INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

COMP 101 COURSE NAME: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

APPLICATIONS (45/15; CF 3.5)

Course Aim To enable the Learners develop knowledge and experience; mastering all
and/or Objective computer basics. Also, to lead the student in a holistic manner to ever-improve
computer skills: This enables students further develop their capacity to use
generic applications in their daily activities.
Exercises and lab sessions reinforce the learning objectives and provide students
the opportunity to gain practical hands-on experience.
Course Nature and functions of computers; Introduction to basic components of a
Description modern computer system; Hardware, Firmware and Power. Identification and
description of the functions of the basic components of a computer system:
Processor, Motherboard, RAM/ROM, Hard Drive, Input/Output Adaptors and
Removable Storage Devices. Data processing. Software; System software,
Application software, software acquisition. Introduction to information systems.
Computer networks and the Internet.

Learning At the completion of this course students will be able to:

Outcomes - Use generic software to capture data, generate, store and display
information
- Use the internet for research work
Pre-requisites: None

General - Hands-on training in a Windows-based operating

Description of - environment, electronic mail, the World Wide Web, word processing,
Teaching/Learnin databases and electronic spreadsheets.
g Methods and - This course has 60 hrs (45hrs theory and 15hrs practical).
Modes of - Continuous assessment tests (CATS) in 6th and 11th week of the semester, a
Assessment number of assignment and presentations (if any). All this should add to 30%
of total examination marks.
- Final examination (end of semester exam) amounts 70% of the total exams.
All add up to 100%.
Teaching Students will make extensive use of computer laboratories and relevant software
facilities/Instructi provided by the Department. You will be able to access course information and
onal learning materials through the learning hub, Egerton moodle and may be
materials/Equipm provided with copies of additional materials in class. Lists of relevant reference
ent needed: texts, resources in the library and freely accessible internet sites will be
provided.

Course Outline Topic 1: Basic Terminologies, nature and functions of computers

Topic 2: Introduction to basic components of a modern computer system
Topic 3: Data processing
Topic 4: System software
Topic 5: Application software and software acquisition
Topic 6: Information systems
Topic 7: Basics of Computer networks and the Internet

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

Topic 8: Security, Integrity and Control

References - H. L. Capron and J. A Johnson, Computers: Tools for an information age,

main reference: 8th Ed., 2004, Prentice Hall
Other references:

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

COMP 101- INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATION 45/15

Tentative course coverage

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Basic Terminologies
1.2 Types of computers
1.3 History computing devices
2.0 Computer Hardware
2.1 The basic operations of computing
2.2 Input Unit
2.3 Central Processing Unit
2.4 Output Unit
2.5 Storage Unit
2.6 Data Representation and Number systems
3.0 Computer Software
3.1 Common features of software
3.2 System software
3.3 Application software
3.4 Software Development Tools
4.0 System Software-Operating systems
4.1 Definition of Operating system
4.2 Functions of Operating system
4.3 Examples of Operating system
5.0 Computer Application Software
5.1 Categories of Application Software
5.2 Drawbacks of Application Software
5.3 Ethics and Intellectual Property Rights
6.0 Computer Networking
6.1 Network Terminologies
6.2 Network Hardware and functionalities
6.3 Network Topology and structure
6.4 Network Protocol and Protocol stack
6.5 Types of Network and layout
6.6 Advantages of Network
6.7 Factors affecting Data communication devices
7.0 The Internet
7.1 Internet Terminologies
7.2 Types of Connectivity
7.3 Uses of the Internet
7.4 Impacts of the Internet
8.0 Impacts of computers in the Society
9.0 Security, Integrity and Control measures

2 Cats and 2 Assignments = 30%

Exams = 70%

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

INTRODUCTION
Basic Terminologies

Data: data is the name given to basic facts, e.g. the number of items sold by a business, the name
of a customer, a line of text, or the numerical values used in mathematical formulae.

Computer: A computer is an electronic device that works under the control of stored programs,
automatically accepting, storing and processing data to produce information that is the result of
processing.

Program: a program is a set of instructions that is written in the language of the computer. A
program is used to make the computer perform a specific task, such as calculating interest
to be paid to savings account holders or producing a payroll. (Note: spelling program not
programme). The computer is only able to obey a program’s instructions if the program
has been first stored within the computer. This implies that the computer must be able to
input and store programs in addition to data. So, the computer works under the control of
stored programs.

Information: a distinction is sometimes made between data and information. When data is
converted into a more useful or intelligible form then it is said to be processed into
information.

Hardware: is the general term used to describe all the electronic and mechanical elements of the
computer, together with those devices used with the computer.

Software: is the general term used to describe all the various programs that may be used on a
computer system together with their associated documentation.

Peripheral Device: This is any device that is connected to the computer.

User Interface: it is the part of the software with which you interact. It controls how data and
instructions are entered and how it is presented on the screen.

An Icon: It’s a small image that presents a program, instructions or some object.
Instructions: set of rules and regulations to be follow when solving particular problem or
execution of a command.

Computer Types

A computer may be classified by technology (electronics), purpose, and size.

Basic types according to technology (electronics)

a. Digital: Digital computers are so called because they process data that is represented
in the form of discrete values (e.g. 0,1,2,3 …) by operating on it in steps. Discrete
values occur at each step in the operation. Counting on one’s fingers is

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probably the simplest digital operation we all know. Digital watches have special
tiny, digital computers within them.
b. Analog: Analog computers are similar to measuring instruments such as
thermometers and voltmeters with pointers on circular dials. They process data in the
form of electrical voltages, which are variable like the variable positions of a pointer
on a dial. The output from analog computers is often in the form of smooth graphs
from which information can be read.
c. Hybrid: Hybrid computers, as their name suggests, are computers that have the
combined features of digital and analog computers.

Computer Types by Purpose

a. Special purpose computers: as their suggests, are designed for a particular job only;
to solve problems of a restricted nature. Examples are computers designed for use in
digital watches, in petrol pumps or in weapons guidance systems.
b. General Purpose Computers: are designed to solve a wide variety of problems.
Within the limitations imposed by their design capabilities, they can be adapted to
perform particular tasks or solve problems by means of specially written programs.

Examples of computers:

a A Home Computer: is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability designed for

domestic use with programs that typically are used for such things as computer games or
controlling family finances.
b A Personal Computer (PC): as mentioned earlier, is a microcomputer designed for
independent use by an individual at work or in the home mainly for business purposes.
Some PC’s are portable. Many can be connected to minicomputers and mainframe
computers so that the PC user can also gain access to the facilities offered by the larger
machine.
c A Desktop Computer: is any computer designed for use on a desk in an office
environment. Therefore Home computers and PC’s are types of desktop computers.
d A Workstation: Is another kind of desktop computer. Although larger more powerful
PCS are sometimes called workstations the term is normally used to imply the presence
of advanced features not provided by all PCs. These include in-built capabilities for their
interconnection and operation in conjunction with other computers, and for them to
process pictorial data as well as that presented in the form of text.
e A Lap-top: computer is a PC sufficiently small and light for its user comfortably to use it
on his or her lap. A typical lap-top operates on mains electricity or by rechargeable
batteries and is small enough to fit inside a brief case, still leaving room for other items.
They have in-built flat screens called Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD’s)
f An Embedded Computer: is one that is within some other device or system but is not
accessed directly. For example, there are embedded computers operating within petrol
pumps, watches, switches, cameras, video recorders and many type of domestic and
industrial equipment.

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Classification (Families) Of Computers

Further classification is done in order of decreasing power and size:

a Supercomputers
b Mainframe Computers
c Minicomputers
d Microcomputers
e Laptops/Notebooks

Supercomputers are high capacity machines that require special air-conditioned room and are
the fastest calculating devices ever invented. Super-Computers use “non-Von Neumann designs”
multiprocessor systems with simultaneous or “parallel” processing. They are used for complex
scientific application like weather forecasting, where large amount of data need to be
manipulated within a very short time.

