Addis Ababa University

College of Education and Behavioral Studies

Department of Special Needs Education

The Practice, Challenges, and Opportunities of Braille Skill

Training for Adults with Late Visual Impairment in Addis
Hiwot Rehabilitation Center

By Meskerem Behailu

December, 2021
 Addis Ababa University
College of Education and Behavioral Studies
Department of Special Needs Education

The Practice, Challenges and Opportunities of Braille Skill

Training for Adults with Late Visual Impairment in Addis
Hiwot Rehabilitation Center

By: Meskerem Behailu

This thesis is submitted to the Department of Special Needs

Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for MA
Degree in Special Needs Education

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 Addis Ababa University
College of Education and Behavioral Studies
Department of Special Needs Education

The Practice, Challenges and Opportunities of Braille Skill Training

for Adults with Late Visual Impairment in Addis Hiwot
Rehabilitation Center

By: Meskerem Behailu

Approval of the Board of Examiners

1. Advisor

Name ____________________ Signature __________ Date __________

2. Internal Examiner

Name ____________________ Signature __________Date __________

3. External Examiner

Name ____________________ Signature __________ Date __________

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First, I would like to thank the Almighty God for being my strength throughout my academic
journey.

I owe a profound and special gratitude to my advisor Tilahun Achaw (PhD) for his unwavering
guidance, support, comments and professional expertise during the preparation of this thesis.

My sincere and deepest gratitude also goes to my family who always striving for my comfort and
my friends and colleagues for their support and encouragement throughout this process.

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Contents
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................... vii
ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................................. viii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ ix
CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background of the Study ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................................... 2
1.3. Research Questions .............................................................................................................................. 4
1.4. Objectives of the study ......................................................................................................................... 4
1.5. Scope of the Study ................................................................................................................................ 5
1.6. Significance of the study ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.7. Definition of Key Terms ...................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................................ 7
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ................................................................................................ 7
2.1. Historical Background and concept of Braille .................................................................................. 7
2.2. Braille Skill Training as Vision Rehabilitation ................................................................................. 8
2.3. Practices of Braille Skill Training and related concerns .................................................................. 8
2.4. Consideration for Braille skill teaching ........................................................................................... 10
2.5. Challenges of Braille Skill Training ................................................................................................. 11
2.6. Opportunities of Braille Skill training for Persons with Visual Impairment ............................... 14
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................. 16
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 16
3.1. Research Design .................................................................................................................................. 16
3.2. Description of the Study Area ........................................................................................................... 16
3.3. Population ........................................................................................................................................... 17
3.4. Participants ......................................................................................................................................... 17
3.5. Data Collection Instruments .............................................................................................................. 18
3.6. Data collection procedure .................................................................................................................. 19
3.7. Data Types and Sources ..................................................................................................................... 20
3.8. Method of Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 21
3.9. Ethical Considerations ....................................................................................................................... 21
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CHAPTER FOUR..................................................................................................................................... 22
FINDINGS ................................................................................................................................................. 22
4.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 22
4.2. Practices of Braille Skill Training at AHRC ................................................................................... 22
4.3. Challenges of Braille Skill Training ................................................................................................. 27
4.4. Opportunities for Braille Skill Training .......................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................................... 35
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................................ 35
5.1 . Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 35
5.2 . Practices of braille skill training ..................................................................................................... 35
5.3 . Challenges of braille skill training .................................................................................................. 38
5.4. Opportunities of braille skill training for adults with late visual impairment ............................. 41
CHAPTER SIX ......................................................................................................................................... 44
Conclusion and Recommendation ........................................................................................................... 44
6.1. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 44
6.2. Recommendations .............................................................................................................................. 45
7. References............................................................................................................................................... 48
8. Appendix................................................................................................................................................. 52

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Background of participants by different criteria…………………………..................19

Table 2: Practices of Braille Skill Training at AHRC, their Contents, and Practitioners…......24

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ABBREVIATIONS

AHRC: Addis Hiwot Rehabilitation Center

CPRD: Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

UN: United Nation

MOE: Ministry of Education

MSVI: Moderate to Severe Visual Impairment

WBU: World Blind Union

WHO: World Health Organization

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 ABSTRACT
Braille skill training, as a vision rehabilitation function, could be designed and implemented to
benefit different categories of target people among whom adults with visual impairment
constitute a fundamental subject of interest. The existence of different targets and contexts for
such a vision rehabilitation is expected to emerge with unique practices, challenges, and
opportunities for the specific trainee’s category. In this regard, a review of relevant literature by
the researcher shows that there is a lacuna of empirical studies conducted on such relevant
aspects. This thesis was, therefore, initiated with a general objective of exploring the practices,
challenges and opportunities of braille skill training for adults with late visual impairment in
Addis Hiwot rehabilitation center. A qualitative research approach, and specifically a
descriptive case study method, was employed to explore the nature of issues of interest. A total of
5 participants were selected as key informants from both trainees (4) and a staff member (1) of
the rehabilitation center using a judgment type of non-probability sampling method. Semi-
structured interviews and observations were the fundamental tools used to generate the primary
data, while secondary information was mainly captured through reviewing relevant documents.
A thematic analsyis was employed to analsyse the data and reach at meaningful findings.
Eventually, the findings of the study were categorized and presented under three themes vis-à-
vis; practices, challenges, and opportunities. The practices were found to include orientation,
teaching and learning, as well as conducting assessments; and challenges related to educational
materials, physical environment, curriculum, personal wellbeing status, and socio- cultural and
economic aspects were discovered. Opportunities, a third theme, also involved similar sub-
themes with those established under challenges. Given these findings, therefore, the researcher
finally made such recommendations as; conducting further research to explore peculiar
experiences of adults with a partial visual impairment across different rehabilitation centers,
providing orientation on a continuous and multidisciplinary base to enable similar targets be
impacted positively and consistently, creating relevant social platforms in which learners can
interact horizontally during planning & implementing the different Braille skill training
practices, improving distribution of educational materials such as braille books and relevant
reference materials among learners, and financing establishment or maintenance of relevant
facilities required for Braille skill trainings.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study

Visual impairment has become one of the world's most serious health issues, affecting a huge
portion of the global population. There were an estimated 253 million people worldwide wide
who are visually impaired. Of this, 36 million were blind a further 217 million had moderate to
severe visual impairment (MSVI). The prevalence of people that have distance visual
impairment is 3.44%, of whom 0.49% are blind and 2.95% have MSVI. A further 1.1 billion
people are estimated to have functional presbyopia. Though vision loss can afflict persons of any
age, the majority of those who are blind or have vision impairment are over 50 (Ackland,
Resnikof & Bournein, 2017). In this respect, almost 90% of the visual impairment people live in
low - and middle-income countries (WHO, 2004 as cited in Kalra, Lauwers, Dewey, Stepleton,
& Dias, 2008). This burden of prevalence in visual impairment has long been empirically
explored to hold true in countries like Ethiopia. According to (Berhane, Worku, Bejiga, Adamu,
Alemayehu, Bedri et.al., 2008) for instance, the national visual impairment rate of Ethiopia had
already reached 5.3 % of the total population. Only 6% of the totally blind people were in their
childhood stages (Berhane et.al., 2008) suggesting that the prevalence of similar disability was
experienced at later ages of largest victims.

Large segments of people with visual impairment of the world are identified with lack of access
to various support systems, such as education, which otherwise could enhance their participation
in socio-economic and personal development processes. Yet, the important position of literacy
for humanity in general and persons with some disability in particular was strongly established in
various forms of institutional and policy frameworks. According to (WBU, 2003 cited in Mitiku,
2020) literacy is a human right. Besides, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities (CRPD) states that persons with disability have the right to communicate in a variety
of ways that includes braille skills (Nicoli & Ninio, 2007).

In spite of provisions of the frameworks, developing nations are not yet able to enforce proper
and adequate implementation of the provisions so as to help people with disabilities get access to
education. Evidences show that only less than 3% of persons with visual impairment are able to

1
get access to literacy in low-income countries (WHO, 2004 as cited in Kalra et al.,2008). In
Ethiopia, an evaluation of adult education center was found to be not conducive and friendly to
accommodate persons with disabilities. There seems to exist also a long way for the nation to
particularly educate those with special education needs (MOE, 2012).

Though imparting Braille skills should serve as the major method of literacy for the person with
visual impairment (Mccarthy, Rosenblum, Johnson, Dittel, & Kearns, 2016). learning Braille
skills has often been constrained by different challenges in the developing world. Among the
causative factors to such limitations include; lack of trained teachers and challenges associated
with learning to write Braille on a traditional slate and stylus (Kalra et al.,2008). Besides, low-
income countries have limited Braille-producing equipment, resulting in a scarcity of Braille
materials and personal Braille-writing devices (Yibeltal, 2012).

Provision of Braille skill training is one of the various or compensatory mandates that frequently
found at the heart of vision rehabilitation efforts. With an evidently continuing rise in the
prevalence of adults with visual impairment particularly in the developing world and, therefore,
the urge of efforts put in place to address corresponding needs (Martiniello, Haririsanati, &
Wittich, 2020), vision rehabilitation institutions and their Braille literacy programs are expected
to experience a set of emerging practices, and challenges as well as opportunities. As much as
these prospects become unique, learning from them would also enable to inform proper policy
formulation and successful implementations of adult vision rehabilitation. Thus, this study was
proposed with an aim to assess the practices, challenges, and opportunities of Braille skill
training intervention for adults with late visual impairment at a purposively selected
rehabilitation institution i.e., Addis Hiwot Rehabilitation Center (AHRC) which is found in
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Imparting Braille skills is one among the major vision rehabilitation interventions whose design
might be aiming to address different types of visually impaired targets, and its implementation
could rest within various contexts. Many people with visual impairment often perceive that their
Braille skills provided to them such advantages as improving their competence, liberty, and
equality (Schroeder, 1998 cited in Khochen, 2014; Fajdetić, 2006). Given that the braille skills
2
literacy interventions are efficiently and effectively designed and implemented, therefore, the
impact could stretch to a position where it enables the visually impaired targets become
successful in their personal development and integration or re-integration of themselves into their
socio-economic development processes.

In spite of the multiple advantages of imparting Braille skills for persons with visual impairment,
a number of studies have explored that the outcomes of Braille skill trainings could be either
challenged with various factors or some attributes would be counted as opportunities. Goudiras,
Papadopoulos & Koutsoklenis, 2009; Kimeto,2010; Khochen, 2014; Njue, Aura & Komen,2014;
and Martiniello, et.al., 2020 are some of the major scientific works carried out with objectives of
investigating the factors that continued to affect Braille literacy interventions under different
contexts.

Based on a study conducted in a Kenyan primary school for instance, Kimeto, 2010 revealed that
the outcomes of learning English Braille skills by students with visual impairment was
constrained by such factors as poor physical and social learning environment, teacher
qualifications, insufficient educational resources, and financial constraints. Even in cases where
students with visual impairment could possibly get access to Braille skill training materials, their
vision impairment might pose hindrances on the efficiency and effectiveness of their learning
compared to the possible extent of learning that could happen for students without visual
impairment (Khochen, 2014). Yet, the findings of Kimeto,2010; Khochen, 2014; Njue, Aura &
Komen, 2014 were particularly drawn from the experiences of younger or school age targets. In
a similar vein, Mitiku, 2020, carried out an investigation with group of visual impairment
students of a school in Ethiopia. The result reflected that the challenges of Braille competencies
included, among others, unorganized sittings and desks, and uncomfortable arm chairs in
classrooms, as well as insufficient resources required for the learning to take place (Mitiku,
2020).

