ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Course Code: EE 131

AC Waveforms

Aditta Chowdhury
Assistant Professor
Department of EEE, CUET
 Topics to be covered from

Sinusoidal Alternating
Waveforms
Chapter 13 (Boylestad 11th Ed.)
Art. 13.1, 13.2, 13.5 to 13.8

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 What we will learn today?
 Become familiar with the characteristics of a sinusoidal
waveform including its general format, average value, and
effective value.

 Be able to determine the phase relationship between two

sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency.

 Understand how to calculate the average and effective values

of any waveform.
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 Introduction
 Each waveform in the following figure is an alternating waveform available
from commercial supplies. The term alternating indicates only that the
waveform alternates between two prescribed levels in a set time sequence.

 The pattern of particular interest is the sinusoidal ac voltage. Since this type
of signal is encountered in the vast majority of instances, the abbreviated
phrases ac voltage and ac current are commonly applied without confusion.

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Generation of AC

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Generation of AC Voltage

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 Definitions
 Waveform: e - t
 Instantaneous Value: e1, e2
 Peak Amplitude: Em, Vm
 Peak Value: Em, Vm
 Peak to Peak Value: Ep-p, Vp-p
 Periodic Waveform: e
 Period: T
 Cycle: A lot of types possible
 Frequency: f = 1/T (Hz)

 Which waveform has the most frequency?

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 General Format For The Sinusoidal Voltage Or Current
 The basic mathematical format for the sinusoidal waveform is -

where Am is the peak value of the waveform and α is the unit of measure for the
horizontal axis, as shown in Fig. 13.18.

 For electrical quantities such as current and

voltage, the general format is

Where i, e are instantaneous values and Im, Em are

peak amplitudes.
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 Phase Relations
 Phase: The location of a wave with respect to its reference point or
with respect to another wave of the same frequency.
 The ideal form is say, v = Vm sin(ωt) and i = Im sin(ωt). They have
phase shift or phase of 0o. These waveforms pass through the exact main
point (0,0) also known as reference point of the graph as shown in Fig.
13.18.
 The phase shifted versions are written as, v =
Vm sin(ωt ± θ) and i = Im sin(ωt ± θ), where θ
is the phase shift of the respective waveform.
 Here + θ indicates phase shift to the left side
wrt to the reference point called leading by θ
and – θ indicates phase shift to the right side
wrt to the reference point called lagging by θ. 9
 Phase Relations
The phase shift is zero.
Reference
i=Imsin(ωt)

Here the phase shift is +30º Here the phase shift is -60º
It is leading wrt reference. It is lagging wrt reference.
i=Imsin(ωt + 30º) i=Imsin(ωt - 60º) 10
 Phase Shift 0º
Phase Shift is +30º Phase Shift is -60º
Reference

-30° 0° 60°

i=Imsin(ωt + 30º) i=Imsin(ωt) i=Imsin(ωt - 60º)

Equation + Equation 0 Equation -

Graph left (-) Graph 0° Graph right (+)
leading Reference lagging

Leading wrt reference. Reference Lagging wrt reference.

Past (-) Present (0) Future (+) 11
 Phase Relations
 A wave is said to be leading if it occurs before the other or if it reaches the peak value
before the other.
 A wave is said to be lagging if it occurs after the other if it reaches the peak value after
the other.
 Phase Difference is the difference between the phase angles of the corresponding wave.

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Phase Relations
 CCW = Leading, CW = Lagging.
 To draw a given waveform, we
have to express any
trigonometrical expression into
positive sinusoidal expression
using the presented formulas.

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 Phase Relations
EXAMPLE 13.12 What is the phase relationship between the sinusoidal waveforms of
each of the following sets?
c.

i leads v by 110º, or v lags i by 110º.

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 Phase Relations
EXAMPLE 13.12 What is the phase relationship between the sinusoidal waveforms of
each of the following sets?
e.

v and i are in phase. 15

 Average Value
 Average value for a given waveform is given by-
=
 If the curve is periodic, it is enough to take only one cycle of the waveform.
 For ideal sinusoidal, square and trapezoidal waveform, average value for full
cycle is zero as positive half and negative half cut each other.

 For half cycle of a sinusoidal waveform, average value is given by-

=
= = 0.637 x Peak Value 16
 Average Value

Example: 13.15 17
 Effective (RMS) Value
 Question: How is it possible for a sinusoidal ac quantity to deliver a net power if,
over a full cycle, the net current in any one direction is zero (average value = 0)?
 Answer: It would almost appear that the power delivered during the positive portion
of the sinusoidal waveform is withdrawn during the negative portion, and since
the two are equal in magnitude, the net power delivered is zero.