Mainframe computers are very large, often filling an entire room. They can store enormous of
information, can perform many tasks at the same time, can communicate with many users at the
same time, and are very expensive. . The price of a mainframe computer frequently runs into the
millions of shillings. Mainframe computers usually have many terminals connected to them.
These terminals look like small computers but they are only devices used to send and receive
information from the actual computer using wires. Terminals can be located in the same room
with the mainframe computer, but they can also be in different rooms, buildings, or cities. Large
businesses, government agencies, and universities usually use this type of computer.

Minicomputers are much smaller than mainframe computers and they are also much less
expensive. The cost of these computers can vary from a few thousand shillings to several
hundred thousand shillings. They possess most of the features found on mainframe computers,
but on a more limited scale. They can still have many terminals, but not as many as the
mainframes. They can store a tremendous amount of information, but again usually not as much
as the mainframe. Medium and small businesses typically use these computers.

Microcomputers are the types of computers we are using in our labs. They are limited in what
they can do when compared to the larger models discussed above because they can only be used
by one person at a time, they are much slower than the larger computers, and they can not store
nearly as much information, but they are excellent when used in small businesses, homes, and
schools. These computers are inexpensive & easy to use. Two main categories of
Microcomputers include:

i) Laptops/Notebooks These are portable computers equipped with a flat

display screen and are smaller in size. The expandability and the number
of peripheral devices by the laptop are also limited. However, as

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technology advances, more and more features are being incorporated into
the system.
ii) Handheld computers Is a small PC designed to fit in your hand e.g
personal digital assistant (PDA) which can handle personal information
e.g calendar etc

1.1 History of Computing

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations
of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological
development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly
smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. Read about each
generation and the developments that led to the current devices that we use today. Otherwise
computer history dates back to 1647 when Frenchman Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical
calculator.
First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to
using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations, and
they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape,
and output was displayed on printouts. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of
first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered
to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The
transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s.
The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage,
it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on
punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or
assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level
programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of
COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in
their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

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Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through
keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to
run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller
and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the
components of the computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controls - on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many
areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers
also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use
of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

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COMPUTER HARDWARE
2.1 The basic operations of computing
The basic elements that make up computer system are:
a. Input
b. Storage
c. Control
d. Processing
e. Output

A brief description of computer tasks:

1. Input: most computers cannot accept data in forms customarily to human

communications such as speech or hand-written. The data is presented to the computer
through devices like the keyboard, which converts the data into machine-sensible forms.
Data finally enters storage.

2. Storage: Data and instructions enter main storage, and are held until needed to be
worked on. The instructions dictate action to be taken on the data. Results of action will
be held until they are required for output. Main storage is supplemented by auxiliary
storage, also called backing storage, e.g. hard disks for mass storage purposes. Backing
storage is servers an important role in holding ‘maintained data’, i.e. data held by the
computer so that it can provide information to the user when required to do so.

3. Control: The processor controls the operation of the computer. It fetches instructions
from main storage, interprets them and issues the necessary signals to the components
making up the system. It all directs hardware operation necessary in obeying instructions.

4. Processing: Instructions are obeyed and the necessary arithmetic operations etc. are
carried out on the data. The part of the processor that does this sometimes called the
Arithmetic-Logical Unit (ALU). Although in reality, as for the “control unit”, there is
often no physically separate component that performs this function. In addition to
arithmetic the processor also performs what is called “logical” operations. These
operations take place at incredibly high speeds, e.g. 10 million numbers may be totaled in
one second.
5. Output: Results are taken from main storage and fed onto an output device. This may be
printed text, sound, charts, and graphs displayed on a computer screen.

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Fig 1.4 The functional components of a computer system.

Notice for the above fig 1.4:

 Data normally flows from input devices or backing storage into main storage main storage
to output devices
 The processor performs operations on data from main storage and returns the results of
processing to main storage.
 In some cases, data flows directly between the processor and input or output devices
 The Arithmetic-Logical Unit (ALU) and control unit combine to form the processor.
NB: Unit – is a distinct function and not separate hardware components.
 There two types of flow shown in Fig 1.4; solid lines carry data or instructions but broken
lines carry commands or signals.
 Data held on backing storage may be input into main memory during processing, used and
brought up to date using newly input data, and then returned to backing storage.
1.2 Input Units
Input units consist of devices that translate data into a form that computer can understand. e.g
binary format. Divided into three types:
 Keyboard hardware

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 Pointing devices
 Source data-entry
Keyboard hardware: this is a device that converts letters, numbers, and other characters into
electrical signals that are machine-readable by the computer’s processors. It looks like typewriter
keyboard, and contains alphabetical & alphanumeric characters, numbers and other function
keys.
Pointing devices: control the position of the cursor or pointer on the screen. Example are; mice,
light-pens, touchpads etc
Source data-entry devices: these refer to menu forms of data-entry devices that are not
keyboards or pointing devices. They create machine-readable data on magnetic media or paper or
feed it directly into the computer’s processor. They include: scanning devices, sensors, etc

1.3 Central Processing Unit

The brain of a computer system is the central processing unit, which we generally refer to as
the CPU or mainframe. The central processing unit is the computer. It is the CPU that processes
the data transferred to it from one of the various input devices, and then transfers either the
intermediate or final results of the processing to one of many output devices. A central control
section and work areas are required to perform calculations or manipulate data. The CPU is the
computing center of the system. It consists of a control section, internal storage section (main
or primary memory), and arithmetic-logic section. Each of the sections within the CPU serves a
specific function and has a particular relationship to the other sections within the CPU.

Control Section
The control section may be compared to a telephone exchange because it uses the instructions
contained in the program in much the same manner as the telephone exchange uses telephone
numbers. When a telephone number is dialed, it causes the telephone exchange to energize
certain switches and control lines to connect the dialing phone with the phone having the number
dialed. In a similar manner, each programmed instruction, when executed, causes the control
section to energize certain control lines, enabling the computer to perform the function or
operation indicated by the instruction.
The program may be stored in the internal circuits of the computer (computer memory), or it
may be read instruction-by-instruction from external media. The internally stored program type
of computer, generally referred to only as a stored-program computer, is the most practical type
to use when speed and fully automatic operation are desired.
Computer programs may be so complex that the number of instructions plus the parameters
necessary for program execution will exceed the memory capacity of a stored-program
computer. When this occurs, the program may be sectionalized; that is, broken down into
modules. One or more modules are then stored in computer memory and the rest in an easily
accessible auxiliary memory. Then as each module is executed producing the desired results, it is
swapped out of internal memory and the next succeeding module read in.

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In addition to the commands that tell the computer what to do, the control unit also dictates how
and when each specific operation is to be performed. It is also active in initiating circuits that
locate any information stored within the computer or in an auxiliary storage device and in
moving this information to the point where the actual manipulation or modification is to be
accomplished.
The four major types of instructions are (1) transfer, (2) arithmetic, (3) logic, and (4) control.
Transfer instructions are those whose basic function is to transfer (move) data from one
location to another. Arithmetic instructions are those that combine two pieces of data to form a
single piece of data using one of the arithmetic operations.
Logic instructions transform the digital computer into a system that is more than a high-speed
adding machine. Using logic instructions, the programmer may construct a program with any
number of alternate sequences. For example, through the use of logic instructions, a computer
being used for maintenance inventory will have one sequence to follow if the number of a given
item on hand is greater than the order amount and another sequence if it is smaller. The choice of
which sequence to use will be made by the control section under the influence of the logic
instruction. Logic instructions, thereby, provide the computer with the ability to make decisions
based on the results of previously generated data. That is, the logic instructions permit the
computer to select the proper program sequence to be executed from among the alternatives
provided by the programmer.
Control instructions are used to send commands to devices not under direct command of the
control section, such as input/output units or devices.

Arithmetic-Logic Section
The arithmetic-logic section performs all arithmetic operations-adding, subtracting, multiplying,
and dividing. Through its logic capability, it tests various conditions encountered during
processing and takes action based on the result. Data flows between the arithmetic-logic section
and the internal storage section during processing. Specifically, data is transferred as needed
from the internal storage section to the arithmetic-logic section, processed, and returned to the
internal storage section. At no time does processing take place in the storage section. Data may
be transferred back and forth between these two sections several times before processing is
completed. The results are then transferred from internal storage to an output unit, as indicated
by the solid arrow.

