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5.1: Soil ⭐ 

 〉 ESS 2024 (First Exams 2026) 〉 E-Book: The Topics - ESS 2024 〉 Topic 5: Land 〉 5.1: Soil
ESS 2024 (First Exams 2026)  
Comparing ESS 2024 and ESS 2015
⭐
E-Book: The Topics - ESS 2024 Soil (pedosphere) is far more than just dirt; it's the foundation of life on Earth, a thin layer between


 Topic 1: Foundations of ESS the atmosphere and the lithosphere. It nourishes our plants, filters our water, and plays a vital role in
🖥
combating climate change. But this precious resource is under threat. In this topic we will consider
 Topic 2 Ecology
soil systems and how human activities threaten the long term sustainability of soil on earth.
 Topic 3 Biodiversity and Conservation 🧩
 Topic 4: Water
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Topic 5: Land


5.1: Soil 
5.2 Agriculture and Food Approaches to Teaching and Learning
 Topic 6 Atmosphere and Climate Change
 Topic 7: Natural Resources Estimated hours (without labs): 3 hours at SL and an additional 2 hours at HL

 Topic 8: Human Populations and Urban Syste…

 HL Lenses
 Activities - ESS 2024 Guiding Questions
Experimental and Practical Approach
How do soils play a role in sustaining natural systems?
 Independent Investigation from 2024
How are human activities affecting the stability of soil systems?
 Revision from 2024
 Assessment from 2026

SL and HL: Soil as a System

Nature Is Speaking – Edward Norton is The Soil | Conservati…

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Soil is a complex, dynamic living system. As with any open system you will
meet in ESS, it exchanges both matter and energy with other systems
including the hydrosphere (the total amount of water on the planet),
atmosphere (the mixture of gases which surrounds the earth), biosphere
(global ecosystem composed of living organisms (biota) and the abiotic
(nonliving) factors from which they derive energy and nutrients[1]) and
lithosphere (solid, outer part of Earth). The diagram on the left shows how
all these systems interact through vital processes which allows nutrients to
be available for plants[2]. This will be explored further below.

Soil is an intricate mix of ingredients that form a unique ecosystem. Here's a breakdown of its key components:

Components:

Mineral Matter (Inorganic): This comes from the breakdown of parent rock over time, resulting in fragments of rock, sand,
silt, and clay.
Organic Matter includes living organisms like earthworms and fungi and decomposing materials from dead plants and
animals.
Air: Air spaces in the soil are crucial for plant root respiration and beneficial microbes.
Water: Water dissolves and transports nutrients for plants and supports soil organisms.

Many students struggle to understand the differences between minerals, nutrients and organic materials. The table below
helps clarify what these words mean

Term Definition Examples

Minerals/Inorganic Minerals are inorganic, meaning they are not derived from living rock fragments, sand, silt and
components or organisms. They come from the breakdown of rocks and parent clay) calcium, magnesium and
mineral matter material through weathering processes like wind, water, and potassium; lithium, cobalt and
temperature fluctuation. rare earth elements

Mineral Nutrients Minerals essential for plant growth phosphates and nitrates

Nutrients General term for elements or compounds needed for growth Carbohydrates, proteins, mineral
nutrients (like K⁺, Ca²⁺)

Macronutrients Nutrients required in large amounts by plants nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),
and potassium (K), carbon (C)

Micronutrients Nutrients required in small amounts by plants iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and
zinc (Zn)

SL and HL: Soil Horizons

Soil develops a layered structure called a soil profile over long periods of time. The soil profile is made up of different layers or
"horizons". These horizons form due to various interactions happening within the soil system. You can see from the image
below that as you go deeper into the soil profile, the organic content decreases and the inorganic content increases i.e., The
upper layers (O and A horizons) have a higher concentration of organic matter, while inorganic minerals dominate the lower
layers (B and C horizons). This gradual shift reflects the processes happening within the soil. Organic matter decomposes at
the surface, while minerals get washed down by water through the layers.

Horizon Layers:

Top Layer (O Horizon): This is rich in organic matter like decomposing

leaves and dead plants. It's often dark brown or black and is the thinnest
layer, sometimes absent in some soils.
Topsoil (A Horizon): This is the most fertile layer, teeming with life. It's a
mix of minerals from the parent rock below, along with decomposed
organic material from the O horizon. This layer is crucial for plant growth.
Subsoil (B Horizon): This layer contains minerals that have been
leached, or washed down, from the topsoil. It can be denser than the
topsoil and may have a different colour due to the accumulation of specific
minerals.
Parent Material (C Horizon): This layer is the underlying rock or
unconsolidated material from which the soil formed. It's less affected by
weathering and biological processes compared to the layers above.
Bedrock (R Horizon): This is the solid, unweathered rock beneath the soil
profile.

