Components Of Information System

An Information system is a combination of hardware and software and telecommunication

networks that people build to collect, create and distribute useful data, typically in an
organisational, It defines the flow of information within the system. The objective of an
information system is to provide appropriate information to the user, to gather the data,
processing of the data and communicate information to the user of the system.

1. Computer Hardware:
Physical equipment used for input, output and processing. What hardware to use it depends
upon the type and size of the organisation. It consists of input, an output device, operating
system, processor, and media devices. This also includes computer peripheral devices.
2. Computer Software:
The programs/ application program used to control and coordinate the hardware components.
It is used for analysing and processing of the data. These programs include a set of instruction
used for processing information.
Software is further classified into 3 types:
1. System Software
2. Application Software
3. Procedures
3. Databases:
Data are the raw facts and figures that are unorganised that are and later processed to generate
information. Softwares are used for organising and serving data to the user, managing
physical storage of media and virtual resources. As the hardware can’t work without software
the same as software needs data for processing. Data are managed using Database
management system.
Database software is used for efficient access for required data, and to manage knowledge
bases.
4. Network:
 Networks resources refer to the telecommunication networks like the intranet, extranet
and the internet.
 These resources facilitate the flow of information in the organisation.
 Networks consists of both the physicals devises such as networks cards, routers, hubs
and cables and software such as operating systems, web servers, data servers and
application servers.
 Telecommunications networks consist of computers, communications processors, and
other devices interconnected by communications media and controlled by software.
 Networks include communication media, and Network Support.
5. Human Resources:
It is associated with the manpower required to run and manage the system. People are the end
user of the information system, end-user use information produced for their own purpose, the
main purpose of the information system is to benefit the end user. The end user can be
accountants, engineers, salespersons, customers, clerks, or managers etc. People are also
responsible to develop and operate information systems. They include systems analysts,

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computer operators, programmers, and other clerical IS personnel, and managerial
techniques.

Explain the Impacts of Information Technology in an organisation

Automation of Business Processes
The movement towards increased automation of business processes has gained traction over
the years. It improves efficiency and increases workflow considerably.
Information technology helps in developing automated processes for businesses. This not
only helps in reducing the cost of operation but also saves time. The time saved can be
utilized to focus on other tasks, thus speeding up business processes significantly.
Processes like billing, tracking metrics, collecting customer data, monitoring certain
processes etc. can be automated easily. There are numerous automation software that can be
utilized for this purpose.

Working Remotely
Implementation of information technology provides the ability to remotely access your
company’s network. As a result, it equips employees with the ability to get the work done
even if they are not physically present at the workplace.

Protecting Information
Every organization has a mammoth database comprising various information related to
business transactions, client details and so on. Such information is extremely valuable to a
business and can cause a host of legal issues if it is lost. This is where information technology
becomes relevant. It provides the right resources to store the information in a way that
ensures maximum protection.
Virtual storage systems can keep information safe by allowing a limited number of users to
access these. Increased protection also ensures that these systems are not hacked and the
information is not wiped out owing to some problems. Therefore, information technology
helps in upholding business integrity.

Providing Customer Satisfaction

Customer experience and satisfaction are crucial aspects of all businesses. The key to
customer satisfaction is a strong customer support team and its availability to cater to the
requirements of the customers.
Information technology provides the best tools for communicating with customers and
solving their problems in real time. It has unlocked the facilities like Email, social media and
other messaging platforms for this purpose.
A happy customer-base is important for the growth of a business. Various cloud-based
communication channels have made customer experience more improved.

Management of Resources
A business has a variety of resources. These may include financial resources, human
resources and so on. For large organizations, managing resources becomes quite difficult.

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Information technology plays a vital role in managing these resources effortlessly by
introducing a wide range of feasible solutions.
For example, the integration of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) has improved the
efficiency of various business processes. ERP is a business management software that
enables an organization to use a series of integrated applications that can manage and
automate various business operations.
Information technology is at the core of such software. The implementation of ERP is
progressing at a rapid rate with more and more businesses implementing this efficient
technology to make certain business processes hassle-free.

