INTRODUCTION

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Fluid Mechanics
◦ Fluid Mechanics is a physical science dealing with the action of fluids at rest or in
motion, and with applications and devices in engineering using fluids. Fluid mechanics
can be subdivided into two major areas, fluid statics, which deals with fluids at rest, and
fluid dynamics, concerned in fluids in motion. The term hydrodynamics is applied to the
flow of liquids or to low-velocity gas flows where the gas can be considered as being
essentially incompressible.

◦ Hydraulics deals with the application of fluid mechanics to engineering devices

involving liquids, usually water or oil. Hydraulics deals with such problems as the flow of
fluids through pipes or in open channels, the design of storage dams, pumps and water
turbines, and with other devices for the control or use of liquids, such as nozzles, valves,
jets, and flowmeters.
Types of Fluids
Fluids are generally divided into two categories: ideal fluids and real fluids.
Ideal Fluids
• Assume to have no viscosity ( and hence, no resistance to shear)
• Incompressible
• Have uniform velocity when flowing
• No friction between moving layers of fluids
• No eddy currents or turbulences
 Real Fluids
• Exhibit infinite viscosities
• Non-uniform velocity distribution when flowing
• Compressible
• Experience friction and turbulence in flow
Real fluids are further divided into Newtonian Fluids and Non-Newtonian Fluids.
Most fluid problems assume real fluids with Newtonian characteristics for convenience.
This assumption is appropriate for water, air, gases, steam, and other simple fluids like
alcohol, gasoline, acid solutions, etc. However, slurries, pastes, gels, suspensions may not
behave according to simple fluid relationships.

Dilatant

Figure 1. Types of Fluids

Mass Density, ρ(rho)
The density of a fluid is its mass per unit of volume.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑,𝑀
ρ=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒,𝑉

Units:
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
English: 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
Metric: 𝑐𝑚3

𝑘𝑔
SI: 𝑚3
For an ideal gas, its density can be found from the specific gas constant and ideal gas
law:
p
ρ=
𝑅𝑇
Where:
p=absolute pressure of gas in Pa
R= gas constant in Joule/kg-°K
For air:
R= 287 Joule/kg-°K
R=1,716 lb-ft/slug-°R

T= absolute temperature in °Kelvin

°K = °C + 273
°R = °F + 460
Figure 2. Approximate room temperature Densities of Common Fluids
Specific Volume, Vs
Specific volume, Vs, is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid.
1
Vs=
ρ

Unit Weight or Specific weight, γ

Specific weight or unit weight, γ is the weight of a unit volume of a fluid.

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑,𝑊
γ=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒,𝑉
γ=ρg
Units:
𝑙𝑏
English: 𝑓𝑡 3 Metric:
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒
SI:
𝑁 𝑘𝑁
or 𝑚3
𝑐𝑚3 𝑚3
 Specific Gravity, s
Specific gravity(S) is a dimensionless ratio of a fluids density to some standard reference
density.
ρ𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
S=
ρ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
In gases, the standard reference to calculate the specific gravity is the density of air
ρ𝑔𝑎𝑠
S=
ρ𝑎𝑖𝑟
For water at 4°C:
𝑙𝑏 𝑘𝑁
γ= 62.4 = 9.81
𝑓𝑡 3 𝑚3
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 𝑘𝑔
ρ= 1.94 3 = 1000 3
𝑓𝑡 𝑚
S = 1.0
Problem Solving
◦ 1. A reservoir of glycerine has a mass of 1200kg and a volume of 0.952 𝑚3 . Find the
glycerine weight, mass density, specific weight and specific gravity.
Problem Solving
𝑙𝑏
◦ 2. A certain gasoline weighs 46.0 . What are its mass density, specific volume and
𝑓𝑡 3
specific gravity?
Problem Solving
𝑁
◦ 3. What is the mass density of a liquid whose specific weight is 9000𝑚3?
Problem Solving
◦ 4. Determine the density, specific gravity and mass of the air in a room whose
dimension are 4mx5mx6m at 100kPa and 25 °C.
Viscosity, μ(mu)
The property of a fluid which determines the amount of the resistance to shearing forces.
A perfect fluid would have no viscosity.
Consider two large, parallel plates at a small distance y apart, the space between them
being filled with a fluid. Consider the upper plate to be subject to a force F so as to move
with a constant velocity U. The fluid in contact with the upper plate will adhere to it and
will move with the same velocity U, while the fluid in contact with the fixed plate will
have a zero velocity. For small values of U and y the velocity gradient can be assumed
to be a straight line and F varies as A, U and y as:
F α A U/y or F/A α U/y
But U/y = dV/dy (from the figure)

