Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

1
Chapter
1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER 3 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT
m Matter can exist in three physical states viz solid, liquid and gas m Scientific notation is exponential notation in which any number
m MATTER
represented in N × 10n, where n is exponent having positive or
MIXTURES PURE
SUBSTANCES
negative values and N is number between 1.000 … and 9.999

HETEROGENOUS HOMOGENOUS
.....
MIXTURES MIXTURES
m Significant figures are meaningful digits which are known
ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS with certainity plus one which is estimated or uncertain.
m A mixture contains particles of two or more pure substances in any ratio.
m Rules for determining the number of significant figures.
m Movement of air follow pressure gradient.
m In Homogeneous mixture, components completely mix with each other. m All non zero digits are significant.
m In Heterogeneous mixture, composition is not uniform.
m Zeros preceding to first non-zero digit are non significant.
m Constituent particles of pure substance have fixed composition.
m Compound is formed when two ore more atoms of different elements combine together in definite ratio. m Zeroes between two non-zero digits are significant.

m Zeroes at the end or right of a number are significant

2 PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND THEIR MEASUREMENT
provided they are on the right side of decimal point.
m Properties are of two types viz. physical and chemical properties.
m Physical properties can be measured or observed without changing the identity or the composition of the substance. m Counting numbers have infinite significant figures.
m Chemical properties requires a chemical change to occur. m In a number written in scientific notation, all digits are
m Colour, odour, melting point, density etc are some physical properties.
significant.
m Composition, combustibility, reactivity with acids and bases are examples of chemical properties.
m Quantitative measurement of physical properties represented by a number followed by units. m Precision refers to the closeness of various measurements for
m SI system has seven base units. the same quantity.
m Base physical quantities and their units.
Length (m) Mass (kg) m Accuracy is the agreement of a particular value to the true
Time (s) Electric current (A) value of the result.
Thermodynamic Amount of substance (mol)
m In addition and subtraction of significant figures the result
Temperature (K) Luminous intensity (cd)
cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal point than
SOME PREFIX USED IN SI SYSTEMS ARE
either of the original numbers.
10–12 (pico), 10–9 (nano), 10–6(micro) –3 –2
10 (milli), 10 (centi),
3 6
10 (kilo), 10 (mega) 109(giga) m In multiplication and division of significant figures the result
SOME COMMON UNITS must be reported with no more significant figures as are there
m 1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3, °F = 9/5 (°C) + 32, K = °C + 273.15 in the measurement with the fewer significant figures.

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2 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry NCERT Maps

m Important points for rounding off the numbers.

l If the rightmost digit to be removed is more than 5, the preceding number is increased by one.

l If the rightmost digit is less than 5, the preceding number is not changed.

l If the rightmost digit is 5 then preceding number increased by 1 only if it is an odd number.

m Method used to interconversion of unit is known as dimensional analysis, unit factor method.

4 LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

m Law of conservation of mass conclude that in all physical and chemical changes, there is no net change in mass during the change.
m Law of definite proportions/composition stated that a given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by weight.
m Law of multiple proportions stated that, if two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of other element are in the
ratio of small whole number.
m Gay Lussac's law of gaseous volume : When gases combine or are produced in a chemical reaction they do so in a simple ratio by volume, provided all gases are at same temperature and
pressure.
m Avogadro's law proposed that equal volumes of all gases at same temperature and pressure should contain equal number of molecules.
m Dalton's Atomic Theory proposed to following points
l Matter consists of indivisible atoms.
l All atoms of a given element have indentical properties, including identical mass, atoms of different elements differ in mass
l Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio
l Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of atoms. These are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

5 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR MASS m Empirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of various atoms
m One atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth of the mass of one present in a compound, whereas, the molecular formula shows exact number of
C-12 atom, 1 amu = 1.66056 × 10–24 g. different types of atoms present in a molecule of a compound.
m At present amu has been replaced by unified mass (u)
m Average atomic mass can be computed when we take into account the existence of isotopes 7 STOICHIOMETRY AND STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS
and their relative abundance. m Stoichiometry deals with calculation of masses (sometime volume) of the
m Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a molecule. reactants and products involved in a chemical reaction.
m Formula mass is used instead of molecular mass for ionic solids as in solid state they do not m Reactant, which gets consumed first, limits the amount of product formed is
exist as a single entity. called limiting reagent.
m A majority of reactions are carried out in solutions. The concentration of a solution can
6 MOLE CONCEPT AND MOLAR MASSES be expressed in following ways.
m Mole (Symbol, mol) is seventh base quantity for amount of a substance. m Mass percent = Mass of solute × 100 / (Mass of solution)
m One mole contains exactly 6.02214076 × 1023 elementary entities. This number is the fixed m Mole fraction of solute = No. of moles of solute/No. of moles of solution
numerical value of the Avogadro's constant (NA). m Molarity (M) = No. of moles of solute / Volume of solution in litres
m The mass of one mole of a substance in grams is called its molar mass.
l For dilution of solutions, M1V1 = M2V2
m Mass% of an element = Mass of that element in the compound × 100 / Molar mass of the
m Molality (m) = No. of moles of solute/Mass of solvent in kg.
compound.

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 2
Structure of Atom Chapter
1 SUBATOMIC PARTICLES Atomic no. (Z) = Number of protons m Photoelectric effect: Ejection of electrons when certain
Name Discovery Charge Mass/kg Mass no. (A) = Number of protons and neutrons metals were exposed to beam of light.
–19 –31
Electron (e) Cathode rays –1.6 × 10 C 9.1 × 10 Isotopes = Same atomic number but different mass Observation of photoelectric effect
–19 –27 12 14
Proton (p) Anode rays +1.6 × 10 C 1.67 × 10 number e.g. 6C, 6C m No time lag between ejection of electrons from metal
–27
Neutron (n) a particles 0 1.67 × 10 Isobars = Atoms with same mass number but different surface and striking of light beam.
bombarded on
14 14
Be thin sheet atomic number e.g. C, N m Number of ejected electrons proportional to the intensity
6 7
or brightness of light.
2 ATOMIC MODELS
3 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES m Minimum frequency required to eject electron is known as
m Thomson model (Plum pudding model)
The atom is of spherical shape in which positive charge is m Unlike sound wave, electromagnetic waves do not require threshold frequency (n0).
uniformly distributed and electrons are embedded in it.
medium and can move in vacuum. m Einstein photoelectric equation
m Rutherford's Nuclear Model
Electromagnetic waves are characterised by the properties, 1 m v2
a particle scattering experiment m hn = hn0 +
Gold foil
2 e
frequency (n) and wave length (l) and travel with speed of
8
4 ATOMIC SPECTRA
light i.e., c = 3 × 10 m/s
a m The spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance that has
rays c = nl
absorbed energy is called an emission spectrum.

1 m An absorption spectrum is like photographic negative of

Source of Lead plate Photographic plate
m Wave number (n) = l
alpha particles an emission spectrum.
Observation of experiment dec , inc. Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
n l
(i) Most of a ray passed through gold foil undeflected g X Micro Radio
UV Visible IR n = 109,677 12 12 cm
–1
(ii) A small fraction of the a-particles was deflected by small rays rays wave wave m

angles n1 n1
(iii) A very few a-particles bounced back m Experiment supporting wave nature of electromagnetic where n is the wave number of spectral line in hydrogen spectrum.
m On the basis of Rutherford experiment most of the space in an radiation are interference & diffraction
Series n1 n2 Spectral Region
atom is empty, a centre of atom is occupied by the nucleus in m Experiment supporting particle nature of electromagnetic
which positive charge is concentrated in a very small volume. radiations are photoelectric effect and black body radiations. Lyman 1 2, 3... Ultraviolet
The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around the Planck's Quantum Law: Atoms and molecules could emit or Balmer 2 3, 4... Visible
nucleus with a very high speed in circular path called orbits absorb energy only in discrete quantities and not in continous
while electrostatic forces of attraction held nucleus and Paschen 3 4, 5... Infrared
manner known as quantum
electrons together. Brackett 4 5, 6... Infrared
m Draw back of Rutherford model E = hn
It cannot explain the stability of atom. E = energy of quantum Pfund 5 6, 7... Infrared

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 6 Structure of Atom NCERT Maps

5 BOHR'S MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ATOM 7 QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM 9 SHAPES OF ATOMIC ORBITALS
Key points of Bohr's theory m Orbitals and quantum number m Shapes of p-orbital
2px 2py 2pz
m Electron in the hydrogen atom can move in circular path of (1) Principal quantum number 'n' determines the size and z z z
fixed radius and energy known as orbits. energy of orbital.
m The energy of orbit does not change with time. l Number of allowed orbital in a shell = n2
(2) Azimuthal quantum number 'l' defines the three- x x x
m Electron moves from a lower stationary state to higher state
when required amount of energy is absorbed by the electron. dimeinsional shape of orbital y y y
m Electron move from higher energy state to lower energy state l For a given n, possible value of l = 0, 1, 2 ... (n – 1)
leaving the extra energy in the form of electromagnetic l Value of l 0 1 2 3 4 5 m Shapes of d-orbitals
waves.
Notation of s p d f g h dxy dxz dyz
m Angular momentum of electron is quantized. subshell z z z
nh
mvr = (3) Magnetic orbital quantum number 'm l ' gives
2p
information about the spatial orientation of the orbital with
m Frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted respect to standard set of coordinate axis. x x y x
For any subshell, 2l + 1 values of ml are possible. y y
DE E2 – E1 l
n= h = h
l Subshell s p d f g h (a) (b) (c)
2 dx2 – y2 dz2
52.9 (n ) Number of 1 3 5 7 9 11
m rn = pm; radius of nth orbit z z
Z orbitals
2 (4) Two orientations of electrons are distinguished by the
m En = –2.18 × 10
–18 Z
2 J; energy of electron in nth orbit spin quantum numbers (ms) which can take value of
n
1 1 x
+ and – . x
2 2 y y
6 DUAL BEHAVIOUR OF MATTER
m de-Broglie relationship between wavelength (l) and 8 FILLING OF ORBITALS IN ATOM (d) (e)
momentum (P) of the material particle. m Aufbau Principle: In the ground state
of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in 1s
h h Total nodes = n – 1, angular nodes = l, radial nodes
l= = order of their increasing energies. m
P mv
m The maximum number of electrons in 2s 2p =n–1–l
m Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle 2
a shell = 2n 3d
Energies of Orbitals
It states that it is impossible to determine simultaneously, the 3s 3p