(image - Wikipedia)[3]

Application of skills:

1. Carry out an experiment to sample two soils from the subsoil (B horizon): one from a local garden or field, and one from a
natural ecosystem. Compare the differences in texture, organic matter content, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
(NPK) concentrations, aeration, drainage and water retention and then determine the amount of carbon in a dry soil
sample by burning off the organic matter and calculating the change in mass.

SL and HL: Soil System Inputs

The following information explains the INPUTS to general soil systems

Water: Precipitation is the main way water (with dissolved minerals) moves from the
hydrosphere to the soil. But water also enters from humidity and through surface waters
such as rivers and streams. This input of water may be completely natural, completely
anthropogenic or a mixture of the two. Anthropogenic ways of water input to the soil
include irrigation. This video describes how water moves through the soil.

Water Movement in Soil

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Dead Organic Matter inputs

There are 3 main inputs of dead organic matter (DOM) to the soil.

1. Plant litter (dead plant material that has fallen to the ground. This includes leaves, twigs,
bark, needles, seeds, and even flowers)
2. Dead animal biomass (total mass of organic matter originating from deceased animals
within a specific ecosystem or area)
3. Manure (Manure comes mainly from the solid waste products of domesticated animals like
cows, horses, chickens, sheep, and goats). One interesting example of manure is guano or
bat poo.

The World's Bird Poop Obsession

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Decomposition: Decomposition is the natural process by which dead organic matter breaks down into simpler forms - in other
words nature has it's own recycling scheme! Decomposition regulates many geochemical cycles including the following ones.

Carbon Cycle: As DOM decomposes, some of the carbon is released as carbon dioxide (CO₂) back into the atmosphere.
However, a portion can be incorporated into microbial biomass or converted into more stable forms of organic matter that
remain stored in the soil for longer periods. This helps regulate atmospheric CO₂ levels.
Nitrogen Cycle: Decomposition releases nitrogen locked up in organic molecules. This nitrogen then becomes available
for plant uptake in the form of ammonium (NH₄⁺) or nitrate (NO₃⁻) ions.
Nutrient Cycling: Decomposition also releases other essential nutrients like phosphorus, sulphur, and potassium. These
nutrients become available for plant growth, contributing to overall ecosystem health.

PHC Film: Soil is a living organism

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Mineral Inputs: Minerals enter the soil primarily through the breakdown of rocks, a process called weathering. The left side of this
image outlines the main ways minerals are inputted into a soil system and the right-hand side demonstrates how minerals leave the
soil system. Different colours represent different nutrients[4]There are two main types of weathering that contribute minerals to soil:

1. Physical weathering (transfer):

Physical weathering mechanically breaks rock into smaller pieces without changing its chemical
makeup. This fragmentation process, crucial for landscape evolution and soil formation, occurs
through four main mechanisms:

Freeze-Thaw: Water freezing in cracks expands, fracturing rock. Repeated cycles progressively
weaken it.

Insolation Weathering: Temperature fluctuations cause rock to expand and contract, creating
stress that leads to cracking.

Salt Weathering: Crystallization of dissolved salts within cracks exerts pressure, fragmenting
the rock.

Biological Weathering: Plant roots growing in cracks exert pressure, wedging the rock apart. By increasing rock surface area,
physical weathering paves the way for chemical weathering, shaping landscapes over time.

2. Chemical weathering (transformation): Chemical weathering breaks down rock through chemical reactions, altering its
composition and forming new compounds. This process, crucial for soil formation, occurs through three main mechanisms:

Oxidation: Rock minerals, especially iron and manganese, combine with oxygen and water, often forming reddish or brownish
stains. This weakens the rock, making it more susceptible to further weathering.

Carbonation: Carbon dioxide and water react to form carbonic acid, which dissolves minerals like limestone and dolomite. This
process is influenced by decaying organic matter and air pollution.

Hydrolysis: Minerals react with water molecules, transforming into new minerals with different properties. For example,
feldspar in granite can be converted to clay minerals.

Living organisms also contribute: they release acids and CO₂ that accelerate weathering, and lichens directly absorb minerals
from rocks, further promoting breakdown.

1.

Deposition: the accumulation of material transported by wind, water, or ice, exerts a complex
influence on soil characteristics. Deposition can have positive effects, e.g the enrichment of
alpine soil (picture left) from Sahara dust[5] but on the other hand, a process
called Salinization, where in coastal areas, deposition of salt spray can increase soil salinity,
exceeding the tolerance of most plants and rendering the soil unsuitable for agriculture. This
issue is becoming increasingly concerning in areas experiencing rising sea levels. Another
example of negative deposition can be seen in agricultural land in China where arsenic and
heavy metals from mines and factories are polluting the soil.