F/A= shearing stress, τ

τ α dV/dy or τ =k ( dV/dy ), where the constant of proportionality k is called
the dynamic of absolute viscosity denoted as μ.
τ =μ( dV/dy)
μ = τ / (dV/dy)

Where:
𝑙𝑏
τ = shear stress in or Pa .
𝑓𝑡 2
𝑙𝑏−𝑠𝑒𝑐
μ= absolute viscosity in or Pa-sec.
𝑓𝑡 2
y = distance between the plates in ft or m
U= velocity in ft/sec or m/s

Figure 3.
Kinematic Viscosity, ν (nu)
Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of the fluid,
to its mass density.
μ
ν =
ρ
Where:
μ = absolute viscosity in Pa-sec
𝑘𝑔
ρ = density in 𝑚3
 Figure 4. Common Units of Viscosity

Note:
1 poise = 0.1 Pa-sec
1 stoke= 0.0001𝑚2 /s
Problem Solving
◦ 1. Water has a viscosity at 68°F equal to 0.01008 poise. What is its absolute viscosity in
pound-seconds per square foot?
Problem Solving
𝑁−𝑠
◦ 2. A 20°C carbon tetrachloride has a viscosity of 0.000967 . If the strain rate of this
𝑚2
fluid is 5000/s, determine the shear stress of the fluid.
Problem Solving
◦ 3. If the viscosity of water at 70° C is 0.00402 poise and its specific gravity is 0.978.
Determine its absolute viscosity in Pa-sec and its kinematic viscosity in 𝑚2 /s and in
stokes.
Surface Tension, σ (sigma)
◦ The membrane of “skin” that seems to form on the free surface of a fluid is due to the
intermolecular cohesive forces, and is known as surface tension. Surface tension is the
reason that insects are able to sit on water and a needle is able to float on it. Surface
tension also causes bubbles and droplets to take on a spherical shape would have more
surface area per unit volume.

Pressure inside a Droplet of Liquid:

4σ
ρ=
𝑑

σ = surface tension in N/m

d = diameter of the droplet in m
ρ = gage pressure in Pa
 Surface Tension, σ (sigma)
Cohesion- molecules of the liquid remain attached to each other.
Adhesion- enables to adhere another body with which it comes in contact
𝐹
σ =
2𝑙

Where:
F= force applied to the surface film or membrane
l= width of the surface film or membrane

Droplets of liquid:
𝑃𝑟
σ =
2
Where:
P= Pressure intensity inside the droplet
r =radius of droplet
 Surface Tension, σ (sigma)
Hollow Bubble:
𝑃𝑟
σ=4
Where:
P= Pressure intensity inside the droplet
r =radius of bubble

Liquid Jet:
σ = Pr
Where:
P= Pressure intensity inside the droplet
r =radius of jet
 Figure 5.

Capillarity
Capillarity (Capillarity action) is the name given to the behavior of the liquid in a thin-
bore tube. The rise or fall or a fluid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and
depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid to the walls of the
containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion> cohesion) and fall in tubes
they do not wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillary is important when using tubes smaller
than about 3/8 inch (9.5mm) in diameter.
 4σ cos ϴ
h=
γ𝑑
◦ For complete wetting, as with water on clean glass, the angle ϴ is 0˚. Hence the formulas
becomes
4σ
h=
γ𝑑
Where:

h= capillary rise or depression in m

γ = unit weight in N/𝑚3
d= diameter of the tube in m
σ= surface tension in Pa
ϴ= angle between the contact. Indicate whether adhesive or cohesive forces
dominate. If ϴ<90°= adhesive, and if ϴ >90°= cohesive
Figure 6.Contact Angles, ϴ
Problem Solving
◦ 1. A small drop of water at 80° F is in contact with the air and has a diameter of 0.0100
in. What is the value of the surface of the tension if the pressure within the droplet is
0.082 psig greater than the atmosphere?
Problem Solving
◦ 2. The surface tension of water is 0.07 N/m. Find the weight of the water supported by
surface tension in a capillary tube with radius of 0.10 mm.
Problem Solving
𝑁−𝑠
◦ 2. A 20°C carbon tetrachloride has a viscosity of 0.000967 . If the strain rate of this
𝑚2
fluid is 5000/s, determine the shear stress of the fluid.
Problem Solving
◦ 3. Estimate the height to which the water at 21°C will rise in a capillary tube of a
diameter 3.05cm. Assume it is a clean glass of θ=0° and surface tension σ=0.0729 N/m.
Problem Solving
◦ 4. Estimate the capillary depression for mercury in a glass capillary tube 2mm in
diameter. Use θ=140° and surface tension σ=0.514 N/m.
 Compressibility, β
◦ Compressibility (also known as the coefficient of compressibility) is the fractional
change in the volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure in a constant temperature
process.
Δ𝑉
−𝑉 1
β = =
Δ𝑝 𝐸𝐵