m Hund's Rule of Maximum m 1s < 2s = 2p < 3s = 3p = 3d < 4s = 4p = 4d = 4f <

exact position and exact momentum (or velocity) of an 4s 4p 4d 4f (for hydrogen)
Multiplicity
electron. m (n + l) rule – the lower the value of (n + l) for an orbital, the
Pairing of electrons in degenerate 5s 5p 5d 5f
h orbitals take place only after each lower is its energy. It two orbitals have the same value of
Dx × Dpx ³ (n + l), the orbital with lower value of n will have the lower
4p degenerate orbitals is singly filled. 6s 6p 6d
energy for multielectron atom.
m Heisenberg uncertainty principle is not valid for macroscopic m Pauli Exclusion Principle 7s 7p m Energies of the orbital in the same subshell decreases
objects. No two electrons in an atom can have
with increase in the atomic number (Zeff)
m Failure of Bohr model: It ignores dual behaviour of matter the same set of four quantum
but also contradicts Heisenberg uncertainty principle. numbers. e.g. E2s(H) > E2s(Li) > E2s(Na) > E2s(K)

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 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

Classification of Elements and Periodicity 3

in Properties Chapter

1 GENESIS OF PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION 2 MODERN PERIODIC LAW AND TABLE

m Dobereiner's Triad: Middle element of each of the triads had m Modern Periodic Law: States that the physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic
an atomic weight about half way between the atomic weights functions of their atomic numbers.
of other two and also the properties of middle element were in
m Modern Periodic table
between other two.
e.g. (Li, Na, K), (Ca, Sr, Ba), (Cl, Br, I)
m Law of Octaves: On arranging the elements increasing
order of their atomic weights, every eighth element had
properties similar to the first element e.g Li, Be, B, C etc
resemble with Na, Mg ,Al and Si respectively.
m Lother Meyer: Plotted the physical properties such as
atomic volume, melting point and boiling point against atomic
weight and obtained a periodically repeated pattern.
m Mendeleev Periodic law: The properties of elements are a
periodic function of their atomic weights.
Mendeleev predicted elements Eka-Aluminium as Gallium
and Eka-Silicon as Germanium.

3 Nomenclature of elements having Z > 100

Atomic Name according Symbol IUPAC IUPAC

Number to IUPAC Official Name Symbol
nomenclature

101 Unnilunium Unu Mendelevium Md

102 Unnilbium Unb Nobelium No
103 Unniltrium Unt Lawrencium Lr
104 Unnilquadium Unq Rutherfordium Rf
105 Unnilpentium Unp Dubnium Db
106 Unnilhexium Unh Seaborgium Sg
107 Unnilseptium Uns Bohrium Bh
108 Unniloctium Uno Hassium Hs
109 Unnilennium Une Meitnerium Mt
110 Un unnillium Uun Darmstadtium Ds
111 Unununnium Uuu Rontgenium Rg 4 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
112 Ununbium Uub Copernicium Cn m 3d series from Z = 21 to Z = 30 m General outer electronic configuration
113 Ununtrium Uut Nihonium Nh 1-2
114 Ununquadium Uuq Flerovium Fl
m 4d series from Z = 39 to Z = 48 s-block = ns
4f-inner transition series from Z = 58 to Z = 71, also 2 1-6
115 Ununpentium Uup Moscovium Mc m
p-block = ns np
116 Ununhexium Uuh Livermorium Lv known as lanthanide series 1-10 0-2
117 Ununseptium Uus Tennessine Ts d-block = (n – 1)d ns
118 Ununoctium Uuo Oganesson Og m 5f-inner transition series from Z = 90 to Z = 103 also 1-14 0-1 2
known as actinoid series f-block = (n – 2)f (n – 1)d ns

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NCERT Maps Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 11

5 IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES 6 PERIODIC TRENDS IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

m The elements of group 1 (alkali metals) and group 2 (alkaline earth metals) are known as m The valence of representative elements is usually equal to valence electrons or
s-block elements. 8-valence electrons.
m The elements of group 13 to 18 are known as p-block elements. m Second period elements show anomalous behaviour due to their small size, large
m s-block and p-block elements together known as Representative elements or Main Group charge/radius ratio, high electronegativity of the elements and only four valence
elements. orbitals.
m All the orbitals in the valence shell of the noble gases are completely filled. m Li and Be is more similar to Mg and Al respectively and this sort of similarity is known as
diagonal relationship.
m Group 17 elements are known as halogens.
m Group 16 elements are known as chalcogens. m The normal oxide formed by the element on extreme left is most basic (e.g. Na2O),
m Elements of group 3 to 12 are known as d-block elements. whereas that formed by the element on extreme right is most acidic (e.g. Cl2O7)
m Transition metals form a bridge between the s-block elements and group 13 elements m Oxides of elements in centre are amphoteric (e.g. Al2O3, As2O3) or neutral (e.g. CO,
m Two rows of elements at the bottom of the periodic table called the Lanthanoid and Actinoids NO, N2O)
and combinely known as Inner-transition elements or (f-block elements) m Amphoteric oxides behaves as acidic with bases and as basic with acids, whereas
m The elements after uranium are called Transuranium elements neutral oxide have no acidic or basic properties.

7 TRENDS IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

m Covalent radius is half of the bond distance of valence electron from the nuclecus by
between two similar atoms. intervening core electrons
Electron Gain Enthalpy
m Metallic radius is half the inter nuclear m 2p electron of boron is more shielded from
distance separating the metal cores in the the nucleus than the 2s electron therefore
metallic crystal. ionization energy of boron is slightly less Ionization Enthalpy
m Atomic radius refer to both covalent or than that of beryllium.
metallic radius depending upon the element m In nitrogen atom, three 2p-electrons reside
is a non metal or a metal

Electron Gain Enthalpy

Electronegativity
in different orbitals whereas in oxygen atom,

Atomic Radius

Ionization Enthalpy
Atoms or ions which contains same number two of four 2p-electrons must occupy the
m
er
of electrons are called isoelectronic same 2p-orbital resulting in increased a ract
c Ch
talli
2– – +
species e.g. O , F , Na etc. repulsion therefore ionization enthalpy of N
-me
m Ionic radii can be estimated by measuring
is greater than that of O.
Non er
the distance between cations and anions m Electron Gain enthalpy is the enthalpy
a ract
change when an electron is added to a c Ch
m A cation is always smaller than its parent
gaseous neutral atom to convert it into a Me talli
atom while an anion is always bigger than its
parent atom. negative ion.
m Ionization enthalpy is the energy required m Deg H of O and F is less negative than that of
to remove an electron from an isolated succeeding element due to interelectronic
gaseous atom. repulsion. Atomic Radius
m Third ionization enthalpy is higher than m Electronegativity is a qualitative measure
second and so on. of the ability of an atom in a chemical bond to
m The effective nuclear charge experienced by attract shared electrons. Electronegativity
a valence electron in an atom will be less m F is the most electronegative element while
than the actual charge on the nucleus the electron gain enthalpy of Cl is most
because of the "shielding" or "screening" negative.

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 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
4
Chapter

1 CHEMICAL BOND 2 LIMITATION OF OCTET RULE 5 RESONANCE STRUCTURES

m The attractive force which holds various constituents m In some compounds, the number of electrons surrounding the m According to the concept of resonance, whenever a single
(atoms, ions etc) together in different chemical species is central atom is less than eight eg. LiCl, BeH2. lewis structure cannot describe a molecule accurately, a
Molecules with an odd number of electron e.g. NO and NO2. number of structures with similar energy, position of nuclie,
called a chemical bond. m
bonding and non-bonding pairs of electrons are taken as the
m In number of compounds there are more than eight valence
m Lewis postulated that atoms achieve the stable octet canonical structures of the hybrid which describes the
electrons around the central atom. eg. PF5, SF6, H2SO4 etc.
when they are linked with chemical bonds. molecule accurately.
m Some noble gases also combine with oxygen and fluorine eg.
m Simple notation to represent valence electrons in an XeF2. O O
· · · O
atom is called Lewis symbols e.g. Li, Be, g Bg m Does not account for the shape of molecules. O O O O
· O O
(Canonical structures) (Resonance hybrid)
m The bond formed, as a result of the electrostatic 3 IONIC BOND OR ELECTROVALENT BOND
attraction between the positive and negative ions was m Misconceptions with resonance
m Ionic bonds will be formed more easily between elements with
termed as the electrovalent bond or ionic bond. m The cannonical forms have no real existence.
comparatively low ionisation enthalpies and elements with
m Octet rule – According to this, atoms can combine either comparatively high negative value of electron gain enthalpy. m The molecule does not exist for a certain fraction of time in
by transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another one cannonical form and for other fractions of time in other
m Lattice enthalpy of an ionic solid is defined as the energy
(gaining or losing) or by sharing of valence electrons in cannonical forms.
required to completely seperate one mole of a solid ionic
order to have an octet in their valence shells. compound into gaseous constituent ions. m There is no such equilibrium between the cannonical forms.