1.4 Output Units

These are output devices that translate information processed by the computer into a form that
human can understand. They are divided into:
 Softcopy output
 Hard copy output
 Other output devices

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Softcopy output devices: these are output devices that show programming instructions and data
as they are being input and information after it is processed. Examples monitor, flat panel
display, etc.
Hard Copy output devices: These are devices that print characters, symbols, and perhaps
graphics on paper or another hard copy medium. Examples are: printer, plotters, etc.
Other output devices: These refer to output hardware for sound output, voice output, video
output, virtual reality, and simulation devices. This includes: speaker, etc.

1.2 Storage Unit

These refer to devices used for storing data or computer instructions. They divided into three:
 Main memory
 Secondary memory
 Registers
Main memory: this is used for holding data and instructions required immediately by the CPU.
It’s characterized by fast accessing information, low capacity and high costs. They are two main
types
 RAM – Random Access Memory
They can both be read, to retrieve information or written into, to store information. The
contents of RAM remain stable as long as power is available i.e. volatile and has a short time
response.
 ROM - Read Only Memory
They provide permanent or semi-permanent storage only. Their contents can be read but
cannot be rewritten during normal computer operations. They are non –volatile
Secondary memory: It is used for storing backup information that is not needed immediately by
the CPU. They are characterized by slow access of information, higher capacity and lower cost.
Examples: hard disk, floppy.
Registers: high-speed circuits that is a staging area for temporarily storing data during
processing.

Other memory types

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is the recognition of printed or written text characters by
a computer. This involves photo-scanning of the text character-by-character, analysis of the
scanned-in image, and then translation of the character image into character codes, such as
ASCII, commonly used in data processing.
Optical Mark reading (OMR) is a method of entering data into a computer system.

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Optical Mark Readers reads pencil or pen marks made in pre-defined positions on paper forms
as responses to questions or tick list prompts.
Cache memory is a small-sized type of volatile computer memory that provides high-speed data
access to a processor and stores frequently used computer programs, applications and data.

Factors that should be considered when purchasing computer systems

1. Warranty
Warranty makes up the most important consideration for people when buying a system.
Having one covered with the right kind of hardware warrantee is essential and should be
unconditional. I still remember when Sony had to recall several Laptops due to a battery fault
because of which their Laptops caught fire. I’m sure none of us would like to have a Laptop
that we can fry omelets on without the guarantee of replacement.

2. Processor
The Processor is one of the most important parts of a system and can mean the difference
between a system that frequently hangs and the one that runs smoothly. Some people might
think that going for the low cost single core or Dual Core processors is a good idea but I
would not recommend either of them for anyone who requires using a system for more than
basic usage. Moreover, one might be better off buying a Corei3 system instead of a
Core2Duo as the later might be more expensive and less efficient than the former.

3. RAM
It is obvious that for more professional tasks and to run a Xeon Server there will be more
RAM required than for merely using a PC for browsing the internet. Moreover, the RAM
type may matter more than many people might consider. For example, there are not many
applications currently available that can take advantage of DDR3 RAM types, one may be
better of saving some dimes by buying a system with a DDR2 RAM.

4. Hard Disk
Hard Disk considerations might not mean much to a lay user, nonetheless, having the right
amount of disk space and disk type might be the necessary for the efficient management of
regular tasks for a professional.

5. Brand
Some brands offer better warrantees, whereas others offer software packages that come with
the system. For example, a Dell laptop with the same specifications may be cheaper than a
Sony Vio. The reason is that Sony provides many of its own softwares with their laptops
which saves the users cost for buying software, e.g. a DVD burning. However, if you already
have many such licensed or freeware software available, then it might be better to go for a
cheaper brands.

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6. Peripherals
Peripheral devices such as printers, scanners,etc can significantly increase or reduce your
price for buying a new PC. It might be better off buying a system with a DVD combo drive if
you do not require writing data to DVDs.

7. Size
Some people prefer buying larger laptops for a better display screen, whereas other prefer
smaller and more portable sizes. If you are setting up a server which will be placed in a
server room then size considerations will not mater much as large servers with multiple SCSI
drives are normally quite big. Whereas, for people with weak eye sights a laptop with a larger
display screen might be worth the price.

8. Operating System Type.

Users with minimum requirements may be better off buying a Windows Starter or Home
Premium version e.g. of Windows 7. For users who wish to take advantage of more enhanced
features and require more effective tools such as connecting their PC to a domain are
naturally better off buying a Professional or Ultimate Edition

9. Price
If you don’t have the cash to pay for lets say a graphic card with 1GB memory, than you
might be better off choosing suitable alternatives.

10. Usability
It is important that you first consider the tasks that you will be performing on your PC. If you
wish to buy a computer for simply browsing the internet and using some online services than
it might be better to buy a single core computer which satisfies your minimum requirements.
On the contrary if you require using it for heavy video editing and professional work, then it
might be better to buy a system that has enhanced multimedia options.

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Data Representation, data processing and Number systems

DATA REPRESENTATION:
Data Representation:
Data representation is define as the system of data representation in terms of number system
.computer represented number in different way. The are several number system and computer
used a define number system to manipulated data. Computer convert number system to a define
system
Example
Data representation in a computer of base r is a system, which have r distinct symbols for r
digits. A number is represented by a string of these symbolic digits. To determine the quantity
that the number represents, we multiply the number by an integer power of r depending on the
place it is located and then fing the sum of weighted digits.
The general representation of a number in a system having base r is written as:
Y = an x rn + an-1 r n-1 +……………a0 x r0 + a-1x r-1 + a -2 x r -2……….a-m x r-m
Y is the value of the entire number
an is the value of the nth digit
r is the value of the radix or base
an , an-1, a0 a-1............. a-m are symbols in system from r digits
an and a-m are the most significant bit and least significant bit respectively.
Computers uses base 2 in its data representation since it is economical during construction of
computers circuitry in terms of cost, space power and any other characteristics.
0 and 1 are the only unit which a computer can accept and they are referred as bits. Eight bits is
equivalent to one byte. Binary system has got two stable states. Either high or low, i.e 5 v to 0 V,
True or false, On or Off e.t.c
Number System Radix/base No. of digits Digits
Decimal 10 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Binary 2 2 0,1
Octal 8 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Hexadecimal 16 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
Example
Decimal Number
Take the decimal number 112 as an example to explain weight of each digit of the number.
11210 = 2 x 100 + 1 x 101 + 1 x 102
= 2 + 10 +100
= 11210
649810 = 8 x 100 + 9 x 101 + 4 x 102 + 6 x 103
= 8 + 90 +400 +6000
= 6498
Exercise
609 ,202, 1,
Converting binary number or base two to decimal number or base 10
Example
a)11022 = 1x 20 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 22 + 1 x 23
= 1 + 0 +4 + 8
= 1310
b) 1012 = 1 x 20 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 22

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

=1+0+4
= 510
Exercise
Convert binary number 10102 to decimal number Ans 1010
Convert binary number 110012 to decimal number Ans 2510
Convert binary number 11111112 to decimal number Ans 12710
Convert 111 010 1012 into base ten Ans 2510

Converting decimal number or base 10 to binary number or base2

a)Convert 1310 to base two

2 13 1 L.s.b
2 6 0
2 3 1
2 1 1 m.s.b
1310 = 11012 prove this

b) Convert 4110 to base two

2 41 1
2 20 0
2 10 0 l.s.b
2 5 1
2 2 0
2 1 1

m.s.b
4110 = 1001012 prove this
Exercise
Convert 7310 to base 2 solutions 10010012
Convert 11110 to base 2 solutions
Convert 22110 into base 2 solutions 110111012
Convert binary fraction to decimal fraction
a) 0.101112 = 1 x 2-1 + 0 x 2-2 + 1 x 2-3 + 1 x 2-4 + 1 x 2-5
=1/2+ 0 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32 = 0.5 + 0 +0.125 + 0.0025 + 0.03125 = 0.71875
Convert binary real number to decimal real number equivalent
b) 1101.10102 to base 10
11012 = 1 x 20 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 22 +1 x 23 = 1310
0.10102 = 1 x 2-1+ 0 x2-2 + 1 x 2-3 + 0 x 2-4= 1/2+ 0 +1/8 +0 = 0.5 + 0.125 = 0.62510
1101.10102 =13.62510