Gases/Air: Air, filled with essential gases like oxygen (O₂), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and nitrogen
(N₂), travels through tiny pockets between soil particles in a process called diffusion. As you can
see in the image[6] soil has around 25% air. The air in the soil exists within empty spaces
between soil particles and is known as porosity. The greater the porosity, the more air the soil
can hold.: Different soil textures (sand, silt, clay) have varying pore sizes and distributions.
Sandy soils tend to have larger pores, allowing for better air circulation. Clay soils, with smaller
and more tightly packed pores, can have limited air content.

Solar Energy: The soil absorbs energy directly from the sun (solar energy). Additionally,
soil organisms contribute heat through their cellular respiration processes. Darker-colored soils
absorb more solar radiation, leading to higher temperatures compared to lighter-colored soils.

Managed Soils: Managed soils (agricultural land) are subjected to various inputs which can be
both anthropogenic and natural. Here is a summary table of the main inputs associated with
agricultural land.

Natural Inputs Anthropogenic Inputs

Weathering of Parent Rock: Over time, the underlying Compost and Fertiliser: These materials add nutrients to the soil,
rock weathers, releasing minerals that become part of promoting plant growth
the soil.

Dead Organic Matter (DOM): Leaves, twigs, and other Agrochemicals: This category includes pesticides, herbicides, and
dead plant material from above-ground vegetation fall fungicides used to control pests, diseases, and weeds
onto the soil surface, providing organic matter for
decomposition.

Windblown and Waterborne Deposition: Wind can irrigation Water: Managed systems often rely on artificial watering to
transport dust and organic matter from other areas, supplement natural rainfall. This can be crucial in areas with limited
while rain and rivers can carry sediments. These can precipitation, but improper irrigation practices can lead to waterlogging
add nutrients and minerals to the soil. and salinization (salt buildup) in the soil

Guano (can be both natural and anthropogenic: This

refers to the droppings of seabirds and bats, which can
be a rich source of nutrients for soil in some areas

SL and HL: Soil System Outputs

Energy and matter are exchanged with other earth systems such as the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.
Here's an outline of all you need to know regarding these outputs.

1. Losses of Dead Organic Matter due to decomposition: As organic matter is broken down, essential nutrients like
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are released in forms readily available for plant uptake.
2. Mineral Components can be washed out by water and wind erosion. The Dust Bowl, a devastating period of dust
storms in the 1930s US Great Plains, is a prime example of how losing plant cover creates a positive feedback loop.
Without vegetation to anchor the soil, wind and water can easily erode it. Erosion, in turn, makes it difficult for plants to
grow, worsening the problem. Water erosion, a major culprit in soil degradation, is caused by the impact of raindrops and
the force of flowing water. Loosened soil can then be washed away by sheet erosion (water flowing over the land) or rill
erosion (water concentrated in small channels). The more exposed the soil is to rainfall, the greater the risk of erosion.
[7] Human activities like cutting down forests, burning vegetation, ploughing fields, covering land with pavement, and

abandoning farmland all contribute to this problem by leaving the soil vulnerable to the erosive forces of water.
3. Mineral components and water removed by absorption by plant roots: Water and mineral components such as
calcium, potassium and iron are taken up by plants by diffusion and are needed to provide for healthy growth of plants. As
water moves through the soil dissolved (soluble) nutrients are carried away with it, either further down into the deeper
layers of the soil or into other bodies of water such as lakes and rivers in a process known as leaching. Leaching can
help remove excess salts or harmful elements from the root zone, preventing them from harming plant growth but
excessive leaching can deplete the soil of essential nutrients, reducing soil fertility and potentially impacting crop yields.
Leached nutrients can also contaminate groundwater sources in some cases.

4. Diffusion of gases and evaporation of water: Oxygen diffuses from the atmosphere into the soil for plant root respiration
and microbial activity. Carbon dioxide produced by decomposition diffuses out of the soil and into the atmosphere. Water
evaporates from the soil surface and enters the atmosphere, contributing to atmospheric humidity and potentially returning
as rain. Evaporation helps regulate soil moisture content and is part of the overall water cycle. As water evaporates, it
leaves behind dissolved salts that were previously held in the soil solution. Over time, this can lead to a buildup of salts in
the upper soil layers, a condition known as salinization. Excessive evaporation depletes the soil of available water,
leading to drier conditions. This can affect soil structure, making it more compact and less able to hold onto water for plant
use.
5. Losses of Energy due to Heat Loss. Energy in the soil is primarily lost in the form of heat transfer to the surrounding
environment.