Main Advantages and Disadvantages of ERP System

The advantages presented by the ERP are:

1. Optimization of business processes.

2. Accurate and timely access to reliable information.
3. The ability to share information between all components of the organization.
4. Elimination of unnecessary operations and data.
5. Reduction of time and costs of litigation
6. Then, as each module of the ERP system enters the same real-time database, another
advantage is that no duplicate records or playback operations, ie, redundancy is
avoided.
7. The performance of all work units that make up their business because better use time
is increased. If you previously had to make reports and take them from one place to
another, now the time is spent on other activities.
8. To improve performance and save time, optimize the control and analysis of
management decisions there in the long term, reduced costs for the company.
9. Another obvious advantage is in terms of customer service, because the response time
is reduced attention to them.
10. When a company has an ERP system is more competitive in the environment in which
it operates.

Disadvantages of ERP are:

1. The installation of the ERP system is costly. ERP consultants are very expensive take
approximately 60% of the budget.
2. The success depends on the skills and experience of the workforce, including
education and how to make the system work properly.
3. Resistance in sharing internal information between departments can reduce the
efficiency of the software.
4. The systems can be difficult to use.
5. Change of staff, companies can employ administrators who are not trained to manage
the ERP system of the employing company, proposing changes in business practices
that are not synchronized with the system.
6. Having an ERP system has many advantages, but does not guarantee the total success
of the company. Organizational culture, know how to involve staff and anticipate
changes that will suffer the organization using this system of administration, are
important elements for the completion of the implementation.
7. The effectiveness of the ERP system may decrease if there is resistance to share
information between business units or departments. Due to strong changes that

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 implementation of the ERP system brings in the culture of work, there may be poorly
trained or disinterested in making use of the same staff...
8. The benefits of having an ERP system are not presented immediately with the
implementation of the software, they will be evident long after the system is running.
9. The culmination of the implementation depends on the ability and skill of the
workforce, also involves education and training, to make the system is correctly
applied.

Role of information systems in:

1 Human Resource Management
The transaction processing layer of MIS in human resource function deals with routine
activities like attendance recording and payroll calculations. The operational level activities
also include maintaining the employee records which is used as a basis for strategic layers.
With the growing importance of human resource management and increasing size of the
organizations, maintenance of employee related data and generating appropriate reports are
the crucial aspects of any organization.

Information Subsystems for Human Resource Management

The information subsystems of HRIS reflect the flow of human resources through the firm,
from planning and recruitment to termination. A sophisticated HRIS includes the following
subsystems:
1. Human resource planning
2. Recruiting and workforce management
3. Compensation and benefits
4. Government reporting and labour relations support
Human Resource Planning
To identify the human resources necessary to accomplish the long-term objectives of a firm,
we need to project the skills, knowledge, and experience of the future employees.
Recruiting and Workforce Management
Based on the long-term resource plan, a recruitment plan is developed. The plan lists the
currently unfilled positions and those expected to become vacant due to turnover.
The life-cycle transitions of the firm's workforce - hiring, promotion and transfer, and
termination - have to be supported with the appropriate information system components.
Compensation and Benefits
Two principal external stakeholders have an abiding interest in the human resource policies
of organizations. These are:
1. Various levels of government
2. Labour unions

2 Manufacturing and production

First, it provides relevant and timely information for decision making at different levels of
the company hierarchy. It also automates and secures the sequencing of manufacturing and
business processes.
Information technology must play a vital role in the design and manufacturing processes.
Manufacturing information systems are among the most difficult both to develop and to
implement.

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TPSs are embedded in the production process or in other company processes. The data
provided by the transaction processing systems are used by management support subsystems,
which are tightly integrated and interdependent.
Manufacturing information subsystems include:
Product design and engineering
Product design and engineering are widely supported today by computer-aided design (CAD)
and computer-aided engineering (CAE) systems. CAD systems assist the designer with
automatic calculations and display of surfaces while storing the design information in
databases.
Product scheduling
This complex subsystem has to ensure that an appropriate combination of human, machinery,
and material resources will be provided at an appropriate time in order to manufacture the
goods.
Quality control
The quality control subsystem of a manufacturing information system relies on the data
collected on the shop floor by the sensors embedded in the process control systems.
Facilities planning, production costing, logistics and inventory subsystems
Among the higher-level decision making supported by manufacturing information systems
are facilities planning - locating the sites for manufacturing plants, deciding on their
production capacities, and laying out the plant floors.