m Covalent bond – When two atoms share electron pair(s) 6 POLARITY OF BONDS
they are said to be joined by covalent bonds. 4 BOND PARAMETERS
m Bond length is defined as the equilibrium distance between m In non-polar covalent bonds electron pair is situated
m It two atoms share one electron pair, the covalent bond the nuclei of two bonded atoms in a molecule. exactly between the two identical nuclei.
between them is called single bond, if two electrons pairs m The Covalent Radius is measured approximately as the m In polar covalent bond electron pair between the two atoms
then double bond e.g. radius of on atom's core which is in contact with the core an gets displaced more towards more electronegative atom.
adjacent atom in a bonded situation.
m The vander Walls Radius represents the overall size of m Dipole moment is the product of the magnitude of the
atoms which included the valence shell in a non-bonded charge and the distance between the centres of positive or
Cl Cl O C O negative charge and denoted by m
, situation.
m Bond Angle is defined as the angle between the orbitals m Dipole moment is a vector quantity and represented by
8e– 8e– 8e– 8e– 8e– containing bonding electron pairs around the central atom in a crossed arrow ( )
Cl – Cl O=C=O molecule/ ion.
eg H —— F
m Bond Enthalpy is defined as the amount of energy required to
break one mole of bonds of a particular type between two m Unit of m is Debye (1D = 3.33564 × 10–30 C m)
Total number of Total number of atoms in a gaseous state. For polyatomic molecules the term m In polyatomic molecules, the dipole moment depend upon
mean or average bond enthalpy is used.
m Formal charge = valence electrons non-bonding individual dipole moments of individual bonds and spatial
m Bond Order is given by the number of bonds between the two arrangement of bonds eg.
in free atom electrons
atoms in a molecule.
m Isoelectronic molecules and ions have identical bond orders H H
Total number of for example F2 and O2– 2 have bond order 1, N2 CO and NO
+

1 O O
- bonding have bond order 3.
2 electrons m With increase in bond order, bond enthalpy increases and H H
bond length decreases. Bond dipole Resultant dipole

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NCERT Maps Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 15

8 VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION (VSEPR) THEORY 7 FAJAN'S RULE

m The model used for predicting the geometrical shapes of molecules is based on the m The smaller the size of cation and larger the size of the anion, the greater is the covalent character of an ionic bond.
assumption that electron pairs repel each other therefore try to remain as far apart as possible m Greater the charge on the cation greater is the covalent character.
m The order of electron pair repulsion is lp – lp > lp – bp > bp – bp. m For cations of the same size and charge, the one having d-electrons is more polarising, thus its salts have greater
m Shape (geometry) covalent character.

Number of Number of Arrangement Shape Example

bonding Ione pairs of electron 9 VALENCE BOND THEORY
pairs pairs
m Discusses bond formation in terms of overlap of orbitals
2 0 B–A–B Linear BeF2
m In case of the formation of H2 molecule from two H-atoms involves overlap of s orbitals of two H-atoms which are singly occupied. The
B
potential energy of the systems gets lowered as the two H-atoms come near to each other.
3 0 A Trigonal BF3
B B planar m Types of overlapping.
Sigma (s) bond is formed by the end to end overlap of bonding orbitals along the internuclear axis.
2 1 A Bent SO2
Pi (p) bond is formed in such a way that atomic orbital axes remain parallel to each other and perpendicular to the internuclear axis.
B B
Hybridisation – Atomic orbitals combine to form new set of equivalent orbitals known as hybrid orbitals and this phenomenon is known as
B
hybridisation.
4 0 A Tetrahedral CH4
B B m Number of hybridised orbitals formed is equal to number of atomic orbitals intermixed.
B m Hybridised orbitals only form sigma bond.
2 3 3 2
m Various types of hybridisations are sp, sp , sp , sp d, dsp etc.
3 1 A Pyramidal NH3
B B
B

10 MOLECULAR ORBITAL THEORY

2 2 A Bent H2O
B m LCAO method is used for the formation of molecular orbitals.
B m For two atomic orbitals having wave function yA and yB the molecular orbital (MO) are given as yA ± yB
B
B m MO formed by the addition of atomic orbitals is called Bonding Molecular Orbital (BMO) or s and p while formed by the subtraction of atomic
5 0 A B Trigonal PCl5 orbitals is called anti bonding molecular orbital (ABMO) or s* and p*.
B bipyramidal
B m Increasing order of energies for diatomic molecules upto 14 electrons is
B s1s < s*1s < s2s < s*2s < (p2px = p2py) < s2pz < (p*2px = p*2py) < s*2pz
B Increasing order of energies for diatomic molecules with more than 14 electrons is
4 1 A See saw SF4 m
B
B s1s < s*1s < s2s < s*2s < s2pz < (p2px = p2py) < (p*2px = p*2py) < s*2pz

B 1
m Bond order = (N - NA )
3 2 T-shape ClF3 2 B
B A
1
m Bond order µ Bond strength µ
B Bond length
B
B B m If all the molecular orbitals in a molecule are doubly occupied then the substance is diamagnetic else paramagnetic.
6 0 A Octahedral SF6
B B
B 11 HYDROGEN BONDING
B m Hydrogen bond can be defined as the attractive force which binds hydrogen atom of one molecule with the electronegative atom (F, O or N) of
B B another molecule or within the same molecule.
5 1 A Square BrF5
B B Types of H-bond
pyramid
m Intermolecular hydrogen bond is formed between the atoms of two different molecules e.g. H2O, NH3, HF, C2 H5OH etc.
B B
4 2 A Square XeF4 m Intramolecular hydrogen bond is formed when hydrogen atom is in between the two highly electronegative (F, O, N) atoms present within the
B B same molecule eg. orthonitrophenol.
Planar

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 Thermodynamics
6
Chapter

1 THERMODYNAMIC TERMS 3 ENTHALPY (H) m Standard enthalpy of sublimation, (DsubH°) is the change
m (i) System - Part of universe under observation. m Thermodynamic function is equal to U + pV in enthalpy when one mole of a solid substance sublimes at
(ii) Surroundings - Include everything other than m It is a state function. constant temperature and under standard pressure (1 bar).
system. m DH = qP, heat absorbed by system at constant pressure. Standard Enthalpy of Formation (DfH°) is the standard
m There are three types of system. m DU = qV at constant volume enthalpy change for the formation of one mole of a compound
(i) Open system - Exchange of energy and matter from its elements in their most stable states of aggregation.
m DH > 0 for endothermic and DH < 0 for exothermic reaction.
between system and surroundings. s
m DH = DU + DngRT where Dng is change in gaseous moles. Standard Molar Enthalpies of Formation (DfH )
(ii) Closed system - No exchange of matter but
at 298 K of a few Selected Substances
exchange of energy is possible.
(iii) Isolated system - There is no exchange of energy 4 EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE PROPERTIES Substance Substance
or matter between the system and surroundings. m An extensive property is a property whose value depends
m The state of a thermodynamic system is described by Br2(l) 0 H2O(l) –285.83
on the quantity or size of matter present in the system e.g.
its measurable properties. P, V, T, n etc are called state
mass, volume, enthalpy etc. +30.91 NO(g) +90.25
variables or state functions because their values Br2(g)
depend only on the state of the system and not on how it m Properties which do not depend on the quantity or size of
is reached. matter present are known as intensive properties e.g. C(diamond) +1.89 NO2(g) +33.18
temperature, density, molar heat capacity etc.
2 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Heat Capacity C(graphite) 0 –910.94

m Commonly known as the law of conservation of energy m Molar heat capacity is the quantity of heat required to raise Cl2(g) 0 C(g) +716.68
i.e. energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. the temperature of one unit mole of a substance by 1°C or
m DU = q + w is mathematical statement of the first law of 1 K, q = ncDT H2(g) 0 H(g) +217.97
thermodynamics
m Molar heat capacity at constant pressure is CP and molar –241.82 Cl(g) +121.68
Internal Energy (U) H2O(g)
m Sum of chemical, electrical, mechanical or any other heat capacity at constant volume is CV and CP – CV = R.
type of energy of the system. m Bomb calorimeter is used to find DU. Hess’s Law of Constant Heat Summation
Work (W) m Enthalpy change for a reaction is the same whether it occurs in
m Work is done on an ideal gas when it is compressed one step or in series of steps.
and work is done by an ideal gas when it is expanded 5 REACTION ENTHALPY (DRH)
vf
Standard Enthalpy of Combustion (DCH°) is defined as
W = - ò Pex dV m The standard enthalpy of reaction is the enthalpy change the enthalpy change per mole of a substance, when it
vi for a reaction when all the participating substances are in undergoes combustion and all the reactants and products
m A process or a change is said to be reversible, if a their standard states. being in their standard states at the specified temperature.
change is brought out in such a way that the process Enthalpy Change During Phase Transformation Bond Enthalpy (DbondH°) is energy required to break a bond
could, at any moment, be reversed by an infinitesimal or energy released when a bond is formed.
change. Process other than reversible are known as m The enthalpy change that accompanies melting of one mole
irreversible processes. of solid substance in standard state is called standard Enthalpy of Atomization (DaH°) is the enthalpy change on
For isothermal irreversible change q = –W = Pex(Vf – Vi) breaking one mole of bonds completely to obtain atoms in the
m enthalpy of fusion (DfusH°).
gas phase.
V Amount of heat required to vaporise one mole of liquid at
m For isothermal reversible change q = - W = nRT ln f m
m In case of diatomic molecules, the enthalpy of atomization is
Vi constant temperature and under standard pressure (1 bar)
m For adiabatic change, q = 0 DU = Wad also the bond dissociation enthalpy.
m W = 0 in free expansion is called standard enthalpy of vaporisation DvapH°. m DrH ° = å bond enthalpies reactants - å bond enthalpies products

