitudini:
onde abbondano i generali, gli amministratori, i giuristi, i letterati, i
filosofi, i protettori delle arti e delle lettere, che tutti insieme vogliono
conservare intatta la forza dell’impero, raffinandola con le arti più
elette della pace; e con quanto studio ed impegno, lo attestano
Traiano, Adriano, Antonino, Marco Aurelio. Senonchè mentre la
aristocrazia che governava l’impero si raffinava, si faceva più colta,
più splendida, più umana, l’esercito si imbarbariva. Con Claudio e
con Nerone i provinciali erano entrati nelle legioni, e cresciuti di
numero sotto i Flavi. Ma con gli Antonini, specie con i due ultimi, le
legioni accolgono gli stranieri, i veri e propri barbari [53]. Certo a
questi barbari si conferisce la cittadinanza romana; ma un titolo non
bastava neppure allora a mutare l’animo. Allo stesso modo, sebbene
più lentamente, era deteriorato il corpo dei pretoriani, esempio e
modello di tutte le milizie romane. Troppo ricca ormai la vecchia Italia
non basta più a riempire i vuoti delle famose coorti [54]. Tra queste
due forze, l’aristocrazia e l’esercito, si interponeva quella che noi
chiameremo l’amministrazione, il corpo dei magistrati che
esercitavano i differenti uffici civili e militari, e che, almeno nelle
cariche maggiori, era reclutato ancora secondo il principio della
coltura e del rango senatorio od equestre. Al di sopra di tutti stava
l’imperatore, il più autorevole dei senatori, il capo dell’esercito, della
nobiltà e dell’amministrazione, il simbolo dell’impero e dello Stato,
investito di poteri che non erano mai stati ben definiti, come non era
mai stato ben definito il principio politico e giuridico da cui i suoi
poteri scaturivano. Era chiaro che, sinchè l’imperatore,
l’amministrazione e l’aristocrazia fossero stati d’accordo, avrebbero
avuto autorità bastevole per imporre rispetto alle legioni. I governi di
Traiano, di Adriano, di Antonino e di Marco Aurelio lo avevano
provato. Ma che sarebbe accaduto il giorno, in cui questo accordo si
rompesse?
46. Cfr. Cohen, Monnaies rom., II, Anton., nn. 572, 777, 778. La Scizia è qui
forse una nuova provincia sul Danubio.
48. Sulle deduzioni dei barbari sul territorio romano si può consultare
Huschke, Ueber den Census und die Steuerverfassung der früheren
Römischen Kaiserzeit, Berlin, 1847, pag. 149 sg.
51. Studi e testi, VIII (Roma, 1902): Atti di S. Giustino, 4, 8; cfr. Euseb. H.
E., 5, 1, 47; Athenag. Legatio pro Christian., 1 sg.
54. Cfr. [Hist. A.] Pertin., II, 9; C. I, L. V, 5050, l. 31; VI, 2375 a sg.; Dion.
Cass. 74, 2; R. Cagnat, Praetoriae Cohortes in Daremberg et Saglio,
Dict. Antiq. Graecques et romaines, IV, pag. 635.
CAPITOLO SESTO
I PRINCIPII DELLA MONARCHIA ASSOLUTA
SETTIMIO SEVERO
(193-211)
55. Dion. Cass., 76, 9; Cohen, Monnaies, IV, Sept. Severus, nn. 123-126,
128 (a. 195); 129-132 (a. 196).
56. [Hist. Aug.], Clod. Alb., 8, attribuisce invece l’iniziativa di questa guerra a
Settimio Severo, ma con un racconto di insidie così romanzesco che
non inspira nessuna fiducia. La concatenazione degli eventi mostra
invece che l’iniziativa partì da Clodio Albino, dietro il quale si
nascondeva un partito, forte in senato.
62. Una delle cose migliori, scritte su Settimio Severo, sono i due capitoli del
Duruy, Histoire des Romains, Paris, 1883, VI, pagg. 1-143.
CAPITOLO SETTIMO
IL CAOS DEL TERZO SECOLO
(211-284)
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