3 Sales and marketing

Sales and marketing information systems help the firm with marketing business processes
(identifying customers for the firm's products or services, developing products and services to
meet their needs, promoting products and services) and sales processes (selling the products
and services, taking orders, contacting clients etc

Sales force automation, involves equipping salespeople with portable computers tied into
the corporate information systems. This gives the salespeople instantaneous access to
information and frees them from the reporting paperwork. This increases selling time and the
level of performance. Access to corporate databases is sometimes accompanied by access to
corporate expertise, either by being able to contact the experts or by using expert systems that
help specify the product meeting customer requirements.

Sales management is thoroughly supported with information technology. Customer

profitability analysis help identify high-profit and high-growth customers and target
marketing efforts in order to retain and develop these accounts.

Database marketing relies on the accumulation and use of extensive databases to segment
potential customers and reach tem with personalized promotional information.
Marketing activities are directed toward planning, promoting, and selling goods and services
to satisfy the needs of customers and the objectives of the organization.

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Marketing information systems support decision making regarding the marketing mix. These
include:
Product
The product subsystem helps to plan the introduction of new products. Continually bringing
new products to market is vital in today's competitive environment of rapid change.
Price
Pricing decisions find a degree of support from DSSs and access to databases that contain
industry prices. These highly unstructured decisions are made in pursuit of the companys
pricing objectives. General strategies range from profit maximization to forgoing a part of the
profit in order to increase a market share.
Information systems provide an opportunity to finely segment customer groups, and charge
different prices depending on the combination of products and services provided, as well as
the circumstances of the sale transaction.
Place
The place subsystem assists the decision makers in making the product available to the
customer at the right place at the right time. The place subsystem helps plan the distribution
channels for the product and track their performance.
Promotion
The promotion subsystem is often the most elaborate in the marketing information system,
since it supports both personal selling and advertising. Media selection packages assist in
selecting a mix of avenues to persuade the potential purchaser, including direct mail,
television, print media, and the electronic media such as the Internet and the WEB in
particular. The effectiveness of the selected media mix is monitored and its composition is
continually adjusted.

4 Finance & Accounting

Financial information systems rely on external sources, such as on-line databases and custom
produced reports, particularly in the areas of financial forecasting and funds management.
The essential functions that financial information systems perform include:

Financial Forecasting
Financial forecasting is the process of predicting the inflows of funds into the company and
the outflows of funds from it for a long term into the future. Outflows of funds must be
balanced over the long term with the inflows. With the globalization of business, the function
of financial forecasting has become more complex, since the activities in multiple national
markets have to be consolidated, taking into consideration the vagaries of multiple national
currencies. Scenario analysis is frequently employed in order to prepare the firm for various
contingencies.
Financial forecasts are based on computerized models known as cash-flow models. They
range from rather simple spreadsheet templates to sophisticated models developed for the
given industry and customized for the firm or, in the case of large corporations to specify
modeling of their financial operations. Financial forecasting serves to identify the need for
funds and their sources.

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Financial Control
The primary tools of financial control are budgets. A budget specifies the resources
committed to a plan for a given project or time period. Fixed budgets are independent of the
level of activity of the unit for which the budget is drawn up. Flexible budgets commit
resources depending on the level of activity.
Spreadsheet programs are the main budgeting tools. Spreadsheets are the personal
productivity tools in use today in budget preparation.
In the systems-theoretic view, budgets serve as the standard against which managers can
compare the actual results by using information systems. Performance reports are used to
monitor budgets of various managerial levels. A performance report states the actual financial
results achieved by the unit and compares them with the planned results.
Along with budgets and performance reports, financial control employs a number of financial
ratios indicating the performance of the business unit. A widely employed financial ratio
is return on investment (ROI). ROS shows how well a business unit uses its resources. Its
value is obtained by dividing the earnings of the business unit by its total assets.

Funds Management
Financial information systems help to manage the organization's liquid assets, such as cash or
securities, for high yields with the lowest degree of loss risk. Some firms deploy
computerized systems to manage their securities portfolios and automatically generate buy or
sell orders.

Internal Auditing
The audit function provides an independent appraisal of an organization's accounting,
financial, and operational procedures and information. All large firms have internal auditors,
answerable only to the audit committee of the board of directors. The staff of the chief
financial officer of the company performs financial and operational audits. During a financial
audit, an appraisal is made of the reliability and integrity of the company's financial
information and of the means used to process it. An operational audit is an appraisal of how
well management utilizes company resources and how well corporate plans are being carried
out.