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 24 Thermodynamics NCERT Maps

–1 6 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Some Mean Multiple Bond Enthalpies in kJ mol at Ionization Energy and Electron Affinity
298 K Ionization energy and electron affinity are defined at m It explain the criterion of spontaneity.
absolute zero. At any other temperature, heat Spontaneity
N=N 418 C=C 611 O=O 498
m A spontaneous process is an irreversible process and may only
NºN 946 CºC 837 capacities for the reactants and the products have to be
be reversed by some external agency.
C=N 615 C=O 741 taken into account. Enthalpies of reactions for Entropy S is measure of the degree of randomness or disorder in
CºN 891 CºO 1070 the system.
+ –
M(g) ® M (g) + e (for ionization)
Lattice Enthalpy of an ionic compound is the enthalpy qrev
DS =
change which occurs when one mole of a ionic – –
M(g) + e ® M (g) (for electron gain) T
compound dissociates into its ions in gaseous state. m DStotal = DSsystem + DSsurr > 0 of a spontaneous process.
at temperature, T is
m It is impossible to determine lattice enthalpies directly by m DS = 0 and S in maximum at equilibrium.
experiment therefore we use indirect method Born- T
s s Gibbs Energy (G) and spontaneity
DrH (T) = DrH (0) + ò Dr CPs dT
Haber cycle.
0 m G = H – TS or DG = DH – TDS.
Enthalpy diagram for lattice enthalpy of NaCl
+
m Gibbs function, G is an extensive property and a state function.
Na (g) + Cl(g) The value of CP for each species in the above reaction is
m If DG < 0, process is spontaneous.
–1

5/2 R (CV = 3/2R)

121 kJ mol

s
m If DG > 0, process is non spontaneous.
1/2 DbondH
–1

s
So, DrCP = + 5/2 R (for ionization) DG° = –RT ln K = –2.303 RT log K.
–348.6 kJ mol

s m
DegH
s m DrG° = DrH° – TDrS° = –RT ln K.
+ DrCP = – 5/2 R (for electron gain)
Na (g) + 1/2Cl2(g) s s s
Therefore, DrH DrS DrG Description

s
– + – Reaction spontaneous at all
s DrH (ionization enthalpy)
Di H temperatures

= E0 (ionization energy) + 5/2 RT – – – (at low T) Reaction spontaneous at low

+ – temperature
Na (g) + Cl (g)
s
DrH (electron gain enthalpy) – – + (at high T) Reaction non-spontaneous at
high temperature
Na(g) + 1/2Cl2(g) = –A (electron affinity) – 5/2 RT
+ + + (at low T) Reaction non-spontaneous at
s
–1

D sub H Enthalpy of Solution (DsolH°) is the enthalpy change low temperature

kJ mol
+108.4

when one mole of it dissolves in a specified amount of + + – (at high T) Reaction spontaneous at high
s temperature
DlatticeH solvent.
Na(s) + 1/2Cl2(g) + – + (at all T) Reaction non-spontaneous a
D Hs
sol
AB (S) ¾¾¾¾ ® A + (aq) + B- (aq)
–1

all temperatures
–411.2 kJ mol

Df H
s
DlatticeHs DhydHs
7 ABSOLUTE ENTROPY AND THIRD LAW OF
+ – THERMODYNAMICS
A (g) + B (g)
m The entropy of any pure crystalline substance approaches zero as
m D solH = DlatticeHs + DhydHs
s the temperature approaches absolute zero. This is called third law
NaCl(s) of thermodynamics

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 Equilibrium
7
Chapter

1 EQUILIBRIUM IN PHYSICAL PROCESSES 2 EQUILIBRIUM IN CHEMICAL PROCESSES 3 APPLICATION OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS

m When the rates of the forward and reverse reactions m Predicting the Extent of reaction
m Solid-Liquid Equilibrium.
become equal, the concentrations of the reactant and the
(i) During equilibrium, the mass of solid and liquid do not products remain constant. This is the stage of chemical
change with time and temperature remains constant. equilibrium Negligible KC Extremely
large
However equilibrium is not static. The rate of transfer m Chemical reaction reach a state of dynamic equilibrium in Reaction hardly –3 3
of molecules from solid into liquid and liquid into solid proceeds 10 1 10 Reaction proceeds
which the rates of forward and reverse reactions are equal
are equal. Both reactants and products almost to completion
and there is no net change in composition are present at equilibrium
(ii) For any pure substance at atmospheric pressure, the Law of chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant
temperature at which the solid and liquid phases are at m For a general reversible reaction m Predicting the direction of reaction
equilibrium is called normal melting point or normal
A + B ƒ C + D, QC
freezing point.
Liquid-Vapour Equilibrium [C][D]
m Kc = (K = Equilibrium constant)
(i) At equilibrium, rate of evaproation = rate of [A][B] C
KC QC KC KC
condensation. m At a given Temperature, the product of concentrations of the
(ii) At equilibrium, the pressure exerted by the vapour is reaction products raised to the respective stoichiometric QC
called equilibrium vapour pressure, coefficient in the balanced chemical equation divided by the
(iii) Vapour pressure increases with increase in product of concentrations of the reactants raised to their
temperature and different liquids have different vapour individual stoichiometric coefficient has a constant value.
pressures at same temperature. This is known as the Equilibrium Law or Law of chemical
Reactant Products
(iv) Liquid having higher vapour pressure is more volatile equilibrium Reactants Products Reactant and
products are at equilibrium
and has a lower boiling point. m Equilibrium constants and its multiples
(v) The temperature at which the liquid and vapour is at aA + bB ƒ cC + dD KC Relationship between K, Q and G
equilibrium at one atmospheric pressure is called DG = DGº + RT ln Q
cC + dD ƒ aA + bB KC¢ = 1/KC m
normal boiling point of liquid n
naA + nbB ƒ ncC + ndD KC¢¢ = (KC) m DGº = –RT ln K
m Solid-Vapour Equilibrium - at equilibrium rate of
Sublimation = rate of condensation
m Equilibrium involving dissolution of solid or gases in Homogenous Equilibrium 4 FACTORS AFFECTING EQUILIBRIA
Liquids m When all the reactants and products are in same phase e.g m Le Chatelier’s Principle states that a change in any of
(i) Solids in liquids - In a saturated solution, a dynamic H2(g) + I2(g) ƒ 2HI(g) the factors that determine the equilibrium conditions of a
equilibrium exists between the solute molecules in m Equilibrium constant in terms of partial pressure is KP system will cause the system to change in such a manner
solid state and in the solution i.e. rate of dissolution =
m For the general reaction aA(g) + bB(g) ƒ cD(g) + dD(g) so as to reduce or to counteract the effect of the change.
rate of crystallisation
(ii) Gases in Liquids KP = KC (RT)
Dn
where Dn = (c + d) – (a + b) m Factors which can influence the equilibrium are
(a) There is equilibrium between the molecules in the Hetrogeneous Equilibrium (a) Effect of concentration change
gaseous state and the molecules dissolved in m Equilibrium in a system having more than one phase e.g (b) Effect of pressure change
liquid under pressure. H2O(l) ƒ H2O(g) (c) Effect of inert gas addition
(b) Henry’s Law states that the mass of a gas (d) Effect of temperature change
dissolved in a given mass of solvent at any m Unit of equilibrium constant
–1 Dn Dn
KC = (mol L ) , KP = (atm) or (bar)
Dn (e) Effect of a catalyst
temperature is proportional to the pressure of the
gas above the solvent Where Dn = change in gaseous moles (f) Effect of inert gas addition

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28 Equilibrium NCERT Maps

5 IONIC EQUILIBRIUM IN SOLUTION 6 THE pH SCALE 8 SALT HYDROLYSIS

m Substances which conduct electricity in their aqueous m The cations/anions formed on ionization of salts interact
m Negative logarithm to base 10 of the activity (aH+) of with water to reform corresponding acid/bases
solution are called electrolytes while the other are
hydrogen ion depending upon the nature of salt is known as hydrolysis.
called non-electrolytes.
+
pH = – log aH+ = – log [H ] m Salts of strong acid and strong base do not undergo salt
m Strong electrolytes on dissolution in water are ionized
hydrolysis.
almost completely, while the weak electrolytes are only pOH = – log aOH– = – log [OH ]
–

partially dissociated. m The pH of CH3COONa solution in water is more than 7

m Acids and Bases m pKw = pH + pOH = 14 at 298 K m The pH of NH4Cl solution in water is less than 7
(i) Arrhenius concept of Acids and Bases m pH of salt solution of weak acid and weak base
+ –
Acid gives H (aq) and base gives OH (aq) in 1
7 IONIZATION CONSTANTS OF WEAK ACIDS (Ka) pH = 7 + (pK a - pK b )
aqueous solution eg. HCl(Acid), NaOH(Base). 2
m For a weak acid HX,
(ii) The Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases + – 2
[H ][X ] Ca
(a) According to this theory, acid is a substance that Ka = = 9 BUFFER SOLUTIONS
[HX] 1–a
+
is capable of donating a hydrogen ion, H and m The solutions which resist change in pH on dilution or with
bases are substances capable of accepting a where C is the initial concentration of acid and a is degree the addition of small amounts of acid or alkali called
+ of dissociation of acid
hydrogen ion, H , Buffer solution
(b) The acid-base pair that differ only by one proton Ionization Constants of Weak Bases (Kb) m Acidic Buffer
–
is called the conjugate acid-base pair eg. OH m For a weak base MOH,
(i) Aqueous solution containing weak acid and its salt
is conjugate base of HOH. + – 2