On contrary, other studies have identified the factors affecting Braille learning interventions in
an adult category of visual impairment targets. In this respect, Martiniello, et.al., 2020 classified
the factors which would either enable or become barrier of specifically Braille skill adult trainees
into three categories vis-à-vis personal, social, and institutional factors. The authors further

3
specified the personal factors into the level of motivation to learn Braille, psycho-social
responses, prior learning experiences, and physical capacities; social factors into responses from
family and friends, responses from the general public, and relationship with other Braille users;
and institutional factors into the level of awareness and availability of resources, responses from
rehabilitation systems, and learning contexts.

Though the later studies conducted by Martiniello, et.al., 2020 and Goudiras, et.al., 2009
emphasized on the factors affecting Braille literacy as experienced by adults with visual
impairment in rehabilitation centers, both drew findings from the contexts of high-income
countries. Despite the voluminous literature existing on challenges and opportunities of Braille
literacy interventions, a critical review of documents reviewed by the researcher for the current
study do culminate with implying that there is shortage of empirical findings relevant to inform
policies and practices of Braille skills literacy for adults with late visual impairment in the
developing regions in general, and the case of rehabilitation centers in Ethiopia in particular.
Results of the literature review did also reveal that there is a lack of scientific investigations that
show emerging practices of Braille skill training interventions. Hence, the current study was
initiated with an aim to assess the practices, challenges and opportunities of Braille skill training
for adults with late visual impairment in a rehabilitation center context of Ethiopia.

1.3. Research Questions

The study was proposed to address the following research questions:

1. What are the practices of Braille skill training for adults with late visual impairment in
AHRC?
2. What are the Braille skill training challenges that hinder adults with late visual
impairment in AHRC?
3. What are the Braille skill training opportunities provided for adults with late visual
impairment in AHRC?

1.4. Objectives of the study

General objective: The general objective of the study was to explore the practices, challenges
and opportunities of Braille skill training for adults with late visual impairment in AHRC.

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Specific Objectives;
1. To understand the major practices of Braille skill training for adults with late visual
impairment in AHRC.
2. To describe the main challenges that hinder the Braille skill training of the rehabilitation
center on adults with late visual impairment.
3. To describe the major opportunities of Braille skill training in AHRC for adults with late
visual impairment.

1.5. Scope of the Study

This study focuses on the braille skill training for adults with late visual impairment at AHRC.
The researcher selects and conducted an in-depth study of subjects of interest in a single vision
rehabilitation center (AHRC) context. AHRC was confirmed to be the only sole institutional
establishment of the country to rehabilitate persons with late visual impairment, and hence it is
selected purposively. AHRC was established in 1992 E.C. The center is located in Arada sub-
city, woreda 6 of Addis Ababa City Administration.

1.6. Significance of the study

The study is believed to have a number of significances. Principally, it is expected that the
findings of this study will give insight about the practices, challenges and opportunities of
AHRC. By generating empirical evidences related to such practices, challenges and opportunities
in rehabilitation context, the study is expected to inform policy makers to design policies and
actions required to assist the people with visual impairment in general and the adults with late
visual impairment in particular. The results could also serve as potential inputs for planning
processes of various rehabilitation centers. It is also hoped that the findings of this study will be
important addition to the existing knowledge and literature on this topic.

1.7. Definition of Key Terms

The following are definition of terms that was frequently used in the study:

5
Adult with late Visual impairment: In this study adults with late visual impairment are those
individuals who are 30 years and above of age, and become visually impaired sometimes after
they were born.

Braille skill training: In this study Braille skill training refers to training in Braille which
includes writing and reading skills.

Practices: In this study, practice refers to regular performances or activities done before, during
and after Braille skill training for adults with late visual impairment in AHRC.

Challenges: In this study, it refers to different circumstances that create barrier to Braille skill
training for adults with late visual impairment in AHRC.

Opportunity: In this study, opportunities refer to many circumstances or conditions which are
fortunate, lucky or favorable and can be put to use by Braille skill training for adults with late
visual impairment in AHRC.

Rehabilitation center: In this study it refers to a place which provides rehabilitation service.

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 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Voluminous body of literature have been identified and reviewed by the researcher to
comprehend conceptual accounts on themes of interest vis-à-vis Practices, Challenges and
Opportunity of Braille skill trainings for adults with visual impairment. Meanwhile, several
studies that dealt with empirical realities concerning the major subjects of this thesis were
critically analyzed and lessons were drawn from the results. Finally, the review grew into core
discussions to reveal the relevance of issues under consideration and emerging knowledge gaps
which need further investigations. This section, therefore, presents briefly the same.

2.1. Historical Background and concept of Braille

The braille code, invented by Louis Braille in the mid-1800s, has a fascinating history and is still
as important in the lives of blind people today as it was when it was first invented. New
technologies have increased access to information, but braille as a reading and writing system
cannot be replaced. Braille allows for automated and independent access to reading materials.
Braille reading and writing are used by blind and people with visual impairment in the same way
as print is used by sighted people (D’Andrea, 2015).

Braille is a raised-dot device that helps blind people to read and write using their fingers
(National federation of the blind, 2009). Additionally, (D’Andrea, 2015) braille is a raised-dot
device centered on a “cell” of six dots arranged in a three-dot-high by two-dot-wide grid. Cells in
the braille system represent letters, sentences, and sections of words, allowing blind or people
with visual impairment to read text tactilely. For the blind, the Braille code is the most widely
used way of reading and writing. It's the only device that lets blind people read and write
independently, as well as communicate with each other Braille has been adapted for almost any
written language due to its usefulness (National federation of the blind, 2009). The blind utilized
the slate and stylus as an alternative to making notes with a pencil and paper. (Wormsley &
D’Andrea, 1997 as cited in kimeto, 2010).

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2.2. Braille Skill Training as Vision Rehabilitation

Braille skill training is one of the vision rehabilitations often conducted to enable or enhance the
ability of visual impairment targets to read and write. Indeed, such an intervention is only one
among the several therapeutic and rehabilitation strategies vis-à-vis Orientation and mobility,
social interaction skills, independent living skills and personal management skills, recreation and
leisure skills, assistive technology, visual efficiency skills (Atkin, Fenton, Holbrook, MacCuspie,
Mamer, McConnell, et al., 2003).

2.3. Practices of Braille Skill Training and related concerns

Orientation: The practice of orientation, in the context of vision rehabilitation, is a fundamental

and prior activity substantiated by guidance and counseling of the visual impairment target
person. The goals this support will range from advising the visual impairment persons on ways
of getting at ease with difficulties experienced as a result of being visual impairment (Carney,
Engbretson, Scammell& Sheppard, 2003) to equipping them with self-guidance and mobility
skills (Yuwono, 2017). The latter, in particular, will often enhance persons with visual
impairment interaction ability with their environment and undergo social adjustments in various
rehabilitation institutions. Such advantages were also accompanied with a sense of motivation
and confidence felt by, for instance, students at inclusive schools (Yuwono, 2017).

Preparing for Braille Skill Training: Preparing the visual impairment trainees, as a first stage
among the practices of Braille literacy intervention, requires prior understanding of the different
properties of their disability and the corresponding implications for skill acquisition. In this
regard, the dynamics of being a visual impaired persons as they emerge with adaptive strategies
for learning new things have long been assessed and became part of documented knowledges.
Generally, persons with poor or no vision are marked by their tendency to perceive the world
through their ears, fingers, skin, noses, mouths, and gestures. They also need longer time of
duration to experience physical items compared to the sighted persons. Due to these and related
reasons, therefore, people with visual impairment do not happen to recognize the world with
similar concepts that their peers with visual abilities do (California Department of Education,
2006).

8
Hence, and in order for an effective kickstart of learning by people with visual impairments,
there is a need to assist them in matching what they feel with what they hear, smell, and taste.
The adults with visual impairment, in particular, require spending a one-on-one time with
facilitators so that they will be able to learn labels of the various things found in the surrounding
environment. Such an assistance could even become more demanding for many of the people
with visual impairment in the adult category who frequently encounter an inability to use their
hands for exploration or “tactual defensiveness”. The later happens for reasons that are so far
unknown (California Department of Education, 2006).

Tactile preference and its impacts on learning: While examining whole hand and finger,
readers who use two hands and read with their hands more independently read faster, obtain a
reservation, other fingers in addition to the index fingers will gather information during the
reading process, Light touch is preferable for tactile sensations, Observation (2 handed),
Scrubbing entails circular or up-and-down movements should be identified to teach braille skill
(Sitten, 2018).

The most productive motion is from left to right, Kinesthetic memory in relation to finger pads
and monitoring, Recognition of the entire form (talk about which dots are missing),
Discrimination on the basis of facts, spacing between lines, a space between letters, identifying a
Braille cell, Scanning and understanding of whole words all of those should be consider during
pre-Braille skill training (Sitten, 2018).

Factors affecting teaching persons with Visual Impairments: People with visual impairment do
not have a good view of their surroundings. This hazy outlook on life will necessitate assistance
in all areas. People with visual impairment can need direct instruction to learn new ideas or
concepts they will also need to explore their other senses to complement what they experience by
vision. People with visual impairment will have to understand that there's a world outside of
themselves and their own requirements. Persons with visual impairment will also need to be
trained and given the ability to interact with the world by learning to organize their actions in a
number of environments (Truitt & Suvak, 2001).

An individual who has been blinded by accident (after birth) faces unique challenges. It is
necessary to perform tests in order to determine whether or not Braille is needed. Furthermore,

9
extra caution must be exercised while teaching Braille. If the vision loss was recent, the
individual may not have fully recognized the loss of vision and the need for Braille. Forcing
someone to learn Braille before they are ready will cause them to have a negative reaction to it
and refuse to learn it. Before the person is able to embrace Braille, he or she will need
counseling. Before graduation, senior high school students may not be open to Braille instruction
(Truitt &Suvak, 2001).

2.4. Consideration for Braille skill teaching

Psychological consideration: The person might be struggling with some of the emotional
aspects of adapting to vision loss if they equate Braille with blindness and also fear stemming
from presumptions about a lack of information regarding Braille. It may be beneficial by
counseling to help them explore their feelings and discover the true reasons for their rejection of
Braille, showing them how to use Braille in their daily lives, i.e., seek to understand how Braille
may be useful to the user (identify needs) and providing peer tutoring from a person who is
Braille literate (Sitten, 2018).

Consideration of physical ability: Motor skills for properly positioning the body and hands,
Tactile skills sufficient to distinguish between different dot configurations and sufficient level of
manual skills to read and write Braille (Sitten, 2018).

Consideration of cognitive ability: A sufficient level of literacy to meet needs (helpful to know
how much they read before losing vision as well as use of formal testing), Ability to learn new
things and follow instructions (sufficient short- and long-term memory) and take into account
any other limitations that can impair your ability to learn. It is critical to provide instruction in
the pre-Braille skills mentioned below until it has been established that the client has the
confidence and capacity to learn Braille. Kinesthetic memory is developed in these areas, which
is essential for tracking, placing the cell under the finger, locating the next line, and developing a
soft touch. Furthermore, spatial perception within a cell, as well as between words and lines, is
taught. Tactual discrimination skills can be improved without having to think about recalling
individual letters, which is important for learning Braille (Sitten, 2018).

10
2.5. Challenges of Braille Skill Training

Learning to read and write is more difficult for a student learning Braille than it is for a student
learning print. The use of touch in reading and writing is a rare feature of reading and writing for
children who are blind (Kimeto, 2010). There are so many challenges of Braille skill training.