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

Conversion of decimal fraction to binary fraction

To convert a decimal fraction to its binary equivalent a technique of successive multiplication by
2 is used.
The integer part is noted down after the multiplication by 2 at each step and the remainder new
fraction is used for multiplication by 2 at the next step
Example
a) Convert 0.812510 to binary fraction
Fraction Fraction x 2 Remainder New Fraction Integer
m.s.b
0.8125 1.625 0.625 1
0.625 1.25 0.25 1
0.25 0.5 0.5 0
l.s.b
0.5 1.00 0.00 1
0.812510 = 0.11012
b) Convert 0.63510 to binary fraction solution 0.10100012
Fraction Fraction x 2 Remainder New Fraction Integer
0.635 1.27 0.27 1
m.s.b
0.27 0.54 0.54 0
0.54 1.08 0.08 1
0.08 0.16 0.16 0
0.16 0.32 0.32 0

0.32 0.64 0.64 0

l.s.b
0.64 1.28 0.28 1
Note that when last new fraction is greater than first new fractions then stop the process of
multiplication because of regress.
0.63510 = 0.10100012

c) Convert to decimal real number 12.625 to a equivalent binary real number

2 12 0

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

2 6 0
2 3 1
2 1 1

1210 = 11002
Change 0.62510 to binary
Fraction Fraction x 2 Remainder New Fraction interger
0.625 1.25 0.25 1
0.25 0.50 0.50 0
0.50 1.00 0.00 1

0.62510 = 0.1012
12.62510 = 1100.1012
Addition of Binary Numbers
In the binary system the rules of binary when adding the number are as follows:
0 +0 = 0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1+ 1 = 0 with a carry of 1

Example
a) Add 10012 + 01012
Solution
1001 9
0101 5
11102 1410
b) add 01112 + 01012
Solution
0111 7
0101 5
1 1002 1210

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

c) Add 10102 + 11012

1010 10
1101 13
10111 2 2310

Binary Subtraction
a) 1110 – 0101
1110 14
0101 5
1001 9
b) 1010 – 0101
1010 10
0101 5
10012 5
c) 1010 – 0011
1010 10
0011 7
0111 3
d) 0101 – 0111
0101 5
0111 7
1110 -2 which is not true
We use 2’s complement method
0101 0101
0111 complement 1000
1101 complement this 0010
0010 which is true
Advantages of the two’s complement format:
- Handles subtraction of integers as addition. Therefore computer does not requires different
circuits to handle addition and subtraction.
e) 0111 – 1000

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

0111 7
1000 8
1111 -1 not true
Using 2’s complement
0111 0111
1000 complement 0111
1110 complement 0001
f) 0101 -1001 using 2’s complement

e) Subtract 4 from 12
4 0100 0100
12 1100 complement 0011
0111 complement 1000
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
In this representation a decimal number is represented by four digits. e.g 3 is represented by
0011.if the decimal number consists of two or more than two digits, each decimal digit is
individually represented by a 4 bit binary equivalent 56 is represented by 0101 0110
There is a diffrerence between a binary binary equivalent of a decimal number and the binary
code od a decimal number. e.g the binary equivalent of the decimal number 43 is 101011, but it
BCD equivalent is 0100 0011.
BCD are used where the decimal information is directly transferred into or out of a decimal
system.
It is difficult to perform complement subtraction and complement addition in BCD standard. If
the result lies between 10 and 15 or if there is a carry from the 4 th bit of any BCD digit. A
correction of + 6 has to be made to obtain the correct result.
Example 1
8 1000
5 0101
13 1101 incorrect
0110 Add 6
00010011 correct in BCD

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

1 3
Example2
8 BCD 1000
9 1001
17 010001 Incorrect
00110 Add
00010111 Correct BCD 17
1 7
Example 3
Subtract 4 from 12
4 0100 BCD 0100
12 1100 0011
0111 complement 1000
Octal Number System
The base of the octal system is 8.An octal number system is represented by a group of three
binary bits. e.g 4 is represented by 100. 6 by 110 and 7 by 111
46 by 100 110
354 by 011 0101 100
Conversion of octal number to decimal number
Convert 568 to its decimal number base 10
568 = 6 x 80 + 5 x 81 = 6 + 40 = 4610
3648 = 4 x 80 + 6 x 81 + 3 x 82 = 4 + 48 + 192 =24410
0.5638 = 5 x 8-1 + 6 x 8-2 + 3 x 8-3 = 0.724609310
Conversion of decimal number to octal
1 Convert 6210 to base 8 or to octal
8 62 6
7 7

62 10 = 768 prove

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

2 .Convert 9588 to base 8

8 958 6
8 119 7
8 14 6
8 1 1

95810 = 16768 prove

3 Convert 0.9610 to base 8 to 5 decimal place
We multiply the fraction by 8 to achieve the new fraction and write down the integer.
Fraction Fraction x 8 Remainder new fraction Integer
0.96 7.68 0.68 7
0.68 5.44 0.44 5
0.44 3.52 0.52 3
0.52 4.16 0.16 4
0.16 1.28 0.28 1
0.9610 = 0.753418
Conversion of binary number to an octal number or base 8
Group the binary bit in groups of 3 binary bits from left to right and then convert to its octal
equivalent
Example
Convert the binary number 1011102 to its equivalent octal number
1011102 = (101)(110)
5 68
Example
1101011 = 001 101 011
1 5 38
Example
Binary Real number 1011.10112 to octal
In the integer part group 3 bits from right to left. In the binary fraction group 3 bits from left to
right.
1011.10112 = 001 011. 101 100
1 3 .5 4 8
Conversion of octal Number to binary Number
To convert an octal number to binary each octal number converted to 3 bit binary number

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

Example
3768 = (011) (111) (110)2
= 0111111102
Example
56.348 = 101 110. 011 1002
= 101110.0111002
Hexadecimal Number System
The base is 16. Its digits are fronm 0- 15 from 10 - 15 are represented by A – F respectively
Hexadecimal digit is represented by four binary bits. e.g 5 = 0101 A = 1010
If we have two or more digits we represent each digit by four binary bits
e.g 5A = 01011010
Convert Hexadecimal Number to decimal Number
4B816 = 8 x 160 + B x 161 + 4 x 162
= 8 + 11 x 16 + 4 x 256
= 120810
2B6D16 = D x 160 + 6 x 161 + B x16 2+ 2 x 163
= 13 + 96 +2816 + 8192
= 1111710
0.5A6B16 = 5 X16-1 + A x 16-2 + 6 x 16-3 + B x 16-4
= 0.3125 + 0.0390625 + 0.001468438 + 0.00016784668
= 0.353190371010
Conversion of decimal number to hexadecimal number to a hexadecimal number
Example
16 67 3
16 4 4
6710 = 4316
16 952 8
16 59 11
16 3 3
95210 = 3 11 816
= 3B816

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

16 1000 8
16 62 14
16 3 3
1000 = 3 14 816
= 3 E 816
Assignments convert 0.6210 to equivalent hexadecimal number. Hint create a table and multiply
by 16 the fraction keeping the integer and multiply new fraction by 16.
0.6210 = 0.9EB85116

Conversion of binary number to hexadecimal

To convert binary number to hexadecimal number, group 4-bits binary numbers.
Example
0110111012 = 0110 1110
= 6 E16
11010011012 = 0011 0100 1101
= 3 4 D16
1011100.10001012 = 0101 1100.1000 1010
=5 12 . 8 1016
= 5C.8A16
Conversion of hexadecimal number to binary number

To convert hexadecimal number to its binary equivalent each digit is converted to 4 bits
Example
6B916
6 = 0110
B =11) = 1011
9 = 1001
6B916 = 0110101110012
6D.3A16 =
6= 0110
D=13 =1101
3=0011
A=1010
6D3.3A = 0110 1101. 001110102
Conversion of hexadecimal number to octal number
Example
3DE16 = 00111110111102