Kb =
[M ][OH ] Ca
= 1–a with strong base can act as acidic buffer (eg
(c) Strong Bronsted acid has weak conjugate base [MOH]
and vice-versa. CH3COONa + CH3COOH)
m For conjugate acid-base pair [Salt]
– +
e.g. HI ® I + H (ii) pH = pK a + log
Ka.Kb = Kw [Acid]
Strong weak conjugate m Basic Buffer
pKa + pKb = pKw
acid base (i) Aqueous solution of weak base and its salt with
(iii) Lewis Acids and Bases Di-and Polybasic Acids and Di-and Polyacidic Bases strong acid can act as basic buffer (eg NH4Cl +
According to this theory an acid is a species which m Acids having more than one ionizable proton per NH4OH)
accepts electron pair and base which donates an molecule are known as polybasic acids pOH = pK b + log
[Salt]
electron pair. [Base]
m Higher order ionization constant (Ka2, Ka3) are smaller
e.g. AlCl3 [Lewis acid], NH3 (Lewis base) Sparingly Soluble Salts
than the lower order ionization constant (Ka1) of a m Salts having solubility < 0.01 M are considered
Ionization Constant of Water and its Ionic Product
+ –
polyprotic acid. The reason for this is that it is more saparigly soluble salts
m Ionic product of water Kw = [H ] [OH ]
difficult to remove a positively charged proton from a m The equilibrium constant between the undissolved solid
+ – –7
m Concentration of H and OH in pure water at 298 K = 10 negative ion due to electrostatic forces. and the ions in a saturated solution is known as
–14 2
M and Kw = 10 M Common ion effect defined as a shift in equilibrium on Solubility product (Ksp).
+ –
m In acidic solution [H3O ] > [OH ], in neutral solution adding a substance that provides more of ionic species m For sparingly soluble salt MxXy with molar solubility S
+ – + –
[H3O ] = [OH ] and in basic solution [H3O ] < [OH ] already present in the dissociation equilibrium x y
Ksp = x . y (S)
(x+y)

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 8
Redox Reactions Chapter

1 CLASSICAL IDEA OF REDOX REACTIONS (5) Oxidation number of F is –1, other halide ions is – 1, X + YZ ® XZ + Y
m Oxidation- addition of oxygen/electronegative elements positive oxidation number of halogens (except F) in Types of displacement to reactions.
to a substance or removal of hydrogen/electropositive oxoacids and oxoanions. (1) Metal displacement reaction in which a metal in a
element from a substance. compound can be displaced by another metal in
(6) Algebraic sum of oxidation number of all atoms in a
m Reduction is the removal of oxygen/electronegative uncombined state.
compound is 0. In polyatomic ions, the algebraic sum of
element from a substance or addition of hydrogen/ e.g. CuSO4(aq) + Zn(s) ® Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)
oxidation number of all atoms is equal to charge
electropositive element to a substance. (2) Non-metal displacement redox reaction generally
present on the ions. include hydrogen displacement
2 REDOX REACTION IN TERMS OF ELECTRON m Stock notation is expressed by putting a Roman numeral
e.g. 2Na(s) + 2H4O(l) ® 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
TRANSFER REACTIONS representing the oxidation number in parenthesis after the
m Disproportionation reactions
m Half reactions that involve loss of electrons are called symbol of metal in the molecular formula eg. Au (III) Cl3 In this type of reaction an element in one oxidation state
oxidation reactions. m Oxidation : An increase in the oxidation number of the is simultaneously oxidised and reduced.
m Half reactions that involve gain of electrons are called element in the given substance. eg: 2H2O2(aq) ¾® 2H2O (l) + O2(g)
reduction reactions.
– m Reduction : A decrease in the oxidation number of the
loss of 2e
element in the given substance. 5 PARADOX OF FRACTIONAL
+ –
2Na (s) + Cl2 (g) ¾® 2Na Cl (s) m Oxidising agent : A reagent which can increase the OXIDATION NUMBER
oxidation number of an element in a given substance
gain of 2e
– In certain compound, the oxidation number of a particular
m Reducing agent : A reagent which can decrease the
m Oxidising agent : Acceptor of electron(s). element in the compound is in fraction. Actually this
oxidation number of an element in a given substance.
m Reducing agent : Donor of electron (s) fractional oxidation state is the average oxidation state of
same element in the compound.
3 OXIDATION NUMBER 4 TYPES OF REDOX REACTIONS
m Combination reactions O O O
m Oxidation number denotes the oxidation state of an +6 +4 +6
element in a compound ascertained according to a set of A + B ¾® C eg: Br3O8 O Br Br Br O,
rules formulated on the basis that electron pair in a (Either A and B or both A and B must be in the elemental
O O O
covalent bond belongs entirely to more electronegative form)
element eg : C(s) + O2(g) ¾® CO2(g) Oxidation no. of Br = 16/3
m Rules of the calculation of oxidation numbers: m Decomposition reactions are the opposite of
(1) In elements in the free state, oxidation number of ¸2 0 +2
combination reaction. eg: C3O2 O C C C O
each atom is zero. D
(2) For ion containing single atom, oxidation number is e.g : 2NaH (s) 2Na (s) + H2 (g) Oxidation no. of C = 4/3
equal to charge on the ion. All decomposition reactions are not redox reactions
(3) Oxidation number of oxygen in oxide = –2, in D O O
e.g : CaCO3 CaO(s) + CO2 (g) +5 0 0 +5 –
peroxide = – 1, in super oxide = –½, in OF2 = + 2, in –
O S S S S O
m Displacement reaction are those in which an ion (or an eg: S4O62–
O2F2 = + 1
O O
(4) Oxidation number of hydrogen is + 1 in binary atom) in a compound is replaced by an ion (or an atom) of
Oxidation of S = 2.5
compound except with metal eg: LiH, CaH2 another element.

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32 Redox Reactions NCERT Maps

6 BALANCING OF REDOX REACTIONS Step 3: Balance the atoms other than O and H in For the reaction in a basic medium, first balance the
+
each half reaction individually. Here the oxidation atoms as is done in acidic medium. Then for each H ion,
1. Oxidation Number Method
half reaction is already balanced with respect to –
add an equal number of OH ions to both sides of the
MnO4– (aq) + Br – (aq) ® MnO2 (s) + BrO3– (aq) (in basic medium) Fe atoms. For the reduction half reaction, we + –
3+ equation. Where H and OH appear on the same side
Step 1: The Skeletal ionic equation multiply the Cr by 2 to balance Cr atoms.
of the equation, combine these to give H2O.
MnO4– (aq) + Br – (aq) ® MnO2 (s) + BrO3– (aq) Cr2O72 - (aq) 2Cr 3 + (aq)

Step 4: For reactions occurring in acidic medium, 7 REDOX REACTIONS AND

Step 2: Assign oxidation number for Mn and Br +
+7 –1 +4 +5 add H2O to balance O atoms and H to balance H ELECTRODE PROCESSES
MnO4– (aq) + B r – (aq) ® MnO2 (s) + B rO3– (aq) atoms. Thus, we get :
m A redox couple is defined as having together the
This indicates that permanganate ion is the oxidant and bromide Cr2O72– (aq) + 14H+ (aq) 2 Cr 3+ (aq) + 7H2O(l)
oxidised and reduced forms of a substance taking
ion in the reductant.
Step 5: Add electrons to one side of the half part in an oxidation or reduction half reaction.
Step 3 : Calculate the increase and decrease of oxidation
reaction to balance the charges. If need be, make
number, and make the increase equal to the decrease. m Daniell cell
the number of electrons equal in the two half
–1 Current flow
+7 +4 +5 reactions by multiplying one or both half reactions
Switch
2MnO4– (aq) + Br – (aq) ® 2MnO2 (s) + Br O3– (aq) by appropriate number.
Electron flow

The oxidation half reaction is thus rewritten to Anode Cathode

Step 4 : As the reaction occurs in the basic medium, and the ionic
balance the charge: +
–
charges are not equal on both sides, add 2OH . ions on the right 2+ 3+ –
Fe (aq) ® Fe (aq) + e
to make ionic charges equal Now in the reduction half reaction there are net Salt
2M nO 4– (aq) + B r – (aq) ® M nO 2 (s) + B rO 3– (aq) + 2O H – (aq) twelve positive charges on the left hand side and bridge

Step 5 : Finally, count the hydrogen atoms and add appropriate only six positive charges on the right hand side.
Therefore, we add six electrons on the left side.
number of water molecule (i.e. one H2O molecule, on the left + – 3+
Cr2O72– (aq) + 14H (aq) + 6e ® 2Cr (aq) +
side to achieve balanced redox change.)
7H2O (l) Oxidation Reduction
2M nO 4– (aq) + B r – (aq) + H 2 O( l ) ® 2M nO 2 (s) + B rO 3– (aq) + 2O H – (aq)
To equalise the number of electrons in both the
2. Half Reaction Method: half reactions, we multiply the oxidation half
Suppose we have to balance the equation showing the oxidation reaction by 6 and write as : m The potential associated with each electrode is known
2+ 3+ 2– 2+ 3+ – as electrode potential.
of Fe ions to Fe ions by dichromate ions (Cr2O7) in acidic 6Fe (aq) ® 6Fe (aq) + 6e
2– 3+ m If the concentration of each species taking part in the
medium, wherein, Cr2O7 ions are reduced to Cr ions. Step 6: We add the two half reactions to achieve
the overall reaction and cancel the electrons on electrode reaction is unity at 298 K then the potential of
The following steps are involved in this task.
Step 1: Produce unbalanced equation for the reaction in ionic each side. This gives the net ionic equation as : each electrode is said standard electrode potential.
2+ + 3+
form : 6Fe (aq) + Cr2O72– (aq) + 14H (aq) ® 6 Fe (aq) m By convention the standard electrode potential (E°)
3+ of hydrogen electrode is 0 volts.
Fe2+ (aq) + Cr2O72– (aq) Fe3+ (aq) + Cr 3+ (aq) +2Cr (aq) + 7H2O(l)
Step 7: Verify that the equation contains the same m A negative E° means redox couple is a stronger
Step 2: Separate the equation into half reactions:
+2 +3 type and number of atoms and the same charges reducing agent than H+/H2 couple.
Oxidation half : Fe2 + (aq) Fe3 + (aq) on both sides of the equation. This last check
m A positive E° means redox couple is weak reducing
+6 +3 reveals that the equation is fully balanced with
Reduction half : Cr 2 O72– (aq) 3+
Cr (aq) respect to number of atoms and the charges. +
agent than H / H2 couple.