Challenges related to Educational Materials: While some countries' legislation (for example,
the Equality Act 2010 in the United Kingdom) supports people with visual impairment having
access to materials in their preferred format, the availability of Braille content is limited due to
the additional cost of producing Braille books. This is a serious issue for both service providers
and people with visual impairment, especially in developing countries where services for visual
impairment people are scarce and equality legislation is almost non-existent. In the Middle East,
for example, the use of Braille books is limited to school materials. As a result, Braille readers
have very limited access to books in Braille that are not part of the school curriculum and that
they may like to learn Braille production has also decreased as a result of the increasing
movement toward electronic and audio materials (Khochen, 2014). The consistency of available
Braille materials varies greatly. The availability of qualified transcribers varies as well. In our
classrooms, there must be a dedication to “dot-perfect” Braille. Person with visual impairment
deserve the same high-quality products as person who can read (California Department of
Education, 2006). Provision of materials and equipment, as well as financial resources, are
among the challenges in implementing integrated education. When a school is well-stocked with
fundamental teaching and learning materials, the teacher's work becomes easier, and all students'
learning outcomes increase. Students with Visual impairment require resources such as Braille
paper, slates, and stylus, as well as Brail library service, Braille books, tape recorder, audio
cassettes, and audio books to meet their special educational needs (Alemu &Zergaw, 2018).

Despite the fact that much of the available assistive technology makes Braille easier to use, some
people mistakenly assume that talking machines and audiotape will replace Braille. However,
auditory access to knowledge does not take the place of print or Braille. It is a complement to
these important literacy resources. It's also worth noting that, while Braille translation software is
a fantastic tool, it's not enough to ensure accurate Braille development. The use of such tools
necessitates knowledge of the Braille language (California Department of Education, 2006).

11
Challenges related to Physical Environment: States parties must guarantee that communications
and information services, transit networks, buildings, and other structures are designed and
constructed in such a way that people with disabilities may use, enter, and reach them (UN
General Assembly, 2007). The learning environment should be designed in such a way that
students can readily adjust to new situations and improve their learning. In order to support
learning, learning materials should be readily available and well-organized. When the learning
environment is not conducive to the pupils' learning, their learning will be immediately
disrupted. It should include technology and assistive equipment, whose use will aid students in
their educational pursuits. As a result, all stakeholders in education must consider reforming the
educational system to help these pupils learn more effectively (Kapur, 2018). According to a
survey conducted in Pakistani elementary school teachers in 2013 and sited in (Debele, 2015),
the school physical environment, which includes the school building and surroundings,
classroom, furniture, layout, noise, temperature, lighting, and so on, has a significant educational
impact.

Challenges related to Curriculum: Another distinction in learning to read and write Braille and
print that influences the creation of instructional programs is that Braille readers must learn more
symbols than print readers, and they do not learn all of the elements of the code until much later
than print readers. However, once they hit a third-grade reading standard, the vocabulary of
people reading materials will not include any of the Braille contractions. Providing resources at a
first, second, or third grade reading level, on the other hand, does not guarantee that the person
can understand or perceive the Braille symbols that do appear. Apart from the symbols, Braille
readers must learn Braille symbol use codes, which print readers, do not have to deal with. This
suggests that Braille readers have a longer period of time to master their reading medium, while
their sighted counterparts have progressed beyond learning their code. For person learning to
read Braille, the existence or absence of incidental learning is extremely important (Dogbe,
2020). Everything being equal, introducing contractions early in a student's reading process is
linked to better literacy achievement later in the student's literacy career.

Challenges related to Personal Well Being Status: It's important to examine the student's age
and whether they have other literacy alternatives. The student's intellectual ability will determine
whether functional braille or traditional braille should be the focus. Learning to read Braille
12
requires a student's tactile and perceptual abilities and skills. Students who have had strokes may
not have the sensitivity in their fingers to distinguish minute variations in braille characters. The
student's age and any additional difficulties will also play a significant role in selecting how to
teach braille to the pupil (Willings, 2017).

People get visual impairment at various points in their lives. As a result, they may be required to
learn basic Braille literacy at any age and in any grade level, posing additional challenges for
both students and teachers (California Department of Education, 2006). Similarly, the student's
capacity to acquire skills and concepts is influenced by his or her age and degree of development
prior to the onset of the visual impairment. Students with congenital blindness may struggle to
grasp concepts, whereas students with adventitious blindness may have enough visual memory to
benefit from visual descriptions (Carney et al., 2003).

People learning to read Braille faces a challenge with tactual acuity, which leads to slower
reading times than most print readers. However, many people with visual impairment people can
solve this problem with practice and experience. It may take longer for those with insensitive
tips, and others will never learn the requisite tactual acuity to read Braille effectively (Khochen,
2014).

When blindness strikes, it can be difficult to carry out a variety of everyday activities. The
beginning of Braille training can be a stressful experience. Helping the student re-master a
previously used skill such as a household task might be a good place to start. Since an
adventitiously blind person can carry preconceived positive or negative attitudes about blind
people to the learning situation. The following will be considered before Braille instruction
begins: encourage the individual to express his or her feelings about Braille as a sign of
blindness, the teacher and the student will look into the origins and validity of common myths
about Braille use, the student will be telling that Braille does not isolate blind people in and of
itself and it will be made clear that learning Braille does not necessitate the "sixth sense" that is
frequently attributed to the blind (Sitten, 2018).

Challenges related to Social-Cultural and Economic Conditions: Some professionals, parents,

and person with visual impairment assume that Braille is a second-class medium that cannot
offer the same level of accessibility as print. These pessimistic and inaccurate viewpoints can

13
lead to the adoption of less efficient reading media and devices (California Department of
Education, 2006). People who oppose being educated in a different medium than their peers can
develop negative attitudes toward learning Braille. Adults who struggled to learn print reading
before moving on to learning Braille or those who have lost their sight later in life can have
negative attitudes toward Braille Their dissatisfaction may be exacerbated by the fact that they
must "start again," but this time in a format in which they are unfamiliar. For some, learning
Braille is a "profoundly emotional problem" that generates animosity toward it and its supporters
because it represents the final acknowledgment or realization of going blind (Rogers, 2007 as
cited in Khochen, 2014).

Teachers of visual impaired need regular in-service training in order to improve and refresh their
university preparation activities. One of the special pleasures of this career is the ability to teach
Braille. Teachers need assistance, preparation, and time in order to provide these essential
services (California Department of Education, 2006).

Teachers are the most important factor in determining a child's educational quality. The
academic qualification, professional training, commitment, and dedication of teachers have a
significant impact on the quality of education and training provided. Because teaching is a highly
skilled profession that necessitates specialized training not only in subject knowledge, but also in
teaching skills such as identifying strengths, weaknesses, and interests, as well as responding to a
variety of learning needs, classroom management, positive discipline, and attitudes (Alemu
&Zergaw, 2018).

2.6. Opportunities of Braille Skill training for Persons with Visual Impairment

Beginning Braille readers are taught in a variety of ways, but one thing they all have in common
is that they need to be able to utilize Braille and increase their knowledge of Braille contractions
(Mccarthy et al., 2016). The systematic procedures of gathering and identifying the needs of the
learners are referred to as assessment of the learner's needs. When the needs, backgrounds, and
prior knowledge of the learners are known, quality teaching can take place in an effective
manner. Prior to the start of the study program, it is critical for both students and teachers to
assess the learning needs of students with visual impairment. It allows for a better understanding
of the student's academic abilities, approaches, strategies, and learning styles (Kapur, 2018).

14
Convenience of Braille for Learning by Person with Visual Impairment: Braille is the most
evident reading medium for person with visual impairment, and it is an important part of every
educational program for person with visual impairment. Braille is a tactile reading and writing
device developed for blind people, and it is the most common way for them to become literate
(California Department of Education, 2006). For persons with visual impairment, Braille has
various advantages over other writing systems. First, it can represent alphabet letters, accented
letters, punctuation, digits, and even musical notes because it is versatile. Second, the fewer keys
necessary to enter a chord enables for a direct finger-key match, reducing the need for
visual/tactile scanning (Guerreiro, Gonçalves, Marques, Guerreiro, Nicolau, & Montague,2013).

Braille has been recognized as a powerful and vital tool for literacy for people with visual
impairment, particularly in the course of education. Braille helps people with visual impairment
in visualizing text by allowing them to experience and word, learn how these words are written,
and most importantly, it allows people with visual impairment access to content on an equal
footing with their peers, influencing their educational achievement and providing a forum for
them to compete with others. Many people with visual impairment associate their Braille skills
with their competence, liberty, and equality (Schroeder, 1998 cited in Khochen, 2014). Braille
has helped people with visual impaired have equal opportunities in everyday life (both
professional and personal) by allowing them to practice written communication (reading and
writing) (Fajdetić, 2006).

Psychological/Emotional Upliftment (opportunity): Braille has a negative connotation for some

people with visual impairment. Learning Braille may lead to a person accepting the label of
blindness and confronting some of the negative stereotypes about blindness and Braille. Once a
person has mastered Braille and it has become an integral part of his or her daily life, the
individual's attitude toward Braille can take on a new connotation: one of them is competence.
People with vision loss can identify themselves as blind by studying Braille, which can help
them improve their self-esteem and gain new confidence in their talents. The ability to
comprehend Braille has been linked to increased self-esteem, independence, and competence
(Schroeder, 1996).

15
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. Research Design
This study was initiated with intentions of investigating the practices, challenges, and
opportunities present to adults with late visual impairment who attend Braille skill training
programs in a context of a vision rehabilitation center. A qualitative research approach was used
so that acquiring in-depth account of the nature of subjects and phenomena investigated become
feasible. Besides, a descriptive case study research design was found appropriate, and hence
employed as there was a need to make thick description of the phenomena of interest as it
happens in a real context of a specific vision rehabilitation center. Application of the descriptive
case study should be considered when the focus of the study is to qualitatively assess the
happening of a phenomenon without intending to manipulate the behaviors of those who involve
in the study (George and Bennett, 2005; Yin, 2003), and the descriptive case study method is
meant to describe the intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred
(Yin, 2003). At least two data collection strategies were used so that obtaining in-depth
information and triangulation of the same could become possible. The methods majorly
consisted of semi-structured interviews and observation. Finally, the data were organized and
analyzed using a thematic analysis method since this method was found appropriate to analyses
the different categories of qualitative information.

3.2. Description of the Study Area

The research was carried out at AHRC which is found in Addis Ababa – the capital of Ethiopia.
The center is located in Arada sub-city, woreda 6 of Addis Ababa City Administration. AHRC is
a legally registered Ethiopian resident charitable organization that was established in May 1992
EC with the primary purpose of rehabilitating people with late visual impairment. The
rehabilitation service is particularly provided with a prior emphasis to adults and people who are
visually impaired in their late stages. Among the major rehabilitation services delivered by the
center are; psychological support and counseling, orientation and mobility training, basic Braille
literacy training, ICT training and tutorial services, independent living skill training, Braille

16
embossing and printing service, audio-Braille library service and also vocational and business
management training etc.

3.3. Population

The target population of the study comprises all adult with visual impairment trainees of Braille
skill training program at AHRC and staff members of the center. Accordingly, the total
population size of the study was nineteen (19) i.e., sixteen (16) trainees and three (3) staff
members of the center. Both trainees and staff have been identified with different sex and age
categories as well. Accordingly, there are 16 trainees (10 male and 6 female), and 3 staff
members (1 male trainer, 1 female trainer, and 1 center manager) for the braille skill training
program. The population is comprised of those persons who are found in their 30s to those who
are in their 50s. Besides, the age at which members of the population experienced visual
impairment for first time was found to fall within the range of 20 to 45 years.