SL and HL: Flows: Transfers and Transformations

Transfers and transformations can occur within the soil profile itself or into and out of soils to another system and can result in
huge changes in soil fertility and structure. Questions involving distinguishing between transfer and transformations in the
soil (or in other systems) make for classic examination questions. Remember that transfers are simply movement or a change
in the location of energy or matter, (solar energy, water, nutrients) without any change in its chemical or physical form, e.g.
water flowing from a river to a lake, nitrogen gas moving from the atmosphere into plant roots through nodules whereas,
in transformations the matter or energy changes its chemical or physical form. This can involve breaking down existing bonds,
forming new ones, or changing state (solid, liquid, gas). For example, in photosynthesis where plants convert sunlight, water,
and carbon dioxide into glucose (sugar), decaying leaves transform into organic matter in the soil, water evaporating from a
lake and turning into water vapour.

Transfers Transformations

Infiltration Decomposition

Percolation Salinisation

Groundwater flow Nutrient cycling

Biological mixing Weathering

Aeration

Erosion

Leaching

Systems flow diagrams show flows into, out of and within the soil ecosystem. The video explores biogeochemical cycling,
demonstrating how nutrients are exchanged between living organisms and their environment. It highlights the water, carbon,
nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles, explaining their processes. A mnemonic device, CHNOPS, is introduced to assist in
remembering the essential elements for life: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulphur. The video
concludes by emphasising the crucial role of these elements in supporting life.

Biogeochemical Cycling
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Application of skills:

Create a systems flow diagram representing the soil system. You can find some activities here to practise these skills.

SL and HL: Soil as the foundation for terrestrial ecosystems

As outlined in the introduction, soil provides everything plants need to grow, except carbon which photosynthetic organisms
can directly take from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Soil provides;

1. a seed bank: Soil is a natural seed bank, storing a variety of plant seeds. The seed
bank helps plant communities recover after disturbances like fires. These seeds can
be resting on the surface (viable but not germinating) or buried deeper in the soil
(dormant). This collection of seeds, from the moment they fall from plants to when they
sprout or die, is called a soil seed bank[8]. The diagram on the left shows a seed
bank flow chart which shows dynamics of the seed population[9].

1. a store of water: The amount of water a particular soil can store is called its water holding capacity. This capacity varies
depending on factors like texture and organic matter content. In the infographic below you can see just how important soil
is as a water store. You can also see some of the ways to improve and conserve soil moisture[10]

Essential plant nutrients (specifically nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium): Soil is a dynamic system where minerals break
down and organic matter decomposes. These continuous cycles ensures a steady supply of essential nutrients for plants.

The major input is of dead organic matter from the plants entering the soil. Leaf litter is then broken down by detritivores (for
example, earthworms) into smaller fragments and decomposed by saprotrophs, such as fungi and bacteria.

SL and HL: Soil Texture

Soil texture defines the physical make-up of the mineral soil. It depends on the relative
proportions of sand, silt, clay and humus. The proportions of these components vary with
climate and topography and will influence primary productivity.

Sand is composed of large quartz grains which are very hard and are often worn into
rounded shapes with smooth surfaces. Soils containing a high proportion of sand are free
draining and easily cultivated, but water quickly drains from them into the groundwater,
leaving the surface dry and prone to drought.

Clay particles are smaller and have a layered structure. Mineral ions can be held around
the outer edges of the layers and then enter the soil water and thus into roots. Clay soils
hold water and resist drainage. Clay grains are tightly packed so that the pore spaces
between the grains are small and can fill completely with water. Clay soils are heavy, waterlogged and often anaerobic. The
water in clay soils is difficult for plants to obtain. As the soil dries out, the particles become more closely packed and the clay
shrinks and cracks.

In a developed soil, the sand, silt and clay particles are mixed with organic matter. Earthworms play a major role in this
mixing. The organic matter is broken down by fungi and bacteria (saprophytes) or chewed up by insects (detritivores) which
then add faecal matter. Dead animals and exoskeletons also add to the organic matter.

Humus: Humus contributes significantly to the texture of soils in which it is abundant. It is a dark brown or black
substance lying beneath the leaf litter. It has a loose, crumbly texture formed by the partial decay of dead
plant material. Humus therefore has a significant effect on primary productivity because of the following properties;

1. mineral nutrient retention versus leaching: humus helps hold on to nutrients although these nutrients can be freely taken
up by plants.
2. water retention versus drainage: Humus can hold the equivalent of 80–90% of its weight in moisture and therefore
increases the soil's capacity to withstand drought
3. Aeration versus compaction or waterlogging; Humus helps bind mineral particles together to form aggregates (clumps).
These aggregates create pore spaces between them, allowing for air and water to infiltrate and circulate within the soil.
Without humus, soil particles would be more likely to pack tightly together, reducing air pockets. Humus particles have a
large surface area, providing additional space for air to occupy within the soil.