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

Group 3 bits together from left to right then change to decimal number
= 001 111 011 110
= 1 7 3 68
Example
5B.3A = 0101 1011. 0011 1010
= 001 011 011. 001 110 100
= 1 3 3 . 1 6 48
Convert the octal number 5368 to hexadecimal
5368 = 101 011 1102
Group 4 binary bits to obtain hexadecimal number
= 0001 0101 1110
=1 5 E 16
46.578 = 100 110. 101 11112
Group 4 bits
= 0010 0110.1011 11002
= 2 6. BC16
Exercise
FADE16 = X8
743468 = X16
12.62510 = 1100.10012 Prove

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

3.0 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Software comprises instructions that tell the computer what to do. Generally software is divided
into:
 System software
 Application software
 Software development tools

3.1 Common features of software

There are some common features of software which include
 Features of the keyboard
 The user – interface
 Tutorial and documentation

Features of the keyboard:

Even though keyboard is an input device, it is used in manipulating software. Besides letters,
numbers, and punctuation keys, it has special purpose and function keys.
Special purpose keys are used to enter, delete, and edit data and to execute commands.
E.g. ESC, Enter, Ctrl, etc.
Function keys, labeled F1, F2, etc are used to execute command specific to the software
being used.
Macros (keyboard shortcut), a series of keystroke or commands used to automatically
issue a longer predetermined series of keystrokes or commands. E.g. ALT+ F4 – close.

The User –Interface:

It is the user controllable part of the software that allows users to communicate, or interact, with
it. These include GUIs (Graphical User Interfaces), menu (a list of available commands
presented on the screen), windows (rectangular area that appears on the screen and displays
information from a particular parts of a program), icons (pictures used in GUI to represent a
command, a program, a file or a task), buttons (simulated on-screen button that is activated by a
mouse or other pointing device to issue a command), dialog box (a box that appears on the
screen can display a message requiring a response from a user), etc.

Tutorial and documentation:

Most commercial packages comes with tutorials and documentation. A tutorial is an instruction
book or program that takes a user through a prescribed series of steps to help in learning how to
use the product. Documentation is a user guide or reference manual that is narrative and
graphical description of a program.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

3.2 System Software

It controls the location and usage of hardware resources and enables the application software to
run. Include operating system, assemblers, etc.

Machine language: Machine language is the lowest-level programming language (except for
computers that utilize programmable microcode). Machine languages are the only
languages understood by computers.
Assembly language: An assembly language is a low-level programming language for
microprocessors and other programmable devices. It is not just a single language, but rather a
group of languages. An assembly language implements a symbolic representation of the machine
code needed to program a given CPU architecture.
High-level languages: A high-level language (HLL) is a programming language such as C,
FORTRAN, or Pascal that enables a programmer to write programs that are more or less
independent of a particular type of computer. Such languages are c o n s i d e r e d high-level
because they are closer to human languages and further from machine languages.

3.3 Application Software

Software that has been developed to solve a particular problem, to perform a useful work on
specific task or to provide entertainment. They may be custom or packaged. Include Ms Office,
etc.

3.4 Software Development Tools

These are software used to develop system software, or application software. They include
programming languages e.g. PASCAL, JAVA etc.

4.0 SYSTEM SOFTWARE – OPERATING SYSTEM

Operating system is system software that interfaces between the user and the computer hardware.

4.1 Functions of operating system

 Loads programs
 Allocates memory
 Provides scheduling and accounting
 Manages storage media
 Manages computer resources
 Performs I/O control
 Provides User Interface

4.2 Example

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

These include: windows 9x, 2000, 2003, NT, XP, ME; Unix, Linux etc.

5.0 COMPUTER APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Categories Of Application Software
They may be classified as:
 Entertainment Software
 Home/Personal Software
 Education/ Reference Software
 Productivity Software
 Specialty Software

Entertainment Software: these are software mainly used for entertainment purposes e.g.
games, music, video, etc.
Entertainment Software: these are software on CD-ROM disks that are use for personal use
e.g. software-featuring recipes for exotic foods.
Educational/ Reference Software: these are software used to supplement learning. Examples
include: CD-ROM disks containing encyclopedia, maps, mailing lists, phone books, etc.
Productivity Software: these are software that consists of programs that assist users in
achieving a particular task. Include word processing, spreadsheet, database software, financial
software, and communication software.
1. Word processing: - allows a user to create, edit, format, print, and store text material
amongst other things. E.g. Ms Word, etc. editing, saving, retrieving, spell checking e.t.c
2. Spreadsheet: - allows a user to create table and financial schedules by entering data and
formulas into rows and columns arranged as a grid on a display screen. E.g. Ms Excel,
etc.

Key features of Ms Excel

o Labels e.g. 122sddX3
o Values 1222
o Function e.g. C2+C3
o Formulas e.g. SUM(C2:F2)
o Row- record
o Column -field

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

o Table – consist of row and column

o Cell – where row and column intersect
o Cell address- active cell
o Worksheet- current active excel
o Spreadsheet contains number of worksheet

3. Using the given data describe how to obtain:

i) Obtain the average mark for each student.
for Andrew in cell F2 =avg(C2:D2). Repeat for all students with respective rows
value change

ii) Obtain the total marks for each student

For Andrew in cell E2 =sum(C2:D2), repeat for all students with respective rows
value change

iii) The maximum average mark of the students

cell F7 =max(F2:F6)

iv) The minimum average mark of the students

cell F8 =min(F2:F6)

4. Database Software: - a program that controls the structure of the database and access the
data. The principal features of database of a database include: organization of a database,
data retrieval & display, sort, and built-in mathematical formulas. E.g. Ms Access,
Oracle, etc. they consists of table. Column refers as field used to store attributes e.g

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

student registration number, student name e.t.c and row referred as record. Store
particular elements, items e.t.c

Key terms
i) Primary key: A primary is a column or set of columns in a table that uniquely
identifies tuples (rows) in that table.
ii) Foreign Key: A foreign key is a field in a relational table that matches the
primary key column of another table
iii) A table is a collection of data represented in rows and columns. For e.g.
following table stores the information of students.

Student_Id Student_Name Student_Addr Student_Age

101 Chaitanya Dayal Bagh, Agra 27
102 Ajeet Delhi 26
103 Rahul Gurgaon 24
104 Shubham Chennai 25

iv) Records/Tuple:
Each row of a table is known as record or it is also known as tuple. For e.g. The
below row is a record.
101 Peter 26
vi) Field:
The above table has four fields: Student_Id, Student_Name, Student_Addr &
Student_Age.
vii) Column /Attribute:
Each attribute and its values are known as attributes in a database. For e.g. Set of
values of Student_Id field is one of the four columns of the Student table.
Student_Id
101
102
103
104
vi) Attributes’ database is comprised of tables. Each table has columns and rows; the
columns in a database are called database attributes.
vii) High-cardinality refers to columns with values that are very uncommon or
unique. High-cardinality column values are typically identification numbers,
email addresses, or user names. An example of a data table column with high-
cardinality would be a USERS table with a column named STUDENT_ID. This
column would contain unique values. Each time a new user is created in the

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

USERS table, a new number would be created in the STEUDENT_ID column to

identify them uniquely. Since the values held in the STUDENT ID column are
unique, this column's cardinality type would be referred to as high-cardinality.
viii) Normal-cardinality refers to columns with values that are somewhat
uncommon. Normal-cardinality column values are typically names, street
addresses, or vehicle types. An example of a data table column with normal-
cardinality would be a CUSTOMER table with a column named LAST_NAME,
containing the last names of customers.
ix) Low-cardinality refers to columns with few unique values. Low-cardinality
column values are typically status flags, Boolean values, or major classifications
such as gender. An example of a data table column with low-cardinality would be
a CUSTOMER table with a column named NEW_CUSTOMER. This column
would contain only two distinct values: Y or N, denoting whether the customer
was new or not. Since there are only two possible values held in this column, its
cardinality type would be referred to as low-cardinality.
x) Domain Constraints specifies that what set of values an attribute can take. Value
of each attribute X must be an atomic value from the domain of X.The data type
associated with domains include integer, character, string, date, time, currency
etc. An attribute value must be available in the corresponding domain. Consider
the example below –

xi)

Benefits of databases
a. Data redundancy: The repetition of data e.g a field in two or more tables or if
the field is repeated within the table.
b. Data inconsistency: exists when different and conflicting versions of the same
data appear in different places.