3.4. Participants
A convenient non-probability sampling method was used to select the AHRC which is treated as
a case in this study. AHRC is located in a convenient place in terms of proximity to the
researcher’s residential area, and hence making a frequent visit for data collection and related
activities became easier for the researcher. With regard to the key informants, a judgment type of
non-probability sampling technique was employed to select participants from different categories
of sexes, ages, status in the rehabilitation center (participant type), and diversity in age of onset
of visual impairment.

In order to do so, the researcher initially approached the administration of AHRC and requested a
list of the adults with visual impairment who were attending Braille skill training program, and
that of staff members of the center. The document obtained from the administration included
such entries as name, sex, and age of the Braille skill training attendees of the center. Having
paid a look at the list of the target population and their categorical descriptions, therefore, the
researcher used a judgment type of non-probability sampling technique to select respondents
with different demography and personal backgrounds so as to enable obtaining information
derived from multiple experiences. Judgment was made specifically to find at least one key

17
informant from different sexes, ages, participant’s type (i.e., trainee or staff), and age at onset of
vision impairment (i.e., earlier or later age).

Accordingly, a total of five (5) individuals comprised of four (4) trainees and one (1) staff
member were selected as participants of the study. The participant trainees are composed of
equal proportion of sex, and age categories while a male trainer key informant was selected from
the staff since, during securing a consent for the study, the participant (compared to rest of the
staff) was confirmed to have better communication ability and accessibility during data
collection time. The age category at which respondents became visually impaired for first time
was also represented by selecting participants who encountered visual impairment in their 20s,
30s, and 40s of age. Background of participants was summarized in the following table.

Table 1: Background of participants by different criteria

SN Participant Type Sex Age of respondent Age at onset of vision impairment
1 Trainee Male 31 24
2 Trainee Male 57 43
3 Trainee Female 30 22
4 Trainee Female 52 41
5 Trainer Male 56 30
Source: A personal review of document obtained from AHRC

3.5. Data Collection Instruments

Two types of instruments were used to collect data from the key informants and various relevant
phenomena of interest. These methods were observations and semi-structured interviews.
Information generated through the different methods were also triangulated for corresponding
issues and, therefore, helped in confirming emergent findings. The success in conducting
observations and interviews, in particular, were actually attributable to the modest facilitation by
trainers and center manager of AHRC.

Observations: Different types of observations (both participant and non-participant) were

undertaken in and around AHRC for a total of 6 hours (for a set of 2 consecutive hours of 3
different days of field work). Majority of the physical environment related challenges (in or

18
around the classes), for instance, were able to be observed by the researcher. A participant
observation method was employed to grasp information on the discomfort that could be felt by
the trainees due to the narrowness of class rooms and poor arrangement of furniture as well as
the difficulty in using walkways inside or near the rehabilitation center. On contrary, an indirect
(non-participant) observation was conducted and provided the researcher with an insight on the
diversity and quantity of educational resources existing in the center which was a phenomenon
treated as both challenge and opportunity. Besides, challenges related to the physical wellbeing
of trainees were able to be at least partly witnessed by the researcher using an indirect
observation. In order to do so, a checklist was prepared inculcating statements of inquiries on
issues that could possibly be addressed through observation.

Semi-structured interviews: Semi-structured interview is one of the data collection instruments

employed in this study in general, and it was particularly used in finding the primary information
from participants. Besides, the method was relevant to get information on nearly every subject
and phenomena of interest to the study. An interview schedule was prepared containing multiple
and open-ended questions so as to enable guiding the survey work with flexibility and hence,
obtaining in-depth information related to the practices of Braille skill trainings conducted in
AHRC and the challenges as well as opportunities experienced by the adult trainees with late
visual impairment. Except part of the data collected on challenges and opportunities related to
physical environment, personal well-being, and educational materials (which were obtained
through observations), information on majority of the themes of interest were generally obtained
through the semi-structured interviews.

3.6. Data collection procedure

The data collection activity had normally begun during the onset of reviewing documents (both
published and unpublished from online or off line sources) and reflecting on the major topics of
interest. Accordingly, an extensive volume of information on either conceptual or empirical
accounts of vision rehabilitation, their global and local aspects, as well as the practices,
challenges, and opportunities for adults with late visual impairment in Braille skill learning
contexts were collected, organized, and analyzed. Learning from the same, meanwhile, it was
possible for the researcher to develop different data collection tools utilized during the
qualitative survey. These tools were the semi-structured interview schedules and checklists for
19
observations. Then, the survey activity started after approaching AHRC administration and
getting consent. The center also played important roles in facilitation of data collection through
assisting the researcher find necessary resources and key informants.

The qualitative survey generally began with conducting observations of physical situations in the
center, and personal conditions related to the trainees. While doing so, the researcher employed
an observation checklist and used to jot down important notes of the observations. Such type of
data collection strategy had continued parallel to conducting interviews with key informants as
well. For this in-depth data collection method, an interview guide was written in English and
then translated into Amharic (the local language) prior to starting the activity.

3.7. Data Types and Sources

Both primary and secondary data were collected and employed for the current study. The
primary data included the specific accounts of categories of practices, challenges, and
opportunities experienced by adults with visual impairment participants of the Braille skill
training program organized by AHRC. They are principally obtained from the participant adult
trainees and staff members of AHRC. Majority of the data on practices were articulated by the
staff members, while the substantial quantity and impacts of challenges were expressed by the
key informant adult trainees. With regard to the opportunities, in fact both trainees and staff
members were able to identify and reflect up on different dimensions, and hence, both categories
played critical roles.

The secondary data included relevant theoretical and empirical aspects of the themes
investigated. This information was used in understanding the major concepts, experiences, and
backgrounds to the topics such as Braille skill training, vision rehabilitation interventions,
categories of targets for the interventions, visual impairment, and their corresponding challenges,
and opportunities. The secondary data were also inputs used in describing the background of
participants and the studied case i.e., AHRC. They are majorly obtained from documents such as
published research articles (most of which were accessed through such online search engines as
Google scholar), official or technical reports containing prior accounts of descriptions of the
subjects or topics studied.

20
3.8. Method of Data Analysis

After data collection was completed, the responses were translated back into English for analysis
and report writing purposes. A proper review and processing of data were also conducted before
analysis. Besides, the researcher had to read, and comprehend each of the data obtained from the
different sources prior to beginning analysis. This process has directly helped in organizing the
information, and focus on relevant subjects during analysis. Since majority of the data were
qualitaive in nature, then, a corresponding and approprite qualitative approach was employed to
anyse them. Accordingly, a thematic analsyis was carried out to reach at proper and meaningful
findings. The specific procudure of data analysis also included detecting, coding, categorizing,
and providing patterns or the relevant themes and sub-themes across a dataset.

3.9.Ethical Considerations

Anonymity and confidentiality with regard to identity of key informant respondents and other
individual sources of information were assured. Besides, the purpose of the study was explained
to the respondents by the researcher and obtained a consent from each ahead of beginning
interaction with them.

21
 CHAPTER FOUR

FINDINGS
4.1. Introduction

This section of the thesis report presents findings on the major themes of interests vis-à-vis
practices, challenges, and opportunities of Braille skill training program at AHRC as either
experienced or perceived by the key informants. Different response categories and sub-themes
were addressed under each of the major themes of the study. Meanwhile, relevant direct quotes
and their implications were also organized and used to help in emphasizing as well as elaboration
of typical phenomena.

4.2. Practices of Braille Skill Training at AHRC

The Braille skill training sessions for adults with late visual impairment at AHRC involves
various practices some of which are similar and others unique to the activities carried out in
conventional trainings or teaching and learning classes. Based on the information obtained from
participants of the study, there are three major practices of Braille skill training program at
AHRC. These practices are Orientations, Teaching and Learning, as well as Assessments.

Orientation is a relatively unique practice and encompasses such sub-activities as guidance and
counseling for enhanced emotional readiness and safe mobility in the rehabilitation center.
Though the other two practices (teaching and learning and assessment) appeared similar with
other common types of teaching or training practices, their sub-activities were identified as
unique. Teaching and learning practice involves such contents as tactual skills and braille reading
and writing skills development, while assessment encompasses conducting continuous
assessments and a final evaluation of trainees’ performance for each subject. In fact, the
uniqueness of these practices was also seen in the condition where both begin with developing
the ability of trainees to efficiently respond to braille learning and evaluate the outcome of
learning using the same ability at the end. Details of each practice are presented in the
consequent sub-section.

22
 Table 2: Practices of Braille Skill Training at AHRC, their Contents, and Practitioners
SN Activities Contents of the training activities Practitioners

1. Orientation 1.1.Guidance and counseling Center Manager, Guest

Psychologists, Center Trainers,
and Trainees

2. Teaching and 2.1. Tactual skills (Hands on Braille) Center Trainers and Trainees
Learning
2.2. Braille reading and writing skills Center Trainers and Trainees

3. Assessment 3.1. Continuous Assessment Center Trainers and Trainees

3.2. Final Evaluation Center Trainers and Trainees

Source: Own in depth interview data, 2021

Orientation: According to key informants, an orientation session is where learners and staff
members of the rehabilitation center begin to interact with each other as part of the Braille skill
training process. During orientation, the center manager - often accompanied by an invited guest
psychologist and Braille trainers, will provide guidance and counseling for adult trainees with
late visual impairment who newly join the Braille skill training program. During the in-depth
interviews conducted for this study, participants reflected that the guidance and counseling
session is relevant to trainees in one way or another. According to the trainer key informant, for
instance, late visual impairment as compared to impairments encountered in earlier stages of life
or during birth tend to severely disorient adults and, eventually, the affected adults often hardly
become confident to receive any technical aid in general and Braille skills training in particular.
The notion obtained from the trainer participant is quoted as follows;

“……. up on arrival of new students in this rehabilitation center, we usually start

our classes by providing them with counseling and guidance assistance since our
experiences tell that the adults who lost visual abilities in their later ages will
often suffer from lose of ‘self-worth’ and courage. There is a tendency for such a
category of victims to frequently think, worry, and complain about the lose than
getting ready to learn new things…...” (Trainer, Key Informant).
23
Hence, the trainer submits that, the orientation session in general and the guidance and
counseling sessions in particular are designed and implemented to address the problem by
providing orientation for new trainees and encourage them to readily begin engaging in the
training sessions. A similar idea was also found held by the key informant trainees. The quotes
stated below refer to ones among the critical affirmations that the adult trainees make out of the
orientation sessions;

“……these stages where the adults with visual impairment are critically reminded
of the fact that everybody will become visually impaired one day - soon or later…
alone will help us drastically reduce the fear of being judged and sense of being
down played by others due to being visually impaired…” (Male, Trainee, Key
Informant).

“……in the orientation session, we are provided with a set of convincing reasons
to help us better understand and optimally regulate our feelings emerging from
our visual impairment…., and yes, being blind is not among the alternatives listed
for our voluntary choice, but accepting it subjects to our voluntary choice, thus
we need to do so….” (Female, Trainee, Key Informant).

Being supportive of the above, experiences of the trainer key informant also dictate that the
orientation practice often involves getting the trainees familiar with walkways found in the
center for their safe mobility as well as discussing details of possible and positive impacts of
trainees’ engagement in the training programs. Besides, the participant indicated that the sessions
would serve as platforms where trainers can empathize with trainees, and where intimate
experiences can be shared between the trainees and the trainers.