This video below explains why humus is such a vitally important component of soil

Humus and the chemistry of soil

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Loam soils are the ideal mix of sand, silt and clay for productivity, allowing for drainage, but not too freely, and mineral uptake.
This great infographic from the FAO, summarises the importance of soil properties[11]

Practical skills: Soil texture can be determined using a key using this activity, a
feel test or by mixing with water and separating the layers in the laboratory using
these activities.

SL and HL: Carbon release in soil

Soil naturally releases carbon dioxide (CO2) through respiration by microbes breaking down organic matter. In some cases,
methane (CH4) can also be released. human activities the rate of carbon release may be accelerated.

As soil temperature rises, so does the emission of microbial CO2. “As the soil warms,
microbial activity increases, and that stored organic matter is processed by the microbes
and released as carbon dioxide or methane, both active greenhouse gases that can
contribute to further warming,” says John Blair of Kansas State University who was part of
a team who published this recent article in "Nature" magazine[12]

Agricultural Practices: excessive tillage and improper fertilization often lead to soil carbon loss
and increased carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere[13] .Clearing natural vegetation for
agriculture brings a large reduction in carbon storage; in many farmed areas, soil carbon levels
have fallen by 50 per cent

Soil erosion occurred in the USA during the 1920s and 1930s. In the Great Plains, wind
erosion stripped the top soil from 65 million hectares of over-cultivated land, leading to an
enormous loss of soil carbon storage capacity

Wetland Drainage: Wetlands are typically good at storing carbon. Some estimates state that
wetlands store 30% of land–based carbon; vital for climate change mitigation[14]
Draining wetlands disrupts this process and can release stored carbon as CO2 or methane.

Soil as stores, sinks and sources of carbon

Soil contains nearly twice as much carbon than the atmosphere, plant, and
animal life combined. However, this varies widely in different biomes. There is
little carbon stored in tropical forest soils and relatively large amounts under
tundra, wetlands and temperate grasslands. You can see this from the image
below detailing the amount of carbon stored in many of the earth's
ecosystems[15]. Climatic controls including temperature, precipitation and light
are responsible for the large biomass carbon store in tropical rainforest and the
large soil carbon store in temperate grassland. Other factors that have an
influence on the amount of carbon in the soil is;

1. Input of dead organic matter: The more organic matter entering the soil, the
more potential carbon storage there is.
2. Decomposition rate: The faster decomposition happens, the less carbon gets
locked away in the soil and the more that can be taken up into biomass in
plants.

HL Law Lens: The Ramsar convention

The Ramsar convention was established in 1971 in Ramsar, Iran. It's a framework encouraging member states to establish
their own national laws and policies for wetland conservation. The Convention maintains a list of Wetlands of International
Importance, known as the Ramsar List. These designated sites are deemed critical for maintaining ecological diversity and
providing habitat for waterbirds. As of 2024, over 2,220 wetlands are included in the List, covering a vast area exceeding 214
million hectares. The image below shows the number of Ramsar protected sites which have increased year after year since its
beginnings.
 HL only: Soil classification

Soil types diifer according to a variety of factors. Different soil types can be associated with different biomes. In this image
below of the Dominant soil types and characteristic soil forming invertebrates across biomes (major global change threats are
shown in italics). MAT: mean annual temperature; MAP: mean annual precipitation.[16]

In the image here [17] you can see that there are
particular soil types associated with particular
biomes - these are summarised in the table
below.

Summary table for Soil types and associated biomes

Name of % of
soil Soil Horizon structure and characteristics planet Associated Biome Example

Oxisol Heavily weathered, rich in iron/aluminium oxides and 8 Tropical rainforests Amazon
kaolin, low in silica; low nutrients; low CEC Rainforest,
Central
Africa,
Southeast
Asia

Brown Soils generally have three horizons: the A, B and C Brown earths are mostly Eastern
Earth horizon. Horizon A is usually a brownish colour, and over located between 35° and 55° North
20 cm in depth. It is composed of mull humus (well- north of the Equator. You can America,
decomposed alkaline organic matter) and mineral find out more about Brown Europe,
matter. Earth Soil here Eastern Asia

Aridisol desert biome has very little organic matter in its O and A 12 Deserts Sahara
horizons and has a large sandy B horizon Desert,
Australian
Outback,
American
Southwest

Afisols found under forest and savanna vegetation, and feature 11 Temperate forests, savannas Southeastern
accumulations of clay in their B horizon US, Eastern
Europe, Sub-
Saharan
Africa

Spodosols coniferous forest vegetation, are highly acidic, with a B 5 Coniferous forests Boreal
horizon rich in organic matter and aluminium and iron forests of
oxides North
America and
Eurasia

Application of skills:

Use soil profile diagrams to classify examples of soils that can be linked to the biomes studied, for example, brown earths
to temperate deciduous forests, or oxisols to rainforests.