𝑑𝑉
𝑉
Or β=−
𝑑𝑝

Where:
Δ𝑉 = Change in Volume
V = Original Volume
Δ𝑝 = change in pressure
𝑑𝑉
=change in volume (usually in percent)
𝑉
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, 𝐸𝐵
◦ The bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid expresses the compressibility of the fluid. It is
the ratio of the change in unit pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit
of volume.

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 Δ𝑝
◦ 𝐸𝐵 = =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 Δ𝑉
𝑉

𝑑𝑝
Or 𝐸𝐵 = −
𝑑𝑉/𝑉
Problem Solving
◦ 1. Water in a hydraulic press, initially at 137 kPa absolute, is subjected to a pressure of
116, 280 kPa absolute. Using 𝐸𝐵 =2.5 GPa.,determine the percentage decrease in the
volume of water.
Problem Solving
◦ 2. The bulk modulus of water is found to be 2.2 GPa. What is the pressure required to
reduce its volume by 0.3%?
Problem Solving
◦ 3. A 4.9𝑓𝑡 3 of water are compressed to 5000 psig. What is the volume decrease if the
temperature is 60°F? Assume the average bulk modulus of elasticity of 311000.
Pressure Disturbances
◦ Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves. The velocity or celerity of
pressure wave (also known as acoustical or sonic velocity) is expressed as:

𝐸𝐵 1
◦ C= =
ρ βρ
Problem Solving
◦ 1. A sonar transmitter operates at 2 impulses per second. If the device is held to the
surface of fresh water (𝐸𝐵 = 2.04 x109 Pa) and the echo is received midway between
impulses, how deep is the water?
Property Changes in Ideal Gas
◦ For any ideal gas experiencing any process, the equation of state is given by
𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

◦ When the temperature is held constant, Eq reduces to (Boyles law)

𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2

◦ When the temperature is held constant (isothermal condition), it reduces to (Charles

law)
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
Problem Solving
◦ 1. A vertical cylindrical tank with a diameter of 10m and a depth of 5m contains water
at 20° and is filled to the brim. If the water is heated to 50°C , how much water will spill
over the edge of the tank?
◦ For adiabatic or Isentropic Conditions (no heat exchanged)
𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑘 =𝑝2 𝑉2 𝑘
𝑉1 𝑘 𝑝
Or ( ) = 2 = constant
𝑉2 𝑝1
𝑇2 𝑝2 𝑘−1
and =( ) 𝑘
𝑇1 𝑝1
Where:
𝑝1 = initial absolute pressure of gas
𝑝2 = final absolute pressure of gas
𝑉1 = initial volume of gas
𝑉2 = final volume of gas
𝑇1 = initial absolute temperature of gas in ˚K (˚K = ˚C + 273)
𝑇2 = final absolute temperature of gas in ˚K
k = ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant
volume. Also known as adiabatic exponent.
Vapor Pressure
◦ Molecular activity in a liquid will allow some of the molecules to escape the liquid
surface. Molecules of the vapor also condense back into the liquid. The vaporization
and condensation at constant temperature are equilibrium processes. The equilibrium
pressure exerted by these free molecules is known as the vapor pressure or saturation
pressure.
◦ Some liquids, such as propane, butane, ammonia and freon, have significant vapor
pressure at normal temperatures. Liquids near their boiling point or that vaporizes easily
are said to volatile liquids. Other liquids such as mercury, have insignificant vapor
pressures at the same temperature. Liquids with low vapor pressure are used in
accurate barometers.
◦ The tendency toward vaporization is dependent on the temperature of the liquid.
Boiling occurs when the liquid temperature is increased to the point that the vapor
pressure is equal to the local ambient (surrounding) pressure. Thus, a liquid’s boiling
temperature depends on the local ambient pressure, as well as the liquid's tendency to
vaporize.
Figure 7. Typical Vapor Pressures
Problem Solving
◦ 1. At what pressure will 80°C water boil?