How to create database for example

Ms-Access
1. Open the file tab
2. Choose new
3. Open blank database
4. Click in file Name text box and type file name for your database
5. Click the create button to create your database file ….

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

Financial software: - is a growing category that ranges from personal-finance to managers to

entry-level accounting programs to business financial-management packages. E.g. QuickBooks,
Lotus organizer, etc.
Communication Software: - manages the transmission of data between computers. E.g.
electronic mail software like: Pegasus mail, Eudora mail, Ms Outlook, Web-browsers (internet
explorer).
Specialty Software: these are software designed to assist the user in performing a particular
task. Include desktop publishing, presentation graphics, project management, computer-aided
design, drawing and painting program.
 Desktop publishing: - used for mixing text and graphics to produce high quality output
for commercial printing. E.g. PageMaker.
 Presentation graphics: - uses graphics and data/ information from other software tools
to communicate or make a presentation of data to others. E.g. Ms PowerPoint.
 Project Management: - a program used to plan, schedule, and control the people, cost,
and resources required to complete a project in time. E.g. Ms Project.
 Computer Aided Design: - used for the design of products, structure, civil engineering
drawings, and maps. E.g. CorelCAD.
 Drawing and Painting Programs: - a drawing program is a graphic software that
allows users to design and illustrate object and products e.g. Corel Draw, Adobe
Illustrator. Painting Program are graphics program that allows users to simulate painting
on the screen e.g. Adobe Photoshop, Corel Photo Paint etc.
 Utilities softwares: Programs used to merge and sort sets of data, keep track of
computer jobs being run, compress files of data before they are stored or transmitted over
a network, check for viruses, and perform other important tasks.
 Text editors
 Sort utility
 Language translators
 Merge utility- merge groups of files
 Loader
 Copy utility
 Linker used to link file from within or external source
 Dump utility use for backing up files on Unix OS it operates on block file system.
 Diagnostic tools Checking the state of computing system

CLI-A command-line interface or command language

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

interpreter (CLI), also known as command-line user

[1]
interface, console user interface and character user
interface (CUI), is a means of interacting with a computer
program where the user (or client) issues commands to the
program in the form of successive lines of text (command lines). A
program which handles the interface is called a command
language interpreter or shell (computing).

MDI- MDI (Multiple Document Interface) is a Microsoft
 Windows programming interface for creating an application that
 enables users to work with multiple documents at the same time.
Each document is in a separate space with its own controls for
scrolling.

Processing Systems applications

a.) Batch processing is the processing of transactions in a group or batch. No user
interaction is required once batch processing is underway.
Batch Processing is the process by which a computer completes batches of jobs, often
simultaneously, in non-stop, sequential order. It's also a command that ensures large jobs
are computed in small parts for efficiency during the debugging process. E.g. payroll
systems
b.) Real-time data processing is the execution of data in a short time period, providing
near-instantaneous output. In real time processing data is processed live (at the same
time). In real time processing processor needs to very responsive and active all.

c.) Transaction processing is a way of computing that divides work into individual,
indivisible operations, called transactions. A transaction processing system (TPS) is a
software system, or software/hardware combination, that supports transaction
processing. Transaction processing relates to any real-time business transaction or
process performed by a transaction processing system (TPS) or other business
information system (BIS). The process occurs when a user requests completion or
fulfillment of any process.
d.) Interactive processing is the simplest way to work on a system. You log in, run
commands which execute immediately, and log off when you've finished. You can use
either the command line or a graphical environment. Interactive jobs run directly on the
limited number of login nodes (servers) on each cluster.

Information System or Business Software

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

System: A set of interrelated components, with a clearly defined boundary, working together to
achieve a common set of objectives.
An information system (IS) is a software system that uses the hardware, software and networks
to enhance the workflow. And facilitate communication among employees. They combine
various technologies to reduce the manual labour required to operate an efficient office
environment.
Information System: Any organized combination of people, hardware, software,
communications networks, and data resources that stores and retrieves, transforms and
disseminates information in an organization.
Information system supports a range of office business activities that include
 Creating and distributing activities or documents
 Sending messages
 Scheduling and accounting
Types of information systems in an organization
Roles of Information Systems in Business/organization
a.) Support of the business processes and operations – Organizations use computer based
information systems to record customer purchases, keep track of inventory, pay
employees e.t.c. these has replaced manual activities.
b.) Support of decision making by its employees and managers – Decisions on what
products to add or discontinue, or on what investment to make are based on analysis
provided by Computer Based Information Systems.
c.) Support of its strategies for competitive advantage – Gaining competitive advantage
requires innovative application of information technologies.

Types of Information Systems

a) Transaction processing systems: This system keeps track of the transactions needed to
conduct business, Process data resulting from business transactions, update operational
databases and produce business documents. E.g. accounting systems. A transaction is a
recorded event having to do with routine business activities. It is the most fundamental unit
of commercial activity.
b) Enterprise collaboration systems (Groupware): Groupware, also known as collaborative
software can be defined as any kind of software that lets a group of people create, share or
track information, organize and manage information. Collaborative tools are categorized as
general purpose application software (horizontal software).
c) Management Information Systems: These are management tools providing management
with information needed to do the job. Provide information in the form of pre-specified
reports and displays to support business decision making. It uses data recorded by TPS as
input into programs that produce routine reports and output. E.g. sales analysis.
d) Decision support systems: It is a computer based information system that provides flexible
tool for analysis and helps managers focus on the future. To reach the level of a DSS an
organization should be well established in TPS and MIS. It provides interactive ad hoc
support for the decision making process of managers and other business professionals. E.g.
product pricing. DSS has four major components; users interface, modeling software,
knowledge base and a database.
e) An expert system: ES is an interactive program that helps users solve problems that would
otherwise require assistance of human expert. They fall under Artificial Intelligence (AI):

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

Which is the application of human intelligence to computers. It is an information system

that captures and stores the knowledge of human experts and initiates human reasoning and
decision-making processes for those who have less expertise.
f) Executive information systems: The information needs of high ranking executives are
different from those of lower and middle management. An executive information system
tends to have an enterprise wide focus and makes extensive use of external data. An EIS
may make use of hard information (information which is known to be reliable and has a
factual basis e.g monthly sales figure) and soft information (‘speculative’ data such as
industry forecasts and the views of business experts). The interface of EIS needs to make the
system very easy to use since senior executives may not have good typing skills.

Impacts of Information Systems in Business/organization

a.) Downsizing: Reducing the size of an organization by eliminating workers.
b.) Outsourcing: This means contracting with outside businesses or services to perform the
work once done by in house departments. This may do the work more cheaply and
efficiently.
c.) Employee empowerment: Giving the others authority to act and make decisions on their
own.
d.) Earlier, the lower managers and employees were given information that they needed to
know. This minimized their power to make decisions. Today the relevant information is
at their disposal to make sure they deliver.
e.) Reengineering: this is implementation of radical change in business process to achieve
breakthrough results. Reengineers start from the future and work backwards where they
ask themselves questions like “if we were to do this what will happen?

Drawbacks of application software

There is a couple of significant drawback that often characterizes new software namely:
 Bloatware or featuritis: - means software having too many features that computers users
don’t understand how to use all of them e.g. when Ms office 97 came on the market,
supplanting office 95, it contained 4500 commands – far more than the few dozen or even
few hundred that most people will use
 Shovelware: - this is where software made is full of flaws due to incompatibility
standards with other parts of the computer system.

Ethic and intellectual property rights

Intellectual property consists of the products, tangible or intangible, of the human mind. One of
the major methods of protecting intellectual property is copyright.
Copyrights: - exclusive legal right that prohibit copying of intellectual property without the
permission of the copyright holder. It protects the expression of an idea but not the idea itself.
There are three important copyright related matters viz:

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 Software and Network Piracy: - software piracy is the unauthorized copying of

copyrighted software and network piracy is using electronic networks for the
unauthorized distribution of copyrighted materials in digitized form
 Plagiarism: - the expropriation of another writer’s text, findings, or interpretations and
presentation it as one’s own.
 Ownership of Images and Sound: - this involves the use of computers, scanners, digital
cameras and the likes to make it possible to alter images and sound.