This is also a great opportunity to do a little investigation of the soil in your local area. Even better, it is really interesting
to see how different soil can look when you're on holiday. I will never cease to be amazed by the difference in Irish soils in
the colder northern climates of Europe to the tropical soils of Thailand!

The soil type, climate and vegetation are all associated and inter-related. Climate seems to be the most important factor,
particularly the rainfall and temperature cycle If there is a lot of rain it drains right through the soil. As it goes it leaches out the
minerals and humic products from the top part of the profile (the A horizons) and carries them further down the profile. It also
washes down small soil particles to a lower level in the soil. If the soil is in a hot dry climate, then evaporation of water from the soil
surface will be important. If evaporation is high, then water is drawn up, by capillary action, from lower down in the soil profile. If this
happens, the rising ground water may carry dissolved mineral which are deposited in the soil when the water evaporates. This
leaching and evaporation concentrates the minerals in the B horizon (Chapman & Reiss, 1992). This is particularly important in
seasonally wet and dry climates (in parts of India).

Climate also affects the organic content. A humid hot climate promotes the action of decomposers.

In the humid tropics, there is usually a layer of leaf litter only a few centimetres deep at the surface. Beneath this is a red-brown
layer where some of the humus from the litter has stained the soil. this layer blends gradually into a strongly coloured red horizon of
laterite: iron- and aluminium- enriched clay soils which have been strongly weathered by heavy rainfall in the hot tropical climate.
This red horizon may be 25 m deep! The main organisms in this type of soil responsible for mixing the layers are termites. Most of
the other organisms responsible for the decay of organic matter are in the very shallow surface layer of litter. Most tropical soils are
extremely deficient in nutrients, as nearly all the nutrients and organic matter are in the standing crop, that is, in the vegetation. Any
organic matter which falls to the forest floor quickly decomposes in the hut, humid conditions and are immediately cycled back into
the vegetation via the surface roots of the trees. Hence, if a tropical forest is cut down and burned, much of the nutrient and organic
content of the ecosystem is lost as gases, wind-blown ash and leached out of the soils by the heavy rains. The soil beneath may be
quickly exhausted and susceptible to rapid erosion so the crops will flourish for a few years. It is possible with careful management
and some natural vegetation remaining to successfully farm this land but in large scale clearances this is unlikely (Chapman &
Reiss, 1992).

Clathrates exist naturally in cold places under pressure, like deep ocean floors and permafrost
(permanently frozen ground). Clathrates are compounds that form a crystal structure with small
cages that trap other substances like methane and ethane. Since methane is a potent
greenhouse gas its release from clathrates presents a potential positive climate feedback
mechanism. This feedback loop signifies that warming temperatures could accelerate methane
release, further amplifying global warming.

Factors Affecting Soil Classification

Influence on Soil
Factor Description Classification Example

Climate Temperature Affects rate of weathering, - Tropical soils: Often highly weathered, reddish due to iron
variations decomposition, and leaching. oxides (e.g., Oxisols) - Temperate soils: Moderate organic
across Warmer climates tend to have matter content, leaching can vary (e.g., Mollisols, Alfisols) -
biomes more weathered and less Polar soils: Cold temperatures limit decomposition, leading to
(tropical, organic soils. organic-rich soils (e.g., Histosols)
temperate,
polar)

Geomorphology Slope, Affects water movement and - Steep slopes: Thinner A horizon due to erosion (e.g.,
aspect, and retention, influencing soil Inceptisols) - Well-drained soils: Deeper A horizon, potential
drainage moisture and aeration. Steeper for clay accumulation (e.g., Alfisols) - Poorly drained soils:
patterns slopes and poor drainage can Grayish colors due to iron reduction (e.g., Aquolls)
lead to poorly developed soils.

Geology and Weathering, Parent rock mineralogy - Calcareous rock (high calcium carbonate): Forms alkaline
Time erosion, determines potential nutrient soils with low organic matter (e.g., Vertisols) - Volcanic rock:
deposition, content. Time allows for Rich in minerals, can lead to fertile soils (e.g., Andisols) -
waterlogging, development of distinct soil Young soils: May lack well-developed horizons (e.g., Entisols)
and aeration horizons.