Teaching and Learning: This practice begins with engaging trainees in hands on exercises
where they are encouraged and guided to put their hands on such materials as Braillelt boards
and books so that they will be able to identify, and familiarize with, the Braille skill teaching
aids. This stage is, therefore, entirely meant for developing a ‘Tactual skill’. During this time, the
trainer reflects that, the trainees are specifically expected to identify between shapes of Braille
letters and numbers. The next remark also shows the functioning of developing a tactual ability
of trainees;
24
 “…learners will be provided with ample time and support to repeatedly carryout
this exercise and ultimately develop a tactual ability. The carefully developed
tactual ability will encourage and enable learners smoothly pass to the
consequent reading and writing skills training activities…” (Trainer, Key
Informant).

The responses obtained on inquiries about similar functions from trainees have also provided
specific justifications for associations of enhanced tactual skill of trainees and improved
readiness for braille reading and writing. All participant trainees were found to agree with the
contribution of tactual abilities to an ease in their Braille reading and writing activities. An
additional advantage of getting prior exposure and familiarity with sense of touch was also
described by an older adult trainee as follows;

“…the exercise meant for improving sense of touch has even greater importance for
those of us who are identified with poor sense of touch…” (Male, Trainee, Key
Informant).

After the trainees develop a sufficient level of tactual abilities, they will be guided to start
identifying Braille texts and reading them repeatedly. Key informants indicated that the reading
exercises are performed using Braillelt boards and different Braille books. Based on the trainer
key informant, the center is even equipped with a digital Braille skill reading reference aids
installed at its library facility. However, the respondent adds that, the library is not fully
functional as it has been under repairment since long.

Parallel to the Braille reading exercises, trainees will be also assisted to engage in Braille writing
activities. A participant trainee mentioned that they do exercise writing using slate, stylus and
Braille papers. All teaching and learning exercises usually begin with Amharic Braille tools and
then shift to English ones. In this regard, a female trainee believes that the use of alternative tools
and languages is relevant and makes the training interesting to adults.

Assessment: Key informants identified assessment as one of the major practices carried out
during Braille skill training programs. The assessment practice is substantiated by continuous
assessments and a final evaluation of learners’ knowledge and skill about Braille. According to
25
the participant trainer’s response, the continuous assessment principally involves conducting
different tests each of which is often conducted up on completion of a chapter of Braille books.
The trainer also indicated that the trainees would be allowed to sit for a final exam only when
they are able to successfully pass all tests. It was also indicated that the trainees wouldn’t be
allowed to sit for the final exam if they miss more than 3 points in each test. This pass point is
also applicable to the final exam, where trainees would be permitted to start a new Braille book
only if they are able to score the total results minus a maximum of 3 points from the total marks
allocated for a final exam of the previous immediate book.

By doing so, the key informant trainer reflects, that the contemporary status of learners’
knowledge and skills will be identified, the gaps in performances will be determined, and
adjustment plans will be designed and lent to corresponding actions. Some of the adjustments
and actions taken to address the gaps in learners’ knowledge and skills - as reflected by the
trainer, are;

“…capitalizing on modification or alternating mode of content delivery:

repeating lessons, alternating speed of delivery, selecting and prioritizing topics,
and reshuffling physical settings of class room facilities as deemed convenient by
trainees…” (Trainer, Key Informant).

Pertaining to the assessment practice, key informant trainees have also shown a categorization
and implementation of the specific activities consistent with the response of the key informant
trainer. Yet, a participant trainee has characterized the assessments as something which provide
double advantages to the learners. A paraphrased idea obtained from the key informant trainee is
briefly presented below to show these advantages;

“…if a trainee is able to perform well in the assessments, the resulting success
and promotion to the next stage of the training provides him or her tip of
confidence. If a trainee fails to perform well in an assessment, on contrary, he or
she will have a privilege to repeat lessons and this should be considered as
advantage for the trainee again…” (Male, Trainee, Key Informant).

26
4.3. Challenges of Braille Skill Training

Results related to challenges of Braille skill training in this thesis section are organized and
presented under five thematic categories vis-à-vis those which relate to Educational Materials,
Physical Environment, Curriculum, Personal wellbeing status of trainees, as well as Socio -
Cultural and Economic issues. Accordingly, key informants’ responses on whether a major or
specific component of each theme was forwarded as a challenge or not, and explanations
provided along each challenge were elaborated.

Challenges related to Educational Materials: Challenges in educational materials were seen in

terms of the key informants’ perception of shortages or absence of the teaching, learning, or
reference materials needed for Braille skill trainings in the rehabilitation center. In this respect,
the trainer indicated that the center often experiences shortage in major educational materials.
The respondent perceives existence of lacunae in major training materials such as Braille books,
and Braillelt boards. The trainer makes an emphasis on inadequacy of Braille Books with the
following paraphrased idea;

“…. lack of access to, specifically, Braille books has even become more
problematic to the training programs these days as the cost of importing such
materials keeps increasing and already went beyond the financial capabilities of
the center. It is only because of the limited number of trainees that attend each
class at a time that it becomes possible to continue training with such
limitations…” (Trainer, Key Informant).

On contrary and interestingly though, the trainees have not agreed with the existence of
shortages of the training materials. Key informant trainee participants of the study have
demonstrated a level of confidence in the adequacy of the teaching and learning materials
available to them. Yet, a reflection from one trainee might imply some degree of difficulty
experienced by students to judge adequacy of training materials. His saying was;

“….as I’m a trainee, and hence, I may not be sure about the availability of
adequate Braille learning aids, I cannot also tell that they are not adequate. In
fact, I better say there are adequate materials….” (Female, Trainee, Key

27
 Informant).

A little unique to that, another key informant trainee has revealed a reservation on the level of
accessibility of reference materials relevant for Braille skill trainings. Indeed, a persistence of
shortage in both diversity and quantity of reference materials was already given emphases in the
responses obtained from the trainer participant.

Challenges related to Physical Environment: Braille skill training challenges imposed by the
physical environment are mainly categorized into three; vis-à-vis those which relate to training
classrooms’ physical quality, the classrooms’ internal setups, and center’s physical settings
outside the classrooms. Training classrooms’ physical status, both internally and externally, was
one among the conditions that key informants considered as poorest and largely challenging to
the Braille skill training activity. Participants of the study have commonly reflected that the size
of classrooms is very small and short roofed. In fact, the researcher was able to observe that the
classrooms are not wide enough to properly accommodate the furniture and facilities put inside
them. They appeared over crowded with the furniture and facilities. A trainee key informant
whose height, according to the researcher’s personal observation and judgement, could lie even
within an average range of men’s height emphasizes such a challenge with the following idea;

“.... I’m usually facing difficulty to walk through the room standing straight. I’ve
to bend a bit down during every mobility I make in the class room…” (Male,
Trainee, Key Informant).

Similarly, the inadequacies and poor qualities of internal facilities such as chairs and tables were
submitted as challenge by nearly every key informant trainee. A participant trainee ascertains
persistence of the same challenge by forwarding;

“…. since I joined this center, I’ve never found myself comfortably sitting in the
chairs…There are a lot of occasions when I catch myself thinking about the
possible risks of sitting on the poor chairs than concentrating on the lessons being
delivered in the class…” (Female, Trainee, Key Informant).

28
This coupled with the narrowness of classrooms have often hindered participants’ convenience
during mobility and their stay in the classrooms. The following is a direct translation of response
obtained from another key informant;

“…oh, our classrooms do simply look like animal barns or sheds. We usually feel a sort
of discomfort from their extreme narrowness while sitting for training. Standing up and
traveling either in to or out of class is also challenging. There are frequent moments
when some of us are knocked our heads by the ceilings or crash into some facilities on
our way into the classrooms” (Male, Trainee, Key Informant).

Participants indicated that they are somehow less challenged by physical conditions found
outside the classrooms. Only one challenge i.e., a shortage of roads inside the center’s compound
having a standard quality and convenience for mobility of the adults with visual impairment was
raised. Besides, trainees reflected that the impact of this challenge has somehow reduced due to
the mobility related orientation provided to them prior to starting the training.

Challenges related to Curriculum: Curriculum related issues were among the important Braille
skill training challenges indicated by respondents. In this regard, trainees emphasized on the
difficulty of some contents of the training. The difficulty of learning Braille contractions,
specifically for English Braille skills was indicated as most challenging. The quotes stated below
are meant to reveal experiences of two trainees in relation to difficulty in learning contractions;

“…Braille contractions are very difficult to grasp. After frequently failing to be

able to fully memorize such contractions, specifically the English ones, I was even
thinking of quitting training. The complexity and volume of English Braille
Contractions caused a serious fatigue on me". (Female, Trainee, Key Informant)

The second key informant also presents the same challenge by justifying that the quantity of
contractions expected to be learnt and touching as a sense of acquiring the lesson challenging.
The following is a brief quotation taken from the respondent;

“…The bulk of Braille contractions, i.e.,185 for English, is very difficult to deal
with. Trying to memorize each of these contractions simply with a sense of touch

29
 is usually problematic for us.” (Male, Trainee, Key Informant)

In addition to the above challenge, shortage of time to obtain adequate braille skills through the
training was submitted by different categories of participants as a factor imposing a challenge on
achieving objectives of the teaching and learning of Braille skills. The time allocated to complete
the whole Braille skills training is one year and, according to a view of one trainee key
informant, this could be sufficient to cover Amharic Braille skills only. Words of elaboration on
related issue from another key informant about is also narrated as follows;

“… Acquiring skills in short training seasons is naturally difficult for adults. In this
sense, the one-year time of graduating from the Braille skill training program seems not
enough. Besides, trainees’ class attendance is often constrained by their demand to
attend to either personal or social affairs. In this sense, acquiring Braille skills in such
limited time becomes is even more difficult for the adults with late visual impairment.
This difficulty would often lead many adults to fail and repeat sessions, requiring them an
additional class attendance time.” (Trainer, Key Informant)

Challenges related to Personal Well Being Status: In this study, key informants were found to
link some of the challenges of Braille skill training with trainees’ status of personal wellbeing.
These challenges are conceptually specified into physical and emotional in nature. Pertaining to
the physical challenges, a poor sense of touch experienced by specifically older trainees due to,
among other perceived reasons, a deterioration in the functioning of their sense of touch in one
way or another was a major concern. For instance, a relatively elder trainee key informant
reflects the following;

“….my fingertips tips are increasingly experiencing dryness and that, I believe, is
hindering me from properly feeling the shapes of Braille letters. The dryness is
gradually increasing, and hence, I suspect that is related to age related health
issue. I don’t know…” (Male, Trainee, Key Informant).

Yet, the trainer key informant has also reflected that the difficulty in developing tactual ability
for Braille skills might be encountering even the younger trainees for a while since they have to
initially deal with a shift of sensory organs for learning from visual to touching. Consequently,
30
the trainer adds that those learners who are less successful with making such shifts will gradually
fail to remain focused and remember lessons – ‘begging for a need to repeat the exercises and
the possible consequent fatigue experienced by trainees.’

A gap in emotional wellbeing of trainees was the other phenomenon that respondents commonly
viewed as an important challenge to Braille skill trainings. Almost all learners reflected that they
felt a huge gap in their emotional readiness to attend Braille skill trainings up until they got a
guidance and counseling support after joining the rehabilitation center.

Nevertheless, a perceived negative consequence of being identified with visual impairment on

trainees’ emotional readiness to learn and, hence, the adverse effects on the training processes
was revealed by the learners. The following quotes could stand for expressing trainees’ feelings
about such perceptions.