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6.0 COMPUTER NETWORKING

6.1 Network Terminologies:

Network: connection of more than one computer with the main purpose of sharing computer
resources.
Intranet: Internal corporate network that uses the infrastructure of the Internet and the www.
Extranet: an extension of internal network (internet) to connect not only internal personnel but
also selected customers, suppliers, and other strategic offices.
Node: any device that is attached to a network
Packet: fixed-length block of data for transmission. It also contains instructions about the
destination of the packet.
Kilobits per second (kbps): 1000 bits per second; an expression of data transmission speeds.
Netiquette refers to Internet etiquette. This simply means the use of good manners in online
communication such as e-mail, forums, blogs, and social networking sites to name a few. It is
important to use netiquette because communication online is non-verbal.

6.2 Network Hardware

This involves the hardware components associated with networking namely:
 Network Interface Card (NIC): - circuit board inserted into an expansion slot in a
microcomputer that enable it to send and receive messages on a network.
 Twisted Pair Wire: - type of communication channel consisting of two strands of
insulated copper wire, twisted around each other in pairs.
 Hubs/Repeaters: -used to connect together two or more network segments of any media
type. Hubs provide the signal amplification required to allow a segment to be extended a
greater distance. While repeaters allow LANs to extend beyond normal distance
limitations, they still limit the number of nodes that can be supported.
 Bridges: - Bridges became commercially available in the early 1980s. At the time of
their introduction their function was to connect separate homogeneous networks.
Subsequently, bridging between different networks e.g. Ethernet and Token Ring - has
also been defined and standardized. Bridges are data communications devices that
operate principally at Layer 2 of the OSI reference model. As such, they are widely
referred to as data link layer devices.
 Routers: - Routers use information within each packet to route it from one LAN to
another, and communicate with each other and share information that allows them to
determine the best route through a complex network of many LANs.
 Switches: - LAN switches are an expansion of the concept in LAN bridging. They
operate at Layer 2 (link layer) of the OSI reference model, which controls data flow,

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handles transmission errors, provides physical (as opposed to logical) addressing, and
manages access to the physical medium.

6.3 Network Topology

Define the manner in which network devices are organized. Four common LAN topologies exist:
 A Bus Topology: - Linear LAN architecture in which transmissions from network
stations propagate the length of the medium and are received by all other stations. Many
nodes can tap into the bus and begin communication with all other nodes on that cable
segment. A break anywhere in the cable will usually cause the entire segment to be
inoperable until the break is repaired.
 A Ring Topology: - LAN architecture in which all devices are connected to one another
in the shape of a closed loop, so that each device is connected directly to two other
devices, one on either side of it.
 A Star Topology: - LAN architecture in which the endpoints on a network are connected
to a common central hub, or switch, by dedicated links. 10BaseT Ethernet uses a star
topology, generally with a computer being located at one end of the segment, and the
other end being terminated with a hub. The primary advantage of this type of network is
reliability - if one "point-to-point" segments has a break, it will only affect the nodes on
that link; other computer users on the network continue to operate as if that segment were
non-existent.
 A Tree Topology: - LAN architecture that is identical to the bus topology, except that
branches with multiple nodes are possible in this case.

6.4 Network Protocol

Definitions of common sets of rules and signals that specify how computers on a network
communicate. Ethernet and Token Ring are examples of network cabling standards, whilst
TCP/IP is the predominant network communications protocol. Other most used protocols
include:
 TCP/IP: - Short for Transport Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol where Transmission
Control Protocol ensures the reliability of data transmission across Internet connected

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networks and Internet Protocol standard dictates how packets of information are sent out
over networks.

Network Classes of Internet Protocols

Class Address Range Supports

Class A 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254 Supports 16 million hosts on each of 127 networks.

Class B 128.1.0.1 to 191.255.255.254 Supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000 networks.
Class C 192.0.1.1 to 223.255.254.254 Supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks.
Class D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 Reserved for multicast groups.
Class E 240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.254 Reserved for future use, or research and development
purposes.

 NetBEUI: - Short for NETBios Enhanced User Interface and is used by network
operating systems allowing the computer to communicate with other computers utilizing
the same protocol.
 DHCP: - Short for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, DHCP is a protocol used to
assign an IP address to a device connected to a network automatically.
 HTTP: - Short for HyperText Transfer Protocol, HTTP is a set of standards that let users
of the World Wide Web, to exchange information found on web pages.
 FTP: - Short for File Transfer Protocol is a standard way to transfer files between
computers.
 PPP: - Short for Point-to-Point Protocol, PPP is a communication protocol that enables a
user to utilize their dialup connection (commonly a modem) to connect to other network
protocols like TCP/IP etc.
 Ethernet: - Also referred as Ethernet II or Fast Ethernet. It is a communications protocol
that enables computers on a local-area network to share information with one another at
rates of 100 million bits per second instead of the standard 10 million BPS.

6.5 Types of Network

Networks are categorized principally in three sizes namely;
 Wide Area Network (WAN): - communications network that covers a wide
geographical are, such as a state or a country.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): - communication network covering a geographic
area the size of a city.

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 Local Area Network (LAN): - privately owned communication network that servers
users within a confined geographical area.

Types of LAN
LANs are of two principal types:
 Client/Server LAN: - consist of requesting microcomputers, called clients, and
supplying devices that provide a service, called servers.
 Peer-to-Peer: - one in which all microcomputers on the network communicate
directly with one another without relying on a server.

6.6 Advantages of Networks

 Sharing of peripheral devices e.g. printers, HDD, scanners, etc.
 Sharing of programs and data
 Better communications e.g. e-mail.
 Security of information
 Access to databases

Disadvantages of Networks
 The main disadvantage of networks is that users become dependent upon them. For
example, if a network file server develops a fault, then many users may not be able to run
application programs and get access to shared data. To overcome this, a back-up server
can be switched into action when the main server fails. A fault on a network may also
stop users from being able to access peripherals such as printers and plotters. To
minimize this, a network is normally segmented so that a failure in one part of it does not
affect other parts.
 Another major problem with networks is that their efficiency is very dependent on the
skill of the systems manager. A badly managed network may operate less efficiently than
non-networked computers. Also, a badly run network may allow external users into it
with little protection against them causing damage. Damage could also be caused by
novices causing problems, such as deleting important files.
All these could be summarized as below:
1. If a network file server develops a fault, then users may not be able to run application
programs
2. A fault on the network can cause users to loose data (if the files being worked upon are
not saved)
3. If the network stops operating, then it may not be possible to access various resources
4. Users work-throughput becomes dependent upon network and the skill of the systems
manager
5. It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers, novices or industrial espionage

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6. Decisions on resource planning tend to become centralized, for example, what word
processor is used, what printers are bought, e.t.c.
7. Networks that have grown with little thought can be inefficient in the long term.
8. As traffic increases on a network, the performance degrades unless it is designed properly
9. Resources may be located too far away from some users
10. The larger the network becomes, the more difficult it is to manage.
6.7 Factors Affecting network communication among devices
 Transmission rate i.e. frequency (the amount of data that can be transmitted on a channel)
and bandwidth (the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies).
 Line configurations i.e. point to point (line directly connects the sending and receiving
devices, such as a terminal with a central computer) vs. multipoint (a single line that
interconnects several communication devices to one computer).
 Serial (bits are transmitted sequentially, one after the other) vs. Parallel Transmission
(bits are transmitted through separate lines simultaneously).
 Direction of transmission i.e. simplex (data can travel in only one direction), half-duplex
(data travels in both directions but only in one direction at a time), and full duplex (data is
transmitted back and forth at the same time).
 Transmission mode i.e. asynchronous (data is sent one byte or character at a time) vs.
synchronous (data is sent in blocks).
 Packet switching i.e. a technique for dividing electronic messages into packets for
transmission over a wide area network to their destination through the moist expedient
route.
 Protocols i.e. sets of conventions governing the exchange of data between hardware and
/or software component in a communication network.