HL only: Impact of agriculture on soil profile

Natural soil systems are made up of O, A, B, and C horizons. However, intensive agricultural systems often end up with only B
and C horizons remaining. The O layer can erode or be depleted due to frequent tilling, use of herbicides, and monoculture
planting, which deplete organic matter in the topsoil. The A layer can be eroded or depleted by tillage practices, leading to
erosion and the loss of valuable nutrients along with the A horizon. In intensively farmed fields, the O and A horizons may
become thin or even disappear altogether, leaving mainly the less fertile B and C horizons, which support fewer organisms.
Farmers then need to increase fertility by adding fertilisers.

Plant litter and residues from the O horizon above constantly enter the A horizon.
Microorganisms decompose this organic matter, releasing nutrients essential for plant
growth. This creates a feedback loop: a healthy A horizon with abundant organic
matter fosters a diverse microbial community, which in turn accelerates decomposition
and nutrient cycling. Monoculture cropping and excessive tillage deplete organic
matter stocks in the A horizon. This disrupts the feedback loop between organic
matter decomposition and nutrient cycling, leading to decreased nutrient availability
for plants. Loss of organic matter weakens soil structure, making the A horizon more
susceptible to erosion by wind and water. This erosion removes the fertile topsoil
layer, further diminishing the soil's capacity to support plant growth.

More than a third of farmland in the U.S. Corn Belt — nearly 100 million acres — has
completely lost its carbon-rich topsoil due to erosion[18] A University of Massachusetts, Amherst study linked topsoil loss
in the Corn Belt to a 6% decline in crop yields ($3 billion annual loss) and water quality decline due to runoff. Tillage
practices are blamed, and topsoil restoration is proposed as a solution for both productivity and carbon sequestration.

HL only: Soil texture and classification

Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of mineral particles (sand, silt, and clay) and
organic matter (humus) within a soil sample. This composition significantly influences a
soil's physical and chemical properties, ultimately impacting its ability to support plant
growth, quantified by the term "primary productivity."

Sand is composed of large quartz grains which are very hard and are often worn into
rounded shapes with smooth surfaces. Soils containing a high proportion of sand are free
draining and easily cultivated, but water quickly drains from them into the groundwater,
leaving the surface dry and prone to drought. Sand particles are primarily derived from
quartz, a mineral with a simple structure. Due to their limited surface area, sand and silt
have a low cation-exchange capacity (CEC). CEC refers to a soil's ability to attract and
hold onto positively charged ions (cations) like calcium, magnesium, and potassium. These
cations are essential plant nutrients.

Clay particles are smaller and have a layered structure are composed of complex silicate minerals. The intricate structure of
clay minerals provides a large surface area. With a high CEC, clay particles can attract and retain more positively charged
nutrient cations, making them more readily available for plant uptake.This allows them to have a much higher CEC compared
to sand and silt. Mineral ions can be held around the outer edges of the layers and then enter the soil water and thus into
roots. Clay soils hold water and resist drainage. Clay grains are tightly packed so that the pore spaces between the grains are
small and can fill completely with water. Clay soils are heavy, waterlogged and often anaerobic. The water in clay soils is
difficult for plants to obtain. As the soil dries out, the particles become more closely packed and the clay shrinks and cracks.

Scientists determine soil texture through a process of mechanical separation, typically using a series of sieves with
progressively smaller mesh sizes. This allows them to quantify the percentage of each particle size fraction present in the
sample.

A valuable tool for soil classification is the soil texture

triangle. This graphical representation allows for the
classification of soil based on the relative proportions of
sand, silt, and clay. Soils with a balanced texture, such as
loams and clay loams, tend to exhibit higher primary
productivity. This is because these textures offer an
optimal combination of properties summarised in the table
below. You can practice finding the type of soil using the
soil texture triangle with this activity.

Summary table for soil texture properties

Property Sandy soil Silty soil Clay soil Loam soil

Particle Size Largest (0.05-2.0 mm) Medium (0.002- Smallest (<0.002 Ideal mix of sand, silt, and clay
0.05 mm) mm)

Origin Primarily quartz Primarily quartz Complex silicate Varies depending on the
and feldspar minerals proportions of sand, silt, and
minerals clay

Drainage Excellent Moderate Poor Moderate (depending on

specific loam type)

Water Holding Low Moderate High Moderate (holds a balance of

Capacity water and air)

Air Spaces High Low Low Moderate

Nutrient Holding Low Low High Moderate to high (depending

Capacity (CEC) on the specific clay content)

Workability Easy to till Easy to till Sticky and difficult to Depends on composition but
till generally easy