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 Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principles 12
and Techniques Chapter

1 CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (d) For branched alkyl groups, the carbon atom of the O
Organic Compounds branch that attaches to the root alkane is numbered (1) CH3 – C – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – COOH
such as 6 5 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 5-Oxohexanoic acid
CH3 – CH – CH2 – CH – (1, 3-Dimethylbutyl) –
Acyclic or open chain Cyclic or closed chain 5 4 3 2 1 OH
O CH3 CH3 CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH – CH3 1 2
, (e) While writing the names of the substituents in OH Cyclohex-2-en-1-ol
3
alphabetical order, the prefixes iso and neo are Pent-4-en-2-ol
considered to be the part of fundamental name of alkyl NO2
Alicyclic compounds Aromatic compounds m Nomenclature of substituted
group but sec- and tert- are not considered to be the 4
3
part of fundamental name. benzene compounds
(f) If two chains are of equal size then that chain is to be 1 Cl
Homocyclic Heterocyclic Benzenoid Non-benzenoid 2
Cl
selected which contains more number of side chains 1
or carbocyclic compounds compounds compounds
2 4 6 8 10 4 CH3
compounds (non-aromatic) NH 3 5 7 9 O2N 2
NO2
2 3 2-Chloro-1-methyl
1 1-Chloro-2, 4-dinitrobenzene -4-nitrobenzene
, , O OMe NH2
O 1
1
2 Cl 2 CH
3
Heterocyclic aromatic
5-(2-Ethylbutyl)-3, 3-dimethyldecane
compounds 3 3
m Nomenclature of Cyclic Compounds 4 4

, CH3 C 2H 5
O N 1 2 (Alphabetic order of numbering) 2-Chloro-4-methylanisole 4-Ethyl-2-methylaniline
H 1-Methyl-3-propylcyclohexane
3
2 NOMENCLATURE m Nomenclature of organic compounds having functional 3 ISOMERISM
Abbreviation for alkyl groups groups(s)
m (a)Structural Isomerism
CH3 (a) The functional group present in the molecule is identified Compounds having the same molecular formula but
CH3
which determines the choice of appropriate suffix. different structures are classified as structural isomers.
CH3 – CH – CH3 – CH2 – CH – (b) The longest chain of carbon atoms containing the
H3 C CH2 – (i) Chain isomerism: Example, C5H12 represents three
CH3 functional group is numbered in such a way that the
chain isomers
Isopropyl – sec-Butyl – Isobutyl – functional group is attached at the carbon atom
CH3 CH3 possessing lowest possible number in the chain.
(c) The order of decreasing priority for some functional
H 3C – C – CH3 – C – CH2 – groups: Pentane 2-Methylbutane
CH3 CH3 –COOH, –SO3H, –COOR, –COCl, –CONH2, –CN, (2, 2-Dimethylpropane)
tert-Butyl – Neopentyl –
m Nomenclature of Branched Chain Alkanes: (Rules)
(a) Longest carbon chain is identified –HC = O, C = O, –OH, –NH2, C=C , –C º C– (ii) Position isomerism: Example, C3H8O represents
(b) Numbering is done so that branched carbon atoms get two alcohols
the lowest possible numbers O O
OH OH
(c) For two substituents present at equivalent positions, the CH3 – CH2 – C – CH2 – C – CH3
lower number is given to the one coming first in 6 5 4 3 2 1
alphabetical listing Hexane-2, 4-dione Propan-1-ol Propan-2-ol

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 48 Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principles and Techniques NCERT Maps

(iii)F u n c t i o n a l g r o u p i s o m e r i s m : E x a m p l e , (ii) Homolytic cleavage: One of the electrons of the (iii) Resonance effect
C3H6O represents an aldehyde and a ketone shared pair in a covalent bond goes with each of m It is a permanent effect

O bonded atoms resulting in formation of free radicals. m It operates through p-bond(s)

m Free radicals : Stability order m It is of two types
CHO · · · ·
+R effect : Halogens, –OH, –OR, –OCOR, –NH2 etc.
propanone propanal CH 3 < CH 3 CH 2 < (CH 3 )2 CH < (CH 3 )3 C
–R effect : –COOH, –CHO, –CN, –NO2 etc.
(iv)Metamerism: (b) Nucleophiles and Electrophiles
(iv) Electromeric effect
It arises due to different alkyl chains on either m Nucleophiles: A reagent that brings an electron pair to
m It is a temporary effect
side of the functional group. the reactive site is called a nucleophile (Nu:)
– – m Organic compounds having multiple bond (a double
Example : CH3OC3H7 and C2H5OC2H5 are metamers. Examples: H2O, NH3, CH3O, SH or triple bond) show this effect in presence of
(b) Stereoisomerism m Electrophile : A reagent that takes away an electron attacking reagent
+
The compounds that have the same constitution pair from reactive site is called electrophile (E ) m It is of two types
+
and sequence of covalent bonds but differ in Example: AlCl3, BF3, NO2 , Cl
+
Positive electromeric effect (+E effect)
relative positions of their atoms or groups in space
are called stereoisomers. They are classified as (c) Electron Displacement Effects in Covalent Bonds + +
(i) Inductive effect C = C + H ¾® C – C
(i) Geometrical isomerism
m When covalent bond is formed between atoms of H
(ii) Optical isomerism
different electronegativity, the electron density is Negative electromeric effect (–E effect)
more towards the more electronegative atom.
4 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN ORGANIC – –
m It operates through s-bonds C = C + CN ¾® C – C
REACTION MECHANISM
m The inductive effect is related to the ability of CN
Attacking
reagent substituent(s) to either withdraw or donate electron (v) Hyperconjugation
Organic molecule [Intermediate] ® Byproduct(s)
(Substrate) density to the attached carbon atom.
m It involves delocalisation of s electrons of C – H bond
m It is a permanent effect
Product(s) of an alkyl group directly attached to an atom of
m It is of two types
(a) Fission of Covalent bond unsaturated system or to an atom with an unshared
(i) Heterolytic cleavage and (ii) Homolytic cleavage +I effect : e.g. –CH3, –CH2CH3 etc. p orbital
(i) Heterolytic cleavage –I effect : e.g. –NO2, –CN, –CHO, –COOH etc. H H H
+
H H H H H
In heterolytic cleavage, the bond breaks in such a (ii) Resonance structures +
fashion that the shared pair of electrons remains with H–C–C+«H–C=C«H C=C«H–C=C
m Benzene can be represented by energetically
one of the fragments. H
+
H
m Carbocations:
identical structures (I) and (II) called resonance H H H H H H
l A species having a carbon atom possessing structures. m It is a permanent effect.
sextet of electrons and a positive charge is called 6 6

carbocation. 1 5 1 5
5 METHODS OF PURIFICATION OF
l Alkyl groups directly attached to the positively 2 4 2 4 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
charged carbon stabilise the carbocations due to 3 3
inductive and hyperconjugation effects. The common techniques used for purification:
(I) (II)
(i) Sublimation (ii) Crystallisation
· Stability order:
+ + + +
m Actual structure is resonance hybrid of (I) and (II) (iii) Distillation : It is used to separate
(CH3 )3C > (CH3 )2CH > CH3CH2 > CH3 m The resonance structures (canonical structures) are (a) Volatile liquids from non-volatile impurities.
m Carbanions: hypothetical and individually do not represent any (b) The liquids having sufficient difference in boiling points
l A carbon species carrying a negative charge on real molecule. e.g. mixture of chloroform (b.p. 334 K) and aniline
carbon atom is called carbanion. (b.p. 457 K) is separated by this method.
m The energy of actual structure of the molecule is
3 (c) Distillation can be achieved by three different ways
l Carbon in carbanion is generally sp hybridised lower than that of any of the canonical structures. m Fractional Distillation: This is applicable if boiling
and its structure is distorted tetrahedral. m The difference in energy between the actual points of two liquids is not much, e.g. this is
· Stability order: structure and the lowest energy resonance structure applicable to separate different fractions of crude oil
CH3 > CH3CH2 > (CH3 )2 CH > (CH3 )3 C is called the resonance energy. in petroleum industry.