7.0 THE INTERNET

7.1 Internet Terminologies
Internet: - global connection of computers using TCP/IP protocol for the purpose of
communication and / or connecting different networks
IP: - Short for Internet Protocol, the IP is an address of a computer or other network device on a
network using IP or TCP/IP. Class of IP address A,B,C,D and F
WWW: -interconnected system of sites, or servers, of the Internet that store information in
multimedia form and share and a hypertext form that link similar word or phrases between sites.
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML): - set of instructions, called tags or markups that are
used for documents on the web to specify document structure, formatting and link the document.
Web browser: - software that translates HTML documents and allow a user to view a remote
web page e.g. Internet explorer.

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Web page: -document in hypertext markup language (HTML) that is on a computer connected
to the Internet.
Home Page: - the first screen of a web site.
Web site: - Internet location of a computer or server on which a hyperlinked document (web-
page) is stored
Web Surfing: - a user’s action of moving from one web page to another by using the computer
mouse to click on the hypertext links.
Search Engines: - type of search tool that allows the use to find specific document through
keyword searches or menu choices.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL): - address those points to specific resource on the web.
Electronic Mail (E-MAIL): - system in which computer users, linked by wired or wireless
communication lines, may use their keyboard to post messages and their display screens to read
responses.
Precaution measure that need to be observe when using e-mail
1. Change your password regularly and keep it in a safe place.
2. Don’t share your password with anyone.
3. Don’t open attachments from anyone you don’t know.
4. Log out or sign off from your account when you’ve finished looking at/sending your
email.
5. Don’t reply to spam or forward chain emails.
6. Keep your personal information personal – don’t share bank or credit card information by
email.
7. Your bank will not discuss your private financial situation by email. If you receive any
correspondence that claims to come from your bank, telephone your branch to verify it
and discuss the matter over the telephone instead.
8. Make sure that you have antivirus software installed and keep it up to date.

Internet Service Provider (ISP): - local or national company that provides unlimited public
access to the Internet and the web.

7.2 Types of Connectivity

Internet connectivity can be divided into two major parts namely:
 Wired Internet connection

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 Wireless Internet connection

Wired Internet connection this involves the use of physical cabling to and can be achieved
through:
 Dial-up connection – this involves the use of telephone lines to dial in to ISPs network
for Internet access.
 Dedicated link access connection – this involve the use of permanent Telkom line for
an uninterrupted Internet access. The connection can be analog (i.e. use of modems) or
digital (i.e. use of DSL, Router/DTU, Web-ranger etc.).
Wireless Internet connection this involves non-usage of physical cabling and can be achieved
through:
 Satellite connection – this involve transmitting packets by use of satellite dish for both
downloading and uploading.
 Infrared Rays Transmission – this involves use of infrared rays to transmit packets.

7.3 Uses of the Internet

 Communication – through the use of e-mail, chat one can send and receive
information.
 E-commerce – online transaction enables a user to shop, order, and even pay for an
item by using electronic cards.
 Education (E-learning) – virtual learning centers depend on the Internet to transmit
educational materials and lectures. Research materials are also available on the net.
 Entertainment – Internet make it possible for users to enjoy games, irrespective of
distance. Music and video sites also supplement entertainment.
 Video – conferencing – Educational fora also uses the Internet to hold meetings and
hence effect discussion and sharing of views and experiences.
 Networking – through the use of VPN (Virtual Private Networks e.g. IPsec)
technology, several networks can be connected to one another. Remote administration
is also possible.
 Web-advertising – several companies display their ware on the Internet.

7.4 Impacts of the Internet

There are positive and negative impacts associated with the Internet.

Positive:
 Fast delivery of information
 Inexpensive customer base expansion

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 Availability of vast source of information

 Source of employment

Negative:
 Illicit or malicious programs are spreads easily.
 Hackers, Crackers and/or Trojans breach the goodwill of data privacy and
confidentiality.

7.5 Impacts of Computers in the Society

Impacts of computers on the society are positive and negatives. Discuss five positive and
negative impacts of computers on the society.

END

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Topic 8: Information Security, Integrity and Control

This is the protection of data from accidental or deliberate threats, which might cause
unauthorized modification disclosure or destruction of data and the protection of the Information
System from the degradation of non-availability of services.
Data integrity in this context of security is when data are the same as in source documents and
have not been accidentally or intentionally altered, destroyed or disclosed.
Misuse of an information System can be categorized as being either intentional (malicious) or
accidental.
Objectives of IS security
• To control loss of assets
• To insure the integrity and reliability of data
• To improve the efficiency/effectiveness of Information systems

Risks:
These are various dangers to information systems, the people, hardware, software, data and other
assets with which they are associated.
The dangers include; Natural disasters, thieves, industrial spies, disgruntled employees.
There Risk means the potential loss to the firm.
Threats:
Refer to people, actions, events or other situations that could trigger losses, they are potential
causes of loss.
Vulnerabilities: Flaws, problems or other conditions that make a system open/prone to threats.
Common Controls
Controls are counter measures to threats. They are tools that are used to counter risks from the
variety of people, actions, events or situations that can threaten an IS.
Are used to identify risk, prevent risk, reduce risks and recover from actual losses.

i. Physical Controls

These are controls that use conventional physical protection measures. Might include door locks,
keyboard locks, fire doors, surp pumps. Control over access and use of computer facilities and
equipment and controls for prevention of theft.
Inclusive controls to reduce contain or eliminate the damage from natural disasters, power
outages, humidity, dust, high temperature and other conventional threats.

ii. Electronic Controls

Are controls that use electronic measures to prevent or identify the threats?
Might include intruder detection and biological access compels e.g. log-on ID, passwords,
badges and hand, voice or retina print access controls.
iii. Software Controls

Are program code and controls used in IS applications to prevent, identify or recover from
errors, un-authorized access and other threats.
e.g. programming code placed in payroll application to prevent a data entry clerk from entering
hourly rate of pay that is too high.

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iv. Management Controls

Result from setting, implementing and enforcing policies and procedures e.g. employees required
to back up or archive their data at regular interval and take backup copies of data files to secure,
off-site locations for storage.
Common Threats
Natural disasters, unauthorized access (e.g. theft, vandalism, invasion of privacy), computer
crime and computer viruses.
i. Natural disasters

E.g. five, floods, water damage, earthquakes, tornadoes, hurricanes, mud slides, wind and storm
damage
Security planning should consider
 Disaster prevention
 Disaster containment
 Disaster recovery

e.g. Prevention: Use of backup power supplies or special building materials, locations, drainage
system or structural modifications to avoid damage during floods, storms fires and earthquakes.
Containment: Consider sprinkler systems, halon gas fire
Suppression: System or watertight ceilings to contain water damage from fire hoses.
Recovery: developing contingency plans for use of computer facilities of vendors or non-
competitors with similar computer

ii. Employee errors

Ordinary carelessness or poor employee training e.g. formatting the hard disk rather than drive
A, keying incorrect data.

iii. Computer crime, fraud and abuse

Computer crime: stealing data, damaging or vandalizing hard ware, software or data or using
computer software illegally or committing fraud.

iv. Industrial espionage

It’s the theft of original data by competitors. Also called economic espionage

v. Hacking

Also known as cracking. It’s the unauthorized entry by a person into a computer system or
network. Hackers are people who illegally gain access to the computer systems of others. They
can insert viruses onto networks, steal data and software, damage data or vandalize a system.
vi. Toll Fraud

Swindling companies and organisations e.g. through telephone bills through false pretences –
e.g. use of slugs instead of real coins.

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Toll hackers use maintenance ports, modem pools, voice mail systems, automated attendants or
other facilities of PBX, the private branch exchanges that are the computerized telephone
switches at customer sites.
Signs of frauds:
1. Numerous short calls
2. Simultaneous use of one telephone access mode
3. Numerous calls after business hours
4. Large increases in direct inward system access dialing or DISA

vii. Data diddling

Use of a computer system by employees to forge documents or change data in records for gain.

viii. Trojan horses and salami slicing

This is a change in code that is made to a program without authorization.

It appears to be performing a proper task but may actually perform a variety of mischievous or
criminal activities e.g. printing paychecks to employees or vendors who don’t exist.

ix. Trap doors

Are procedures or code that allows a person to avoid the usual security procedures for use of or
access to a system or data.

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