Control measures that an organization can institute over employees to guarantee

security of information system
Use of strong passwords
Installation of antivirus
Educate/train users not to share passwords
Personnel watch or CCTV cameras
Encrypt messages
Use lock and key
Use of biometrics such as fingerprints, face or speech recognition
Creating back ups
User access level for different users
Implement firewall able to filter info according to its value

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Types of Information Systems
Office Automation/Support Systems
An office automation system (OAS) is a collection of communication technology, computers
and persons to perform official tasks. It executes office transactions and supports official
activities at every organizational level. These activities can be divided into clerical and
managerial activities.
Clerical activities performed with the help of office automation system include preparing
written communication, typesetting, printing, mailing, scheduling meetings, calendar
keeping.etc. Under managerial activities, office automation system helps in conferencing,
creating reports and messages, and controlling performance of organization. Many
applications like word processing, electronic filing and e-mail are integrated in office
automation system.
Word Processing
Word processing is used for the preparation of documents like letters, reports, memos, or any
type of printable material by electronic means. The text is entered by keyboard and displayed
on the computer’s display unit. This text can be edited, stored, and reproduced with the help
of commands present in the word processor. Word processors have facilities for spell
checking, grammar checking, counting (character,lines, pages, etc.), automatic page
numbering, index creation, header and footer,etc.

Email
E-mail or electronic mail facilitates the transfer of messages or documents with the help of
computer and communication lines. This helps in speedy delivery of mails and also reduces
time and cost of sending a paper mail. E-mail supports not only the transfer of text messages
but it also has options for sending images,audio, video, and many other types of data.

Voice Mail
Voice mail, an important call service, allows recording and storing of telephone messages
into the computer’s memory. The intended person can retrieve these messages any time.

Management Information Systems

Management information systems are especially developed to support planning, controlling,
and decision-making functions of middle managers. A management information system
(MIS) extracts transaction data from underlying TPSs, compiles them, and produces
information products in the form of reports, displays or responses.
These information products provide information that conforms to decision-making needs of
managers and supervisors. Management information systems use simple routines like
summaries and comparisons which enable managers to take decisions for which the
procedure of reaching at a solution has been specified in advance.
Generally, the format of reports produced by MIS is pre-specified. A typical MIS report is a
summary report, such as a report on the quarterly sales made by each sales representative of
the organization. Another type of management information system report is an; for example,
exception report that specifies the exception conditions the sales made by some sales
representative is far below than expected.

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Usually, management information systems are used to produce reports on monthly, quarterly,
or yearly basis. However, if managers want to view the daily or hourly data, MIS enables
them to do so. In addition, they provide managers online access to the current performance as
well as past records of the organization.

Decision Support Systems

A decision support system (DSS) is an interactive computer-based information system that,
like MIS, also serves at the management level of an organization. However, in contrast to
MIS, it processes information to support the decision making process of managers. It
provides middle managers with the information that enables them to make intelligent
decisions. A decision support system in a bank, for example, enable a manager to analyze the
changing trends in deposits and loans in order to ascertain the yearly targets.
Decision support systems are designed for every manager to execute a specific managerial
task or problem. Generally, they help managers to make semi-structured decisions, the
solution to which can be arrived at logically. However, sometimes, they can also help in
taking complex decisions. To support such decisions, they use information generated by
OASs and TPSs.
Decision support systems have more analytical power as compared to other information
systems. They employ a wide variety of decision models to analyze data or summarize vast
amount of data into a form (usually form of tables or charts) that make the comparison and
analysis of data easier for managers. They provide interactive environment so that the users
could work with them directly, add or change data as per their requirements, and ask new
questions.

Executive Support Systems

An executive support system (ESS) – an extension of MIS – is a computer based information
system that helps ind decision making at the top-level of an organization. The decisions taken
with the help of executive support system are non-routine decisions that effect the entire
organization and, thus, require judgement and sight.
As compared to DSSs, ESSs offer more general computing capabilities, better
telecommunications and efficient display options. They use the advanced graphics software
to display the critical information in the form of charts or graphs that help senior executives
to solve a wide range of problems. To make effective decisions, they use summarized internal
data from MIS and DSS as well as data from external sources about events like new tax laws,
new competitors, etc. They filter, compress, and track data of high importance and make it
available to the strategic-level managers.
Executive support systems help to monitor performance, track activities of competitors,
identify opportunities, and forecast trends. They also assist senior managers in answering the
following question:
• What business should we do?
• How are our competitors doing the business?
• Which units can be sold and which new units are to be bought?