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NCERT Maps Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principles and Techniques 49

m Steam Distillation: This technique is applied to (A) Test for nitrogen Let mass of organic compound = m g
separate substances which are steam volatile and – 2+ 4–
Volume of H2SO4 of molarity M needed for neutralisation
6CN + Fe ® [Fe(CN)6]
are immiscible with water. of ammonia produced = V mL
Example: Aniline is separated by this technique 4– 2
3[Fe(CN)6] + 4Fe ¾¾¾¾
3+ xH O
® Fe4 [Fe(CN)6]3 × xH2O
from aniline water mixture. (Prussian blue) V ´ 2M ´ 1.4
m Distillation under reduced pressure: This % of nitrogen =
(B) Test of Sulphur m
method is used to purify liquids having very high 2– 2+
boiling points and those, which decompose at or (i) S + Pb ® PbS (black)
m Kjeldahl’s method is not applicable to compounds
below their boiling points. (ii) S2- + [Fe(CN)5 NO]2 - ® [Fe(CN)5 NOS]4 - containing nitrogen in nitro and azo groups and nitrogen
Example: Glycerol can be separated from spent-lye Nitroprusside Violet present in ring (e.g. pyridine).
in soap industry by using this technique.
In case, nitrogen and sulphur both are present, sodium (B) Halogens
(iv) Differential Extraction:
thiocyanate is formed Carius method:
m When an organic compound is present in an aqueous
Na + C + N + S ® NaSCN
medium, it is separated by shaking it with an organic Fum ing HNO 3
solvent in which it is more soluble than in water. 3+ 2+ Organic compound ¾¾ ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾® AgX ¯
Fe + SCN ® [Fe(SCN)] (Blood red) AgNO D 3

m The organic solvent and the aqueous solution should be

immiscible with each other. (C) Test of Halogen Let mass of compound = m g
– +
m They form distinct layer which can be separated by X + Ag ® AgX
Mass of AgX formed = m1 g
separatory funnel. m A white precipitate, soluble in NH4OH shows presence of
m The compound is obtained by evaporating the organic
chlorine. atom ic m ass of X ´ m 1 ´ 100
solvent. % of halogen = %
m A yellowish precipitate soluble, sparingly soluble in m olecular m ass of Ag X ´ m
(v) Chromatography: It is an important technique extensively
NH4OH shows presence of Br
used to separate mixtures into their components.
A yellow precipitate insoluble in NH4OH shows presence (C) Sulphur
Based on the principle involved it is classified into two main m

categories. of iodine Carius method:

(a) Adsorption chromatography and (D) Test of Phosphorus Organic Na2O2 BaCl2
(b) Partition chromatography Na2O2 HNO3 compound ¾¾¾¾ ® H2SO4 ¾¾¾¾ ® BaSO 4 ¯
(a) Adsorption Chromatography: It is based on the fact Compound Na3PO4 H3PO4
that different compounds are adsorbed on an (NH4)2 MoO4 Let mass of compound = m g
(NH4)3PO4 × 12 MoO3
adsorbent to different degrees. Commonly used
adsorbents are silica gel and alumina. It is of two types
(Yellow ppt) Mass of BaSO4 = m1 g
l Column chromatography
l Thin layer chromatography
7 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 32 ´ m1 ´ 100
% of sulphur = %
(b) Partition Chromatography: It is based on continuous (A) Nitrogen is estimated by Dumas and Kjeldahl's method 233 ´ m
differential partitioning of components of a mixture
(i) Dumas method (D) Phosphorus
between stationary and mobile phases. Paper
chromatography is a type of partition chromatography. Let volume of nitrogen at STP = V mL
Mass of organic compound = m g Organic Fuming (NH4)2MoO4
H3PO4 (NH4)3PO4 × 12MoO3 ¯
compound HNO3
6 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 28 ´ V ´ 100
Percentage of nitrogen = Let mass of compound = m g
22400 ´ m
Nitrogen, sulphur, halogens and phosphorus present in an
organic compound are detected by Lassaigne's test. The Mass of (NH4)3 PO4 × 12MoO3 = m1 g
(ii) Kjeldahl's Method
elements present in the compound are converted from covalent
Molar mass of (NH4)3PO4 × 12MoO3 = 1877 g
form into the ionic form by fusing compound with sodium metal. Organic compound + H2SO4 ® (NH4)2SO4
D
Na + C + N ¾¾® NaCN NaOH 31 ´ m1 ´ 100
D D H2SO4 % of P = %
2Na + S ¾¾® Na2S ; Na + X ¾¾® NaX (X = Cl, Br or I) (NH4)2SO4 NH3 1877 ´ m

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 Hydrocarbons
13
Chapter
1 AlKANES m Physical Properties (vii) Pyrolysis Preparation
C6H12+ H2 m

General formula (CnH2n + 2) Isomeric alkanes having more branching 773 K (i) From alkynes
m C6H14 C4H8+ C2H6 R R¢
has lower boiling point.
m Alkanes show structural isomerism C3H6+ C2H2 + CH4 Pd/C
m Chemical properties (a) RC CR¢ C C (cis)
m Conformations: BaSO4
m C6H14 has got five structural isomers (i) Substitution reaction Alkanes show conformational isomerism H H
whereas C7H16 has nine. CH4 + Cl2
hn
CH3Cl + HCl due to C – C bond rotation as is seen in
ethane. H R¢
m Preparation Na
m Rate of reaction of alkanes with halogens is m Ethane molecule (C2H6) contains a carbon- (b) RC CR¢ C C¢ (trans)
(i) Hydrogenation Liq.NH3
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 carbon single bond.
Pt/Pd/Ni (ii) From alkyl halides R H
CH2 = CH2 + H2 CH3 – CH3 m C – C bond results into infinite number of
m Rate of replacement of hydrogens of alkanes is : spatial arrangements of hydrogen atoms alc./KOH
(ii) From alkyl halides 3º > 2º > 1º CH3 – CH2 – Cl D CH2 = CH2
attached to one carbon atom with respect to
(a) Reduction of alkyl halides (ii) Combustion the hydrogen atoms attached to the other m The reaction is called b-elimination
Zn CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ® CO2(g)+ 2H2O(l) carbon atom. m It is observed that for halogens, the rate
CH3 – Cl + H2 + CH4 m These are called conformational isomers
H is : iodine > bromine > chlorine
(b) Wurtz reaction One such conformation in which hydrogen
CnH2n+2 + 3n + 1 O2 ® nCO2 + (n + 1)H2O
m
dry ether atoms attached to two carbons are as m The rate for alkyl groups is : tert >
2CH3Br + 2Na CH3 – CH3 2 secondary > primary
closed together as possible is called
It is used for the preparation of higher eclipsed conformation. (iii) From vicinal dihalides
alkanes containing even number of (iii) Controlled oxidation
m The conformation in which hydrogens are
carbon atoms. Cu/523 K
as far apart as possible is known as Zn
(a) 2CH4 + O2 2CH3OH CH2 – CH2 CH2 CH2
100 atm
(iii) From carboxylic acids staggered conformation.
Mo2O3
(b) CH4 + O2 CH3OH + H2O m Any other intermediate conformation is Br Br
(a) Decarboxylation D called skew conformation.
CH3COO Na
– + Soda lime
CH4 + Na2CO3 (CH3COO)2Mn H m Chemical Properties
D (c) 2CH3CH3 + 3O2 D H HH H
(b) Kolbe’s electrolytic method H (I) Addition of dihydrogen
H H Pd
RCH CH2 R – CH2 – CH3
– + Electrolysis 2CH3COOH + 2H2O H H H H H2
2CH3COO Na (aq) CH3 – CH3 (i) Eclipsed form (ii) Staggered form
KMnO4 (ii) Addition of halogens
(d) (CH3)3CH (CH3)3COH Br2
m Reaction at anode: 2 AlKENES CH2 = CH2 CCl4
CH2 – CH2
O O (iv) Isomerisation
– –2e
– m General formula (CnH2n ) Br Br
2CH3– C – O 2CH3– C – O m The reddish orange colour of bromine
anhy./AlCl3 m Alkenes show structural isomerism
HCl
+ solution in CCl4 is discharged when Br2
CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH3 CH2 = C – CH3 adds to unsaturation site. this is test for
CH3 – CH3 2CH3 + 2CO2 (i)
(v) Aromatisation CH3 unsaturation.
m Reaction at cathode: CH3 – CH = CH – CH3 (iii) Addition of hydrogen halides
Cr2O3 or V2O5 or Mo2O3 (ii) (iii)
– –
H2O + e OH + H 773 K; 10-20 atm m Alkenes show geometrical isomerism (a) Markovnikov’s reaction
H HBr
2H H2 (vi) Reaction with steam R – CH2 = CH2 R – CH – CH3
cis-But-2-ene & trans-But-2-ene
Ni
m Methane cannot the prepared by this CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2 H H H Br
1273 K
method are geometrical isomers (Major)

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 54 Hydrocarbons NCERT Maps

(b) Anti Markovnikov addition m Chemical Properties m Chemical Properties

HBr (i) Acidic character m Electrophilic substitution reaction
CH3 – CH = CH2 (C H CO) O CH3CH2CH2Br
CH3 – C º CH + Na ® CH3 – C º C Na + 1 H2
– +
6 5 2 2
(Major) 2 (i) Halogenation (ii) Nitration
Acidity order of some hydrocarbons : Cl NO2
m Peroxide effect is not observed in addition of HCl and HI
HC º CH > CH2 = CH2 > CH3 – CH3 anhyd. Conc. HNO3
(a) + Cl2
(iv) Addition of H2SO4 AlCl3 Conc. H2SO4
HC º CH > CH3 – C º CH >> CH3 – C º C – CH3
(ii) Addition reactions Cl
H2SO4 Cl Cl
CH3 – CH = CH2 CH3 – CH – CH3 (a) Addition of dihydrogen anh.
(b) + 6Cl2 AlCl
dark, cold Cl
3
Cl
(v) Addition of H2O SO3H R – C º CH + 2H2 Pd RCH2CH3 Cl
(b) Addition of halogens
H
+
Br Br (iii) Sulphonation (iv) Friedel-Crafts alkylation
+ H2 O 2-methylpropan-2-ol Br2 SO3H C2H5
OH CH3 – C º CH CH3 – C – CH
(Major) D
+ H2SO4(SO3) + H2O anhyd.
(vi) Oxidation reaction Br Br + C2H5Cl AlCl3
Reddish orange colour of the solution of bromine in fuming D
dil KMnO4
(a) CH2 = CH2 273K CH2 – CH2 CCl4 is decolourised.
(v) Friedel-Crafts acylation COCH3
(c) Addition of hydrogen halides
OH OH anhyd.
Cold, dilute, aqueous solution of KMnO4 is called + CH3COCl
Baeyer’s reagent CH º CH HBr [CH2 = CH – Br] HBr AlCl3
D