Plant Growth Generally low (except for Moderate High (if well- High (ideal for most plants due
Potential drought-tolerant plants) balanced with other to balanced properties)
(Productivity) factors)

Other Soil Properties

percentage organic matter: Higher organic matter

content improves nutrient-holding capacity, water
retention, and soil structure.
percentage water:The right amount of water is crucial for
plant growth and microbial activity, but too much can lead
to waterlogging and hinder oxygen flow
infiltration:Good infiltration allows water to move into the
soil, promoting plant growth and reducing runoff.
bulk density: Lower bulk density (less compact soil)
improves aeration, drainage, and root growth.
colour:Darker soil color often indicates more organic
matter, which is beneficial for fertility. White indicates the
predominance of silica (quartz), or the presence of salts;
red indicates the accumulation of iron oxide; and brown
and black indicate the level and type of organic matter.
The image on the left shows you how you can use a
simple colour chart to identify soil properties[19]
pH:A soil with a near-neutral pH (slightly acidic to slightly
basic) generally promotes optimal nutrient availability for
plants.

The video below really helps explain how important soil texture is to the fertility of soil

Cation Exchange
Share

Watch on

Engagement Opportunities

Is there a local farm you could visit? How do they look after their soil? Maybe invite in a local farmer who is working to improve
soil fertility to speak to your class.

Host a documentary film festival about soil and food - there are some excellent examples including the very popular Jeremy
Clarkson series about farming. Season three looks at how farmers can improve soil fertility

Footnotes
1. ^ Thompson, John N. , Thompson, Michael B. and Gates, David M.. "biosphere". Encyclopedia Britannica, 16 May. 2024,
https://www.britannica.com/science/biosphere. Accessed 22 June 2024.
2. ^ FAO: Soils for nutrition, State of the Art (2022): Adapted from Weil, R.R. & Brady, N.C. 2017. The nature and properties of
soils (global edition). Harlow: Pearson
3. ^ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_horizon
4. ^ FAO, 2022. Soils for nutrition: state of the art. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0900en
5. ^ https://swissfederalism.ch/en/sahara-dust/
6. ^ JasonHS, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
7. ^ https://wad.jrc.ec.europa.eu/soilerosion
8. ^ V., A.M.; Warrier, R.R.; Kunhikannan, C. Significance of Soil Seed Bank in Forest Vegetation—A Review. Seeds 2022, 1, 181-
197. https://doi.org/10.3390/seeds1030016
9. ^ Wakshum Shiferaw, Sebsebe Demissew and Tamrat Bekele. "“Ecology of soil seed banks: Implications for conservation
and restoration of natural vegetation†: A review." International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation 10.10 (2018): 380-
393.
10. ^ https://www.fao.org/platforms/water-scarcity/Knowledge/knowledge-products/detail/soils-store-and-filter-water---improving-
food-security-and-our-resilience-to-floods-and-droughts/en
11. ^ https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b338b774-ed0e-49d4-ab05-9a76dda0f5d6/content
12. ^ https://www.nature.com/articles/nature20150.epdf?
referrer_access_token=6Ex0kMC8boj_ZMgSFP3tctRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0Mik0TTmks8PdSiUZYeb2RTXh0fcXCzT3docMWWowBCsBsP
4GTmcKJZdYtpZwVaA-
UcOWICRoCuPVZo0wIhJUhwV3LMVLxYQ1v95Uw_AeootV6Cz0zLiV5ZU71W1UQKJSJQPSMIRCR3zzs6g%3D%3D&tracking_referrer=w
13. ^ Galic, M., Bilandzija, D., Percin, A., Sestak, I., Mesic, M., Blazinkov, M., Zgorelec, Y., Effects of AgriculturalPractices on
Carbon Emission and Soil Health, J. sustain. dev. energy water environ. syst., 7(3), pp 539-552, 2019,DOI:
https://doi.org/10.13044/j.sdewes.d7.0271
14. ^ https://www.teagasc.ie/news--events/daily/environment/wetlands-and-water.php
15. ^ https://www.visualcapitalist.com/sp/visualizing-carbon-storage-in-earths-ecosystems/
16. ^ SOIL, 2, 565–582, 2016www.soil-journal.net/2/565/2016/doi:10.5194/soil-2-565-2016
17. ^ https://temperategrasslandsbiomes.weebly.com/soillandform.html
18. ^ https://e360.yale.edu/digest/one-third-of-farmland-in-the-u-s-corn-belt-has-lost-its-topsoil
19. ^ https://ballina.nsw.gov.au/files/Soil%20Colour%20-%20Fact%20Sheet%203%20-%20V3.pdf?v=1389712389

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