“At this age of mine, I would have never thought of attending any class to learn,
graduate, and seek for jobs if it was not for my visual impairment. I know I’m not able to
do much of the things I could do when I was visually normal. Yet, I just decided to attend
this Braille skill training program simply because it doesn’t hurt me to learn. I don’t
learn to be a Judge or a Teacher."(Female, Trainee, Key Informant)

“Sometimes, I get depressed when I think about where I would be right now if I had
vision. Other times, I compare myself with my friends and get depressed again, because I
feel I would have been in a better position if it was not for becoming visually impaired.
See here and now, I have to learn to read and write again, and that using skin. So, I am
not happy while I am learning - feelings I suppose, often get in the way of my learning
process..."(Male, Trainee, Key Informant)

Challenges related to Social-Cultural and Economic Conditions: Socio-cultural and economic

challenges are roughly the least perceived concerns of participants of the study. In relation to a
socio-cultural obstacle, for instance, the participants revealed that there are some trainees who
joined the training program coming from distant places and living with their relatives who are
residents of Addis Ababa. They also get supports from these relatives. Hence, the participant

31
trainer reflected, attending their Braille skill training classes could often depend on the level of
support they get from their relatives.

In this regard, the need to frequently deal with relatives who provided a room to reside in during
the Braille skill training was indicated as a huge concern for one of the trainees. The respondent
is already well convinced that these conditions would create a level of hinderance to a trainee to
attend Braille skill training sessions at AHRC admitting his own experiences as follows;

“…. during attending this Braille skill training at AHRC, I’m staying in Addis
Ababa within the household of my sister’s family. Here, I have to deal with
accommodating between economic implications of depending on relatives and
corresponding cultural issues. Sometimes, I decide not to come to the training
sessions just because I want to reduce the financial costs - the amount I often
receive from them to pay for transportation and meal, that may cause burden on
my relatives…” (Male, Trainee, Key Informant)

The other challenging economic factor in Braille skill training programs was reflected by the key
informant trainer. According to him, the costs of many of the teaching and learning materials
relevant for Braille skills trainings have gradually become unaffordable, and hence, the center is
reaching exhaustion to make such materials accessible to every trainee.

4.4. Opportunities for Braille Skill Training

There are three themes which were explored to show opportunities for Braille skill training in
this thesis. These are opportunities related to Educational Materials, Physical Environment, and
Curriculum. The results are presented in the following section.

Opportunities related to Educational Materials: One of the major opportunities recognized by

trainees is the availability of diverse teaching and learning materials. Indeed, the trainer also
admitted that there is a substantial diversity of teaching aids available at the center though, for
him, some materials are scanty in terms of allocating them for the whole number of students.
Besides, participants have commonly considered the condition where the Braille skill training is
provided in two languages, vis-à-vis Amharic and English, an important opportunity. This,

32
according to a trainee, opens the way for them to experience and acquire skills on further
diversity of educational aids.

Opportunities related to Physical Environment: Respondents identified location of the

rehabilitation center as an, and yet the only one, opportunity for Braille skill training from the
physical environment. Both trainers and staff members of the center agree that the establishment
of the institution in an area very close to the main asphalt road should be considered as a positive
factor to the Braille skill training. According to a trainee, a location of the center nearer to the
main high way means an easier it becomes for adult learners to reach for a class in due time, and
this even very helpful for new comers. Similarly, a trainer reflects that the new comers in
particular could be more challenged as the location of the center gets further away into sub-city’s
sophisticated areas to access. The following quote from the respondent trainer elaborates the later
notion;

“Few years ago, this rehabilitation center was located in a place where the main asphalt
road and even some convenient roads were found at far distance from it. As a result,
many of the adults with visual impairment trainees used to encounter different challenges
as they travel from and to the center to attend Braille skill trainings. But recently, the
establishment has shifted to a place nearby the main asphalt road and hence, we and
everybody in need to come to the rehabilitation center feels no difficulty to detect the
location of our center and reach”. (Male, Trainer, Key Informant)

Opportunities related to Curriculum: In relation to the curriculum, respondents identified some

opportunities from the nature of subject matter contents, preparations, and delivery at the
rehabilitation center. Accordingly, a key informant trainee has reflected that the starting of
teaching and learning practice with Amharic tools is an opportunity for Amharic speaking
trainees. The respondent elaborated about this by indicating that the inception of skill training
with a language familiar to learners is expected to facilitate a better understanding of the lessons.

A further opportunity mentioned in link with the curriculum was the fact that the contents of
Braille skill training subjects were prepared and included in the curriculum based on the results
of a need assessment study conducted on prior to developing the curriculum on adults with late
33
visual impairment. This is viewed by the trainer as an opportunity to creating a platform to
intimately interact with trainees during teaching and learning. Mentioning about empathy, a
trainee indicated that the trainer has usually employed an intimate and relevant approach to
interact with learners. Here, the key informant trainee adds that the trainer frequently repeats and
summarizes lessons, raises questions relevant and clear for learners, and invites trainees for
reflection, and eventually checks up on where each of the trainee stands in terms of their
knowledge and skills. Hence, the trainee concludes that this must be considered as an
opportunity for Braille skill training as it helps the trainer keep up with learning momentum of
learners.

34
 CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION
5.1 . Introduction
This study was initiated with a major objective of identifying and making a qualitative
description of the practices, challenges, and opportunities of Braille Skill Training for adults with
late visual impairment in AHRC. Employing the qualitative approach has made it possible for
the researcher to inquire into and capture a considerable depth of data on the themes investigated.
Thus, the analysis and emerging findings on each theme could be recognized as substantial to
addressing the research problem i.e., gap in empirical knowledge of the practices, challenges,
and opportunities of Braille Skill Training for adults with late visual impairment in a visual
rehabilitation institution’s context of Ethiopia. The findings could also prove to be unique and
detailed enough so that they serve a package of implications to inform policies and practices of
Braille skills literacy for adults with late visual impairment of the developing regions in general,
and the case of rehabilitation centers in Ethiopia in particular. A discussion of the findings along
with further analysis and reflections were presented in the following section.

5.2 . Practices of braille skill training

The concept of practice under this study was framed as any phenomenon that fulfills the
definition established in the study as well as key informants’ perceived activities of the program.
Generally, the composition of practices and hierarchy of implementation were consistent across
key informants’ responses. Yet, details of the findings reveal that the practices were perceived to
serve different, though not necessarily contrasting, purposes or needs of the respondents. The
following part provides brief discussions for the results generated about each practice.

Orientation: An orientation practice - which principally involves a guidance and counseling

support provided to newly joining adult trainees of the visual rehabilitation function was one and
the primary practice among the others. Findings related to this practice in general, and the sub-
activities in particular imply that the visual rehabilitation function has already recognized the
possible repercussions of post birth or late visual impairment on adult victim’s behavior. Of
course, the existence of evidence in relation to the repercussions experienced by adults due to
visual impairments has long been recognized in the field of rehabilitation (Millar, 1997). Such

35
profound conditions as perceived loss of self-worth, and depression were, for instance, among
the major consequences identifed to negatively impact adults behavour (Nyman et al., 2011).

In spite of these empricisms, scientific evidences on how late visual impairment impacts the
behavour of adults under the context of Braille skills literacy seem to lack from a body of
literature. In this regard, (Truitt & Suvak, 2001) assirted that the uniqueness of challenges
encountered by people with late visual impairment should have been well recognized and the
affected must be able to get proper counsiling if they are going to embrace Braille. Such a void
might reduce as this study submitts the finding related to behavoural repurcursions of late visual
impairment among adult Braille skill trainees - the major consequence being a severe
disorientation and, hence, the resulting difficulty to stay confident and receive any technical
assistance by the affected adults.

The rehabilitation center aims to address such a difficulty encountered by adult trainees through
provision of guidance and counseling prior to starting the Braille skill trainings. This type of
support was also recommended to help facilitate Braille literacy of adults with late visual
impairment (Truitt & Suvak, 2001). This study adds findings related to the function as put into
action or as an independent practice and its emerging advantages for the adults with late visual
impairment who attend Braille skill training sessions. Yet, results related to the existence, order
of implementation, and importance of this particular support system i.e., orientation might not
necessarily be generalized as consistent for other Braille literacy and related visual
rehabilitations efforts since the study relied on information generated from a single context
examined.

Teaching and Learning: Under the teaching and learning practice, the Braille skill training
program was found to integrate imparting tactual skills as well as Braille reading and writing as
the two specific activities. It is particularly interesting that the implementation of this practice
begins with developing the tactual ability of trainees since the success of people with visual
impairment with Braille literacy strictly ties to the well-being status of this sensory function.

This holds true particularly considering the difficulty of contents of Braille for comprehension by
visual impairment learners. Of course, studies confirmed the need for extensive deliberations on
similar interventions as people with visual impairment problems face sensory challenges of
36
different types to learn. For instance, many people with visual impairments were found with
inability to use their hands for unknown reasons - resulting in “tactual defensiveness” (California
Department of Education, 2006). Providing adequate attention to prior development of tactual
abilities has even been recommendable for children who are about to begin braille skill training
(Marshall & Hunt, 2002 cited in Njue et al.,2014). The impact of these inabilities will become
even more intense as the age of trainees get older. Older adults are generally assumed to have
greater difficulties in learning new skills (Millar, 1997).

The results related to teaching and learning practice appear to have presented fewer accounts of
Braille reading and writing functions compared to the emphasis provided to developing tactual
abilities. Some trainees might become more or quickly successful in developing tactual abilities
than others, and yet this issue was not adequately deliberated up on by this study. Hence, the
nature and management of transition from working on tactual abilities to Braille reading or
writing seem to require further and contextual investigation.

Assessment: The two assessment methods vis-à-vis; continuous assessment and final evaluation,
were found to constitute the third major Braille skill training practice. The presence of this
practice, its purposes, and the stages at which each was told to be implemented do actually seem
sympathetic phenomena to a corresponding event under any other conventional pedagogical or
training interventions. However, and though participants could reflect some of the possible
advantages drawn from the sub-practices, the assessment techniques generally appeared to have
suffered from lacking a variety i.e., confining to a couple of tests and one final evaluation exam.
This could represent a missing opportunity to enhance braille skill acquisition of the trainees as
sufficiently diverse and alternative constituents of assessments were not adopted and
implemented. In this regard, the possible advantages of, for instance, interactive peer group work
and class activities could have been taken into consideration.

An equivocal issue was also the lack of scientific justification on why minimum pass points were
fixed to be only three marks less than the total marks allocated for each assessment techniques.
Fixing the pass points to such a single and maximum level would normally contribute to poor
accommodation of trainees’ performance that can naturally be exhibited with different ranges of
quality and speed. Yet, it must be also a subject of further scientific inquiries to identify the
feasible and advantageous adjustments needed in that regard.
37
5.3 . Challenges of braille skill training

Access to Adequate and Diverse Educational Materials: Access to sufficient and appropriate
educational materials is a determining factor of success in any form of teaching and learning
activity. This becomes even more critical to such programs as Braille skill trainings since, unlike
many other forms of education, the special need of participants engaged with these programs
necessitates greater reliance on alternative and adequate teaching and learning aids. Braille
papers, slates, and stylus, Braille library service, books written in Braille, tape recorders, audio
cassettes, and audio books are among the major resources evidenced to be relevant for Braille
skill training programs of Ethiopia (Alemu and Zergaw, 2018).

In this study, different participant categories gave different levels of emphasis to the relevance
and availability of challenges of education materials in the rehabilitation center under
consideration. In this regard, lack of educational materials was not as visible to the trainee
participants as it did to the staff members. The reduction in negative feelings of learners about
shortage of materials could be linked to a relative success of the center’s efforts to make some
but fundamental learning materials adequately available to the trainees. These resources included
braille papers and styles. Yet, others might also argue the possible perceptual bias created among
trainees as it might be caused by either lack of awareness about the other materials needed for
braille training or some other reasons could serve trainees not to feel bad about adequacy of
materials. Trainees’ unexpressed desire to keep institutional problems confidential and or need to
avoid possible negative repercussions of exposing such information on trainees personal or
Braille skills training attendance could be also argued as alternative reasons.