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Transaction Processing Systems
Every firm needs to process transactions in order to perform their daily business operations.
A transaction refers to any event or activity that affects the organization. Depending on the
organization’s business, transactions may differ from one organization to another. In a
manufacturing unit, for example, transactions include order entry, receipt of goods, shipping,
etc., while in a bank, transactions include deposits and withdrawals, cashing of cheques etc.
However, some transactions, including placing orders, billing customers, hiring employees,
employee record keeping, etc., are common to all organizations. To support the processing of
business transactions, the transaction processing systems (TPS) are used in the organizations.

Attributes/characteristics of Good Management Information Systems

i. Understandable:
Since information is already in a summarized form, it must be understood by the receiver so
that he will interpret it correctly. He must be able to decode any abbreviations, shorthand
notations or any other acronyms contained in the information.
ii. Relevant:
Information is good only if it is relevant. This means that it should be pertinent and
meaningful to the decision maker and should be in his area of responsibility.
iii. Complete:
It should contain all the facts that are necessary for the decision maker to satisfactorily solve
the problem at hand using such information. Nothing important should be left out. Although
information cannot always be complete, every reasonable effort should be made to obtain it.
iv. Available:
Information may be useless if it is not readily accessible ‘ in the desired form, when it is
needed. Advances in technology have made information more accessible today than ever
before.
v. Reliable:
The information should be counted on to be trustworthy. It should be accurate, consistent
with facts and verifiable. Inadequate or incorrect information generally leads to decisions of
poor quality. For example, sales figures that have not been adjusted for returns and refunds
are not reliable.
vi. Concise:
Too much information is a big burden on management and cannot be processed in time and
accurately due to “bounded rationality”. Bounded rationality determines the limits of the
thinking process which cannot sort out and process large amounts of information.
Accordingly, information should be to the point and just enough – no more, no less.
vii. Timely:
Information must be delivered at the right time and the right place to the right person.
Premature information can become obsolete or be forgotten by the time it is actually needed.
Similarly, some crucial decisions can be delayed because proper and necessary information is
not available in time, resulting in missed opportunities. Accordingly the time gap between
collection of data and the presentation of the proper information to the decision maker must
be reduced as much as possible.

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viii. Cost-effective:
The information is not desirable if the solution is more costly than the problem. The cost of
gathering data and processing it into information must be weighed against the benefits
derived from using such information.

Using a diagram briefly explain the relationship of different kinds of a system in an

organization
Five level pyramid model
A five level pyramid model of different types of Information Systems based on the
information processing requirement of different levels in the organization.
 The first level represents transaction processing systems to process basic data .
 The second level represents office support systems to process information in office.
 The third level represents management information systems to process information by
managers.
 The fourth level represents decision support systems to process explicit knowledge.
 The fifth level represents executive information systems to process tacit knowledge.

Here are some causes of Information system failure in:

• Requirements do not represent the actual needs
of the customer.
• Improper planning
• Lack of and poor communication
• Requirements are incomplete or conflicting.
• Customers, requirements analysts, and
software engineers who develop the system
have problems understanding and communicating with each other.
• Both a lack of proper leadership and poor leadership
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• Unrealistic expectations
• Inability to keep within the budget