CH3 – CHBr2 m Mechanism of electrophilic substitution reaction

Decolorisation of KMnO4 solution is used as a test of Halogenation
(d) Addition of water
unsaturation. Step-I Step-II H Cl
KMnO4 H 2O Tautomerism
(b) CH3CH = CHCH3 + 2CH3COOH CH3C º CH 2+ + CH3–C=CH2 Cl – Cl + AlCl3 Cl + [AlCl4]
–
H Hg /H + Cl ® (s Complex)
(e) Polymerisation O–H CH3 – C – CH3 Step-III
(vii) Ozonolysis
O H Cl Cl
(i) O3 Red hot
O + HCHO 3CH º CH Fe tube 873 K
(ii) Zn/H2O
(vii) Polymerisation
4 AROMATIC HYDROCARBON
High T/P m Addition reactions Cl
nCH2 = CH2
Catalyst
( CH2 – CH2)n m Species which is cyclic, planar having delocalised p
Polythene electrons and follow’s Huckel’s (4n + 2)p rule is 3H2 UV Cl Cl
(i) (ii) + 3Cl2
aromatic. n is an integer (n = 0, 1, 2...) Ni/D 500 K
Cl Cl
3 ALKYNES m Combustion Cl (BHC)
m General formula (CnH2n–2) C6H6 + 15 O2 ® 6CO2+3H2O
2
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
Preparation y y
(i) CaC2 + 2H2O ® C2H2 + Ca(OH)2 C xH y + x + O2 ® xCO2+ 4 H2O
are aromatic species 4
(ii) CH2 – CH2 m Preparation of benzene m Directive influence of function group towards EAS reaction:
alc./KOH
D CH2 = CH – Br COONa OH o/p directing groups : – OH, – NH2, – NHR, – NHCOCH3, – OCH3,
Br Br
NaNH2 CaO Zn –CH3, – C2H5 etc.
(i) + NaOH D
(ii) D
CH º CH Meta directing groups : – NO2, – CN, – CHO, – COR, – COOH,
–COOR, – SO3H etc.

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 Environmental Chemistry
14
Chapter
1 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 3 GLOBAL WARMING AND GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
m It is effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful effects on m About 75% of the solar energy reaching the earth is absorbed by the earth surface, which
plants, animals and human beings. increases its temperature.
m Green house gases: CO2, CH4, O3, CFCs, H2O vapour, N2O, O3.
2 ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
m CO2 molecules trap heat as they are transparent to sunlight but not to the heat radiation.
m It is studied as tropospheric and stratospheric pollution.
m CO2 is the major contributor to global warming.
m Troposphere extends to the height of ~10 km from sea level.
m Stratosphere lies between 10 and 50 km above sea level. It contains N2, O2, O3 and 4 ACID RAIN
little H2O vapour. The presence of O3 in it prevents about 99.5% of sun's harmful UV m When the pH of rain water drops below 5.6, it is called acid rain.
radiations from reaching earth's surface.
m Oxide of S, N and C causes acid rain.
m Tropospheric pollution is due to gaseous air pollutants and particulate pollutants.
m The Taj Mahal is being slowly disfigured and marble is getting discoloured and lustreless due to
(i) Gaseous air pollutants
acid rain. The acid rain reacts with marble, CaCO3 of Taj Mahal.
l SO2 which causes respiratory diseases, irritation to eyes resulting in tears and
redness. CaCO3 + H2SO4 ® CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

l Due to burning of fossil fuel in automobile engine, NO and NO2 are produced.
5 SMOG
l The irritant red haze in the traffic and congested places is due to oxides of
nitrogen. m It is mixture of smoke and fog.
m Classical smog is mixture of smoke, fog and SO2, occurs in cool humid climate. It is a reducing
l NO2 is lung irritant.
mixture.
l Hydrocarbons are carcinogenic. m Photochemical smog results from action of sunlight on unsaturated hydrocarbons and
l CO is highly poisonous and produced as a result of incomplete combustion of nitrogen oxides. It occurs in warm, dry and sunny climate. Its main components are O3, NO,
carbon.
acrolein, HCHO and PAN. It is called oxidising smog.
l CO binds to Haemoglobin to form carboxy haemoglobin, which is about 300
times more stable than the oxygen-haemoglobin complex.
l The effect of particulate pollutants are largely dependent on the particle size.
l High level of CO in blood may induce premature birth and deformed babies.
l Lead used to be a major air pollutant emitted by vehicles.
l CO2 is released in atmosphere by respiration, burning of fossil fuel and also
during volcanic eruptions. m Stratospheric pollution is due to the depletion of protective ozone layer. CFCs combine with
ozone and damage ozone layer.
l Increased amount of CO2 in the air is mainly responsible for global warming.
· ·
UV
(ii) Particulate pollutants CF2Cl2 (g) ¾¾¾ ® Cl(g) + CF2Cl(g)
l These are minute solid particles or liquid droplets in air. · ·
l Viable particulates: Bacteria, fungi, moulds, algae etc. Cl(g) + O3 (g) ¾¾® ClO(g) + O2 (g)
l Non-viable particulates: Cigarette smoke, Dust, Sand, Cement, fly ash, · ·
Sulphuric acid mist, fume particles etc. ClO(g) + O(g) ¾¾® Cl(g) + O2 (g)

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NCERT Maps Environmental Chemistry 59

6 WATER POLLUTION 8 INDUSTRIAL WASTE

(i) Pathogens: Bacteria and other organisms that l The process in which nutrient enriched water bodies support a m Biodegradable waste: It is generated by cotton mills,
enter water from domestic sewage and animal dense plant population, which kills animal life by depriving it of paper mills and textile factories.
excreta. Human excreta contain bacteria such as oxygen and results in subsequent loss of biodiversity is known as m Non-Biodegradable waste: It is generated by thermal
Escherichia coli and streptococcus faecalis Eutrophication. power plants, iron and steel plants etc.
which cause gastrointestinal diseases. l International standards for drinking water. m Now a days, fly ash and slag from steel industry are
(ii) Organic waste: Leaves, Grass, Trash, Excessive (1) Fluoride: Its deficiency causes tooth decay. It makes utilised by the cement industry.
phytoplankton growth etc. enamel on tooth much harder by converting [3 Ca3(PO4)2 × m Fuel obtained from plastic waste has high octane rating.
l If the concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) in Ca(OH)2] into [3 Ca3(PO4)2 × CaF2]. It contains no lead and is known as “green fuel”.
water is below 6 ppm, the growth of fish gets –
F ion concentration above 2 ppm causes brown mottling of
inhibited. 9 WASTE MANAGEMENT
teeth.
l The amount of oxygen required by bacteria to The improper disposal of wastes is one of the major
(2) Lead: Upper limit of lead in drinking water is 50 ppb. m
break down the organic matter present in a causes of environmental degradation. Therefore the
(3) Sulphate: Excessive sulphate (>500 ppm) in drinking water
certain volume of a sample of water is called management of wastes is of utmost importance.
causes laxative effect.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
(4) Nitrate: Upper limit of nitrate in drinking water is 50 ppm. m Two programmes are being implemented
l The amount of BOD in the water is a measure of Excess of it causes diseases such as methemoglobinemia
the amount of organic material in the water. Swatchh Bharat Mission - Urban (SBM - U)
(‘blue baby’ syndrome)
Clean water would have BOD value of less than Swatchh Bharat Mission - Gramin (SBM - G)
l (5) Other metals:
5 ppm whereas highly polluted water could have
a BOD value of 17 ppm or more. Metal Fe Mn Al Cu Zn Cd 10 GREEN CHEMISTRY
(iii) Chemical Pollutants:
Maximum m It is a way of thinking and it about utilising the existing
l Water soluble inorganic chemicals such as Cd, Concentration 0.2 0.05 0.2 3.0 5.0 0.005 knowledge and principles of chemistry and other
Hg, Ni etc. These metals can damage kidneys, (ppm) sciences to reduce the adverse impact on environment.
central nervous system, liver etc. m Tetrachloroethene (Cl2C = CCl2), was earlier used as
l NaCl and CaCl2 are used to melt snow and ice in solvent for dry cleaning and is also a suspected
the colder climates. 7 SOIL POLLUTION carcinogen. Now, liquefied CO 2 with a suitable
detergent is used.
l Petroleum products pollute many sources of m Insecticides, pesticides and herbicides cause soil pollution. m Chlorine gas was used earlier for bleaching paper.
water e.g. major oil spills in oceans.
m Prior to World War II, nicotine were used as pest controlling These days, H2O2 with suitable catalyst is used.
l Pesticides that drift down from sprays or runoff substance for major crops. m Ethanal is prepared commercially by one step oxidation
from lands.
m After the World War II, DDT was used in various crop diseases. of ethene.
l Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) which are Catalyst
m Pesticides are basically synthetic toxic chemicals with CH2 = CH2 + O2 ¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾® CH3CHO (90%)
used as cleansing solvent, detergents and Pd(II)/Cu(II) (in water )
ecological repercussions.
fertilizers. PCBs are suspected to be
m As insect resistance of DDT increased, other organic toxins m Kernel of tamarind seeds has been found to be effective
carcinogenic. to make waste water clean.
such as Aldrin and Dieldrin were introduced.
l Fertilizers contain phosphates. The addition of m Green chemistry is a cost effective approach which
phosphates in water enhances algae growth, m These days herbicides such as NaClO3 and Na3AsO3 have involves reduction in material, energy consumption and
which reduces oxygen concentration in water. more attention. Some herbicides cause birth defects. waste generation.

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