A contrasting response obtained from participant trainer contributes to strengthening the

arguments presented for the prior results since he indicated that Braille books and relevant
reference materials are not adequately available to trainees at AHRC. Scarcity in few but
fundamental Braille teaching materials was identified as an important challenge to Braille skill
learning of schools for the Blind in Sebeta, Ethiopia (Mitiku, 2020). For Martiniello, et.al., 2020,
this kind of challenge has even been discovered to prevail and negatively impact Braille skills
training for adults of the western nations in general, and that of Canada where they conducted
their study in particular.
38
Despite such differences were observed among participants’ perception, respondents didn’t
clearly and commonly identify and discuss challenges related to some other materials including;
audio devices, and various reference resources. In fact, though auditory tools and Braille
reference books cannot replace the roles of the Braille in the curriculum, they are known to
complement these resources and help ease the teaching and learning of Braille skills (California
Department of Education, 2006).

Convenience of Physical Environment of the Center: The result of this study appears to reveal
that the physical environment related challenge in general and classrooms’ physical condition in
particular is the most strongly and bitterly remarked physical environment related challenge to
Braille skill training of adults with late visual impairment. The emphasis provided to this type of
challenge by participants can be taken into even greater consideration since visual impairment
trainees do naturally require an exceptionally convenient physical environment compared to the
physical conditions that could be found relatively suitable for students without visual
impairment. Yet, the impact of physical environments on learning has even been proven to be
significant in an inclusive education intervention’s context (Debele, 2015).

Generally, the presence of these challenges in the rehabilitation context investigated seem to defy
rather than considering some state or international regulations for enhanced literacy of people
with some sort of disability. In this regard, the United Nations asserts to every government to
ensure the designing and construction of various establishments so that they can be used, entered
or reached by persons with disabilities (UN General Assembly, 2007).

Nature of the Curriculum for Braille Skill Training: Braille skill training challenges were
studied majorly in terms of the contents, delivery, and schedules of training at the rehabilitation
center in consideration. The strongest concern that adult learners indicated was the challenges
that they encounter in relation to the difficulty of Braille contents. Adult trainees experienced
even more difficulty with English contractions. Interestingly, hence, the challenge relates to
contents have already related concerns of delivery and schedule of the program. Indeed, the size
and complexity of Braille symbols in general and contractions specifically are empirically
evidenced to buy a considerable time and due attention of their delivery. A frequently
encountering lack of time has been also found to challenge braille learning in a Sebeta school for
blind of Ethiopia (Mitiku, 2020). Besides, imparting Braille skills for visual impairment learners
39
require twice the time taken by people with low vision (Kapur, 2018). Due to such difficulties,
many of the Braille reading and writing resources even become irrelevant until learners hit a
third-grade reading standard (Dogbe, 2020). This also shades further light on understanding how
strong could the challenge be felt by participants of the current study, as they all were found to
experience a complete visual impairment.

Personal Well Being Status of Trainees: Challenges related to personal wellbeing status were
studied under categories vis-à-vis physical and emotional ones, and both were found equally
important factors. Reduction in sense of touch leading to a poor tactual ability was the dominant
physical challenge indicated by participants. This challenge was found to be pronounceable at
the beginning of Braille learning, and seen to gradually alleviate in the case of adult braille
learners of a Canadian braille training rehabilitation (Martiniello, et.al., 2020). Discussing about
tactile challenges, a natural tendency will be that the people with complete visual impairment
will suffer from such challenges as compared to those with lower level of visual impairments.
The impact could range from taking longer time to get information from Braille resources for
learners experiencing a level of insensitive finger tips to a complete inability to read Braille
resources by learners who do not have sense of touch (Khochen,2014).

Emotional challenges to the Braille skill training of adults with late visual impairment are
generally emerging from either perceived or practically experienced causes. Respondent adult
learner reflected that their perceived negative expectations prior to joining the Braille skill
training program led to a gap in their emotional readiness to learn. Others have practically seen
the negative consequences of their health problems, such as loose sense of touch, on Braille
learning and became not confident of continuing the program. Though it also appears that the age
of onset of visual impairment is known to influence learners’ ability to acquire Braille skill, as
evidenced in Carney et al., 2003, the perception of learners about their age and its possible links
with joining a school could also impact the training outcome.

The sum of all these emotional gaps would have even resulted in quitting the program by some
trainees if it was not for a guidance and counseling support provided to them by the center.
Hence, such support should be run throughout the training period by incorporating themes that
could lead to convincing adult trainees about the ways and relevance of acquiring Braille skills.
Otherwise, the more grown emotional gaps and pessimism towards the relevance of such a
40
program, the less satisfaction felt by adult learners towards the Braille resources and the ability
to use them. Such experiences were observed to have led learners to poor efficiency in adoption
and use of Braille media and devices (California Department of Education, 2006).

Social-Cultural and Economic Conditions of Trainees: Based on the perception of respondents,

socio-cultural and economic challenges weigh less significant than the other categories of
challenges. However, the impact of social factors was found to be no less significant than others
in determining success of Braille skill training in a Canadian braille training rehabilitation for
adults (Martiniello, et.al., 2020). In this study, only few trainees required a need to get a support
related to residential place from their relatives who live in Addis Ababa. Though the level of
demand for attending Braille skill trainings by adults with late visual impairment was not
determined, the indicated challenge could reveal that many more candidates for the program
could continue suffering from lack of getting access to residential places in areas nearer to the
location of such rehabilitation centers as the one in question. Lack of access to visual
rehabilitation centers were found as an important challenge and investigated under institutional
factors of braille skill training of adults in the Canadian vision rehabilitation context (Martiniello,
et.al., 2020).

The challenge becomes even more important for candidates who live further than Addis Ababa
and regional towns where at least some supports could be obtained. Lack of access to residential
area for the adult trainee and potential candidates could mainly relate to them in ability to afford
rentals in Addis Ababa in general, and in locations close to the rehabilitation center. Though
learners could get a level of financial supports from the rehabilitation center, such institutions
could often fall short of capital to address further needs of the trainees among which paying their
rents for residential places could be one. In fact, the center is even unable to afford buying some
educational materials, which was indicated as a major economic challenge being experienced by
the center.

5.4. Opportunities of braille skill training for adults with late visual impairment

Access to Adequate and Diverse Educational Materials: Trainees and staff members of the
center revealed different levels of satisfaction towards adequacy of Braille skill training materials
accessible to the center. In this regard, it sounds interesting and even relevant that the adult

41
trainees do somehow appear to see the availability of educational materials as sufficient since
this notion alone could show that the trainees do not stick their attention around lack of materials
often and, hence, contribute to poor emotional readiness to attend classes. The same was also
perceived by the trainees as it helped respond to the social distancing policy implementation
geared towards preventing the COVID-19 pandemic.

Convenience of Physical Environment of the Center: Choosing a convenient location to

establish rehab centers, like the one in consideration, is crucial specially as it determines
consequent experiences encountered by learners and staff members. Apart from reducing
difficulties faced by visual impairment learners and guests, bringing rehab institutions’ physical
settings closer to highways will enhance promotion and thereby knowledge of such important
organizations for others who could be interested to join and learn. The same will also boost a
level of confidence of adults with visual impairment to decide to join such institutions.
Responses related to opportunities from the physical environment are almost negligent of any
other opportunity than the location of the center. There were no opportunities identified in
relation to classrooms’ physical status and inside as well as outside facilities. Yet, existence of
related opportunities would have been more relevant to the Braille skill learners, as for instance,
availability of walking ways convenient for adults with visual impairment as well as classrooms
physical inside facilities (such as tables, chairs etc.) conditions would have made mobility easier.

Nature of the Curriculum for Braille Skill Training: A hierarchy in content delivery of
different subjects is generally set to run from less difficult and familiar issues to more difficult
and stranger issues so that the learning ends up with better impacts. In this study, the familiarity
of language with which the initial subjects of training were prepared was found an important
determinant of imparting the Braille skills. Braille contents by themselves are composed of
numerous symbols and mode of expressions which are usually strange for the blind learners.
Hence, beginning training with second or other languages, case in point is English, for trainees
would have meant increasing the difficulty to comprehend and smoothly transit to next stage of
learning among trainees. This becomes even more relevant in terms evaluating the demanding
nature of verbal abilities of learning during adulthood as compared to being a child. Starting
lessons through the use of a familiar language was, therefore, considered as an opportunity that

42
facilitated acquiring Braille skills during training.
Apart from the importance of beginning training with Braille tools prepared in languages
familiar to the trainers, respondents view that conducting need assessment of learners prior to
running the program has helped in developing a good curriculum for Braille skill training. In
spite of the reflection, importance of conducting need assessment, responses on specific impacts
of the need assessment were not sufficiently elaborated in the study. Empirical evidence on the
possible results of conducting such need assessments provide some clues. According to a study
conducted in 2018 on Challenges Experienced by Students with Visual Impairment in Education,
for instance, need assessment of adult with visual impairment learners will enable to understand
learners’ academic abilities, as well as their learning styles (Kapur, 2018). By obtaining these
properties, both learners and trainers will find a way to come on same board during the training
sessions.

43
 CHAPTER SIX

Conclusion and Recommendation

6.1. Conclusion

Pertaining to practices of Braille skill training programs at the rehabilitation center, respondents
were able to identify three major activities and then they classified the major activities in to five
further sub-activities. These were the orientation practice which was identified with guidance
and counseling sub-practice, the teaching and learning practice involving two sub-activities
called exercising tactual skills, and training of Braille reading as well as writing skills, and the
assessment practice containing such sub-activities as conducting continuous assessment and final
evaluation. Generally, these major activities which were identified as practices and their
classification in to sub-activities make part of the relatively unique findings obtained through the
current study.

The second objective of the study, i.e., describing main challenges to Braille skill training for
adults with late visual impairment, was addressed through organizing responses of key
informants under five major categories. These categories were domains of challenges related to;
educational materials, physical environment, curriculum, personal wellbeing status, and socio-
cultural and economic aspects. Each of the categories represented a fairly meaningful level of
challenges to the Braille skill training programs under consideration. Yet, poor status of the
physical environment in general and destitute classrooms’ conditions in particular were
expressed with great emphasis among participants followed by a level of their concern about the
inadequacy of one year duration allocated for completing the Braille skill training program.

Finally, different phenomena considered as opportunities for the adults with late visual
impairment while attending the Braille skill training program were identified by respondents.
Among these; accessibility of diverse educational materials to trainees, proximity of the
rehabilitation center’s location to main roads, and the existence of trainer’s empathetic approach
towards adult trainees were the major ones. If it was not for a detrimental role of the later
opportunity, i.e., empathy of trainers, some trainees would have even decided dropping off from
the training program. This can also be considered as a strategic gesture that links social and
emotional issues and, hence, its exploitation geared towards addressing challenges related to both

44
aspects of adult with late visual impairment attendants of Braille skill training programs sounds
vital.
6.2. Recommendations

This section provides a set of relevant points that the researcher derived as recommendation from
the findings of the study. Thus, different stakeholders from research, policy, and practice
institutions or professionals should be able to take respective issues among the presented
recommendations for their consideration and proper actions.