Explain how information systems help in dealing with customers, suppliers, and
products & services/How information system contributes to Total Quality
Management/What Are the Benefits of an MIS?
1 Helps to achieve a higher level of efficiency: Managers have the information needed to
identify a company's strengths and weaknesses.
2 Improves the quality of decisions: Better availability of information reduces uncertainty
and lets managers make more rational decisions based on reliable data.
3 Promotes better communications between departments in a workplace: When
managers, department heads and employees are sharing the same information, there is
better communication between them to identify problem areas and find mutually agreeable
solutions.
4 Improves employee productivity: Employees are more productive because they don't
have to spend time gathering the data that management wants. A well-designed MIS will
gather all the data without any more input from employees.
5 Strengthens a company's competitive advantage: Running a more efficient business by
reducing and eliminating weaknesses and non-performing areas increases a company's
competitive advantage over its rivals.
6 It brings Co-ordination: MIS facilities integration of specialized activities by keeping
each department aware of the problem and requirements of other departments. It connects all
decision centers in the organization.
7 It makes control easier: MIS serves as a link between managerial planning and control. It
improves the ability of management to evaluate and improve performance. The used
computers has increased the data processing and storage capabilities and reduced the cost.
8 It Facilitates planning: MIS improves the quality of plants by providing relevant
information for sound decision - making. Due to increase in the size and complexity of
organizations, managers have lost personal contact with the scene of operations.
9 It Minimizes information overload: MIS change the larger amount of data in to
summarize form and there by avoids the confusion which may arise when managers are
flooded with detailed facts.
10 Organized data
The advantage is that the employees will be able to gain access to all the information and as a
result, improve their productivity. A good information system has a Management Information
System (MIS) feature, which helps in organizing your database. The MIS can offer you past,
current and present information by using all resources in the system. If your business lacks
proper data organization, you are likely to have severe problems and a lot of useless data
11 Storage of information
Information systems are convenient because they can help you store data that you will need
in a few years to come. Saving your data manually using hard copy means will waste a lot of
time since searching for something will be hectic. A good information system groups your
data according to date and time, making the searching process convenient. All information is
stored in a comprehensive database that is accessible to you 24 hours a day.

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Why its difficult to build and sustain strategic information system/Disadvantages:
1. Highly sensitive requires constant monitoring.
2. Budgeting of MIS extremely difficult.
3. Quality of outputs governed by quality of inputs.
4. Lack of flexibility to update it.
5. Effectiveness decreases due to frequent changes in top management
6. Takes into account only qualitative factors and ignores non-qualitative factors like morale
of worker, attitude of worker etc.

Five Moral Dimensions of the Information Age

1. Information Rights and Obligations: What information rights do individuals and
organizations possess with respect to information about themselves? What can they protect?
What obligations do individuals and organizations have concerning this information?

2. Property Rights: How can property rights be protected in a digital society in which
tracing and accounting for ownership is difficult, and ignoring such property rights is so
easy?

3. Accountability and Control: Who can and will be held accountable and liable for the
harm done to individual and collective information and property rights?

4. System Quality: What standards of data and system quality should we demand to protect
individual rights and the safety of society?

5 The Quality of Life: What values should be preserved in an information- and knowledge-
based society? What institutions should we protect from violation? What cultural values and
practices are supported by the new information technology?

Describe five technology and business trends that have enhanced the role of information
systems in today’s competitive business environment.
1 The birth of e-commerce: Buying and selling goods and services online, whenever and
wherever you are. Every small businesses can afford that, and it has made the world's market
become even larger.
the birth of e-commerce :buying and selling of goods and services online.

2 Smart mobility technology: there are more and more mobile phones on the market that
seem to compete for the "smartest" of the year title. These are not used to make simple calls
anymore, you can access the internet wherever you are and thus enhance the growth of an
industry.
smart mobility technology :mobile phones that can access the Internet wherever you are have
thrived thus enhancing the growth of an industy.

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3 Social Media: Without any doubts, that's one of the most important technological trends
today. These tools give powers to individuals and this can spur innovation. Social Media have
changed the way businesses deal with clients, employees and partners as they can get access
straight away to immediate feedbacks, people's needs and ideas.
thrive of social media:clients,employees and partners can now get access straight away to
immediate feedback.

4 Development of group of technologies like networking and blogs that enable businesses to
connect to customers and partners to enhance collaboration and communication.

5 RSS (Really Simple Syndication): is a tool that enables you to subscribe to online
blogs, podcasts, or other websites and receive updates and new content as soon as it is
published. ( Blogs have this "subscribe to RSS Feed" button quite often, is that orange logo
that pops out, if you have Google Chrome, on the right hand corner of the page.)
the transformation of the business enterprises.

Describe four kinds of organizational change that can be promoted/enabled

by information technology:
1 Automation: Calculation of paychecks, nationwide airline ticket reservation system are the
classic examples of Automation.
People need automation so that the repeated operation can be programmed in a system and
involve less man power or use man power for other intellectual dynamic tasks.

2 Rationalization: This refers to bringing any operations in to a streamline to achieve better

results

3 Reengineering: This refers to the modification and upgradation of the existing system so
that, it deals with the latest technology and provide results faster.

4 Paradigm shift: Refers to change in attitude to rethink and find the better tomorrow.

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