• The findings of this study are uniquely typical to adults identified with late visual
impairments who participate in Braille skill training programs at a single rehabilitation
center. Thus, further study is recommended to identify peculiarities of the subjects
investigated from experiences of adult trainees with partial visual impairment across different
rehabilitation centers.

• Though orientation was valued as a crucial and prior practice of the Braille skill training
program, its implemented only through a single session guidance and counseling service.
Hence, conducting orientation on a continuous and multidisciplinary base is advisable to
enable similar targets be impacted positively and consistently while staying throughout the
program.

• The process of implementing the practices explored in this study do largely lack a space for
parallel interaction among trainee adults, though they entertained interaction between
learners and trainers. Hence, creating social platforms for interaction between adult trainees
during planning and implementing the practices should get a fair share of attention so that the
skill acquisition becomes more efficient.

• The nature and proper management of transitions from each practice or sub-practice to
consequent ones was not clearly revealed in this study. The subject remains problematic, and
hence, seems to require further investigation.

45
• Only researcher’s own speculations of the possible reasons for differences in responses of
trainee and trainer participant over educational materials related challenges were made in the
study. Hence, further investigations could find it worth framing their intersets around
identifying the relevance and reasons of such differences for optimizing accesability of the
materials.

• Challenges imposed by poor physical status of classrooms and related facilities came with
strongest tones of respondents. This could contradict with the importance of arranging up to
standard facilities to enable functions of adults with visual impairment in general, and
making their Braille skill training impactful in particular. Hence, potential stakeholders
dealing with financing and construction of the facilities should recognize the same and
address the corresponding problems in practice.

• The one-year duration allocated for completion of Braille skill training was indicated by
respondents as inadequate for, specifically, adult learners with late visual impairment. Unlike
the case of training sighted targets, therefore, Braille skill training institutions and concerned
stakeholders should consider and invest in the extra time requirement to the advantage of
adult with late visual impairment trainees of Braille skills.

• A convenience or proximity of location of rehabilitation centers was described as an

opportunity to reduce difficulties faced by visual impairment learners and guests visiting the
rehabilitation center. Hence, it is important that new Braille training interventions consider
this issue prior to establishing their vision rehabilitation centers.

• Preparing contents of the training-based results of a need assessment conducted for adults
with late visual impairment was found to be a curriculum related opportunity, and hence, it is
important that Braille skill training institutions recognize the same to enable proper skill
acquisition among adult trainees.

46
• Another opportunity identified in relation to the curriculum was the fact that the training is
offered in different or alternative languages and its inception with delivery in familiar
language. Braille training institutions should, therefore, seek ways of tapping into similar
opportunities.

• Finally, further research is deemed important to investigate the existence and impacts of
opportunities related to personal wellbeing and socio-economic aspects which are missing in
this study.

47
7. References
Ackland, P., Resnikof, S., & Bourne, R. (2017). World blindness and visual impairment: despite
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8. Appendix
Appendix 1: An Interview Schedule for Key Informants (Trainees)
Consent
My name is MeskeremBehailu. I am a post graduate student of special needs education at Addis
Ababa University. I am conducting the research for the requirement of master’s degree; this
interview guide is prepared with intentions of gathering information required for an MA Thesis
Research Project entitled “The Practice, Challenges and Opportunities of Braille Skill Training
for Adults with late Visual Impairment in Addis Hiwot Rehabilitation Center”. Through this
study, it is also expected to elicit the practice, major Challenges and Opportunities of Braille skill
training as experienced by the adult with late visual impairment trainees of the rehabilitation
center.

I would like to request your kind cooperation and patience in providing accurate and reliable
responses for the questions. Do please be notified also that the information obtained through this
guide will only be used for the research purpose and your answers will be kept confidential.

Thank you in advance

General Information

1. The date of the interview: __________________

I. Personal Information of Key Informant Trainee

1. Respondent’s Name: ________________________
2. Sex _____ 1) Male 2) Female
3. Age: _____
4. Age of onset of visual impairment: _______
5. Educational qualification ____ 1) PhD 2) MA/M.Sc. 3) BA/B.Sc. 4) Diploma 5) Others
(specify) ______
6. Field of study (specialization) _________________________________________
7. Current Occupation: ________________________________________________

52
II. Information related to Practices of Braille skill training at AHRC
1. Please explain to me the major activities or practices involved in your Braille skill training at
AHRC. You may consider responding to the question by categorizing the activities or
supports you received as before, during, and after the training sessions are carried out.
2. Provide me with details of the processes or purposes of each activity as well as major
advantages or benefits you gained from them, if any.

III. Information related to Challenges of Braille skill training for Adults with Late Visual
Impairment at AHRC
1. How do you judge the adequacy of Braille Learning Materials available to you at AHRC?
Elaborate on the extent and types of materials accessible or not accessible to you.
2. Do you think that there are any challenges in relation to the physical condition of your class
or the center that might constrain your Braille skill learning process or its efficiency? If there
are any, please provide me with details on what the conditions are and how they became
challenges.
3. What is your perception about the level of difficulty or complexity of contents of your Braille
skill training materials and methods as well as duration of delivery (curriculum)?
4. Do you feel that you have physical or emotional conditions of your own (other than the
visual impairment) which might challenge a proper/efficient acquisition of Braille skills? If
so, what are these conditions and how do they act as a challenge?
5. Are there any social or cultural issues that hindered you from attending Braille Skill Training
program at AHRC? If there are, please provide me with detailed accounts of each
6. Do you have any economic related issues that might have challenged you while attending
Braille Skill Training program at AHRC? If there are, elaborate them for me.

III. Information related to Opportunities of Braille skill training for Adults with Late
Visual Impairment at AHRC
1. What are the major properties of Braille Learning Materials available to you at AHRC that
facilitate skills acquisition? Elaborate on the extent and types of advantages of the materials.
2. Do you think that there are any physical conditions of your class or the center that enhanced
or facilitated better conduction of the Braille skills training and acquisition of lessons?
53
 If there are any, please provide me with details on what the conditions are and how they
became opportunities for you while attending the Braille skills training at AHRC.
3. Do you find any characteristics of the subjects and methods of delivery of Braille skills at
AHRC that can be considered as a good opportunity for you? Elaborate each for me.
4. Do you feel that you have any physical or emotional conditions of your own which might or
will have contributed to improved level of engagement and success from the Braille skills
training program at AHRC? If so, what are these conditions and why do you consider them
as opportunities?
5. Are there any social or cultural issues that enhanced or facilitated your attendance of the
Braille Skill Training program at AHRC? If there are, please provide me with detailed
accounts of each.
6. Do you have any economic related issues that you found helpful while attending Braille Skill
Training program at AHRC? If there are, elaborate them for me.

54
Appendix 2: An Interview Schedule for Key Informants (Trainer)

Consent
My name is Meskerem Behailu. I am a post graduate student of special needs education at Addis
Ababa University. I am conducting the research for the requirement of master’s degree; this
interview guide is prepared with intentions of gathering information required for an MA Thesis
Research Project entitled “The Practice, Challenges and Opportunities of Braille Skill Training
for Adults with late Visual Impairment in Addis Hiwot Rehabilitation Center”. Through this
study, it is also expected to elicit the practice, major Challenges and Opportunities of Braille skill
training as experienced by the adult with late visual impairment trainees of the rehabilitation
center.

I would like to request your kind cooperation and patience in providing accurate and reliable
responses for the questions. Do please be notified also that the information obtained through this
guide will only be used for the research purpose and your answers will be kept confidential.

Thank you in advance

I. Personal Information

1. Respondent’s Name: ________________________

2. Age_____
3. Sex _____ 1) Male 2) Female
4. Educational qualification ____ 1) PhD 2) MA/M.Sc. 3) BA/B.Sc. 4) Diploma
5) Others (specify) ________________________
6. Field of study (specialization) _________________________________________

7.Number of years of service (in the rehabilitation center) _______________

55
II. Information related to Practices of Braille skill training at AHRC
1. Could you please explain to me the major activities or practices involved in the Braille skill
training program being conducted at AHRC? Indicate also the hierarchy or procedures, and
processes of their implementation as well as who is/are mainly responsible for each practice.
2. Is there any counseling and guidance service by qualified experts or professionals provided
to adults with late visual impairment who attend the Braille skill training program? If the
answer is yes, give me details on when, how, and why this service is put into action?

III. Information related to Challenges of Braille skill training for Adults with Late Visual
Impairment at AHRC
1. How is the accessibility of teaching materials needed for Braille literacy skills at AHRC?
Elaborate on the extent and types of materials accessible or not accessible to both trainees
and trainers. If there is a discrepancy in accessibility or availability of important materials,
how do you or the center addresses such a challenge?
2. What is you perception or experiences about physical conditions of the classes or the center
that might have challenged success or process of the Braille skill training program at AHRC?
3. How do you evaluate the late visually impaired adult trainee’s abilities, skills, motivation,
interests for the training? Have you ever encountered certain constraints in that regard? Give
me details about that please.
4. What is your judgment about the level of difficulty or complexity of contents of the Braille
skill training materials and methods as well as duration of delivery for adults with late visual
impairment?
5. Do you think that there are any social, cultural, or economic related hindrances experienced
by the late visually impaired adult trainees in relation to attending the Braille skill literacy
program?
6. Are there any additional challenges that hinder Braille skill training process at AHRC? If the
answer is yes pleas mention them one by one and tell me detail How they are challenged?

56
III. Information related to Opportunities of Braille skill training for Adults with Late
Visual Impairment at AHRC
1. What are the opportunities, that you think, available to the late visually impaired adult
trainees of Braille skill training program at AHRC in relation to educational materials?
2. Do you think that there are any physical conditions of classes or the center that enhanced or
facilitated better conduction of the Braille skills training and acquisition of lessons at AHRC?
If there are any, please provide me with details on what the conditions are and how they
became opportunities for the trainees.
3. Do you find any characteristics of the subjects and methods of delivery of Braille skills at
AHRC that can be considered as a good opportunity for the visually impaired adult trainees’
success? If so, elaborate each for me.
4. Do you feel that there are any physical or emotional conditions of the adult trainees which
might or will have contributed to improved level of their engagement with and success from
the Braille skills training program at AHRC? If so, what are these conditions and why do you
consider them as opportunities?
5. Are there any social or cultural issues that enhanced or facilitated visually impaired adult
trainees’ attendance of the Braille Skill Training program at AHRC? If there are, please
provide me with detailed accounts of each.
6. Can you identify any economic related issues that you found helpful for the visually impaired
adult trainees to attend Braille Skill Training program at AHRC? If there are, elaborate them
for me.

57
Appendix 3: Observation Checklist

I. General Information

1. Date of observation: _______________________

2. Place/Location of observation: ____________________

3. Theme of the Lesson: ________________________________________________________

4. Period of observation (Length of time): __________________________

II. Challenges and Opportunities of Braille Skill Training

No Focused point Yes No

1. Center’s physical conditions is suitable for

adults with visual impairment

2. The class room construction is appropriate for

teaching and learning process (Hight, widths)

3. Appropriate arrangement of furniture (Distance

of the chair)

4. The library is accessible

5. Enough Educational Materials

6. The trainees have good interaction with trainers

7. Trainees are individually aided

8. Trainees have the opportunity to touch and

recognize several types of Braille code

58
Appendix 4: Checklist Used to Collect Background Information about AHRC

1. When, where, and by whom the center was established? for what purpose as well?

2. What other literacy programs (than Braille skill taring) and services does the center provides?
3. How many adults with late visual impairment have been trained with Braille skills at AHRC
so far? Provide me with a list of the late visually impaired adult trainees that currently attend
Braille skill training program at AHRC, include their sex, age, and related demography as
well.

59