 However, regardless of direction, current of any magnitude through a resistor

delivers power to that resistor. In other words, during the positive or negative
portions of a sinusoidal ac current, power is being delivered at each instant of time to
the resistor.
 The net power flow equals twice that delivered by either the positive or the negative
regions of sinusoidal quantity. 18
 Effective (RMS) Value
 A fixed relationship between ac and dc voltages and currents can be
derived from the experimental setup shown in the following figure.

 The average electrical power delivered to the resistor R by the ac source is the same
as that delivered by the dc source.
 The power delivered by the ac supply at any instant of time is

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Effective (RMS) Value

 The equivalent dc value of a sinusoidal

current or voltage is or 0.707 of its peak value.
The equivalent dc value is called the rms or
effective value of the sinusoidal quantity.

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 Effective (RMS) Value
Example 13.20, 13.21
EXAMPLE 13.21 The 120 V dc source in Fig. 13.59(a) delivers 3.6 W to the load.
Determine the peak value of the applied voltage (Em) and the current (Im) if the ac source
[Fig. 13.59(b)] is to deliver the same power to the load.

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 Form Factor & Crest Factor
 The ratio of the root mean square value to the average value of an
alternating quantity (current or voltage) is called Form Factor.

 Crest factor is defined as the ratio of peak value to rms value of any
alternating waveform.

= = = 2
. .
2

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 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Course Code: EE 131

Circuit Elements and Phasor

Aditta Chowdhury
Assistant Professor
Department of EEE, CUET
 Topics Covered from

The Basic Elements and Phasors

Chapter 14 (Boylestad 11th Ed.)
Art. 14.1, 14.3, 14.5 to 14.10
(Art. 14.11 & 14.12 Read from Slides
and practice maths from book)
 Capacitor
• A capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy in
its electric field
• A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by
an insulator (or dielectric).
• When a voltage source is connected to the capacitor,
the source deposits a positive charge q on one plate and a
negative charge on the other. The capacitor is said to store
the electric charge. The amount of charge stored, represented
by q, is directly proportional to the applied voltage.
q= CV
• Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a
capacitor to the voltage difference between the two plates,
measured in farads (F).
 Capacitor
• Differentiating
=
• when the voltage across a capacitor is not changing with time (i.e., dc voltage), the
current through the capacitor is zero.

Why capacitor acts as open in dc??

In DC (Direct Current) circuits, a capacitor acts as an open circuit after it has fully charged. This behavior is due to the following reasons:

Charging Process: When a DC voltage is applied across a capacitor, it begins to charge up. Initially, it allows current to flow, as the voltage difference
between the plates is zero. As it charges, this difference increases until it matches the applied voltage.

Full Charge State: Once the capacitor is fully charged to the DC supply voltage, there’s no further potential difference across the capacitor that would drive a
current. In other words, the current flow through the capacitor stops.

Steady-State Condition: In a steady-state DC condition, the capacitor holds a constant charge and voltage across its plates. Since the capacitor resists any
change in voltage in a DC circuit, it blocks further current flow, acting as an open circuit.

In summary, after charging to the applied DC voltage, the capacitor maintains a constant voltage and behaves as an open circuit because there’s no longer
a path for current to flow.
 Inductor
• An inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic field .
• An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire.
• Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition to the change of current
flowing through it, measured in henrys (H).
=

• voltage across an inductor is zero when the current is constant.

Why Inductor acts as short in dc?

n DC, an inductor acts as a short circuit because, once a steady current is established, there’s no change in current. Inductors resist changes in current
by generating opposing voltage (back EMF), but in steady-state DC, with constant current, this opposition drops to zero. Thus, the inductor simply acts
like a wire, allowing current to pass freely.
Response of Resistor to a Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
 For power-line frequencies and frequencies up to a few hundred kilohertz, resistance
is, for all practical purposes, unaffected by the frequency of the applied sinusoidal
voltage or current.
 For this frequency region, the resistor R in Fig. 14.4 can be treated as a constant,
and Ohm’s law can be applied as follows.

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Response of Resistor to a Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
 A plot of v and i in Fig. 14.5 reveals that for a purely resistive element,
the voltage across and the current through the element are in phase,
with their peak values related by Ohm’s law.

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Response of Inductor to a Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
 Voltage across an inductor is directly related to the rate of change of current
through the coil. Consequently, the higher the frequency, the greater the rate of
change of current through the coil, and the greater the magnitude of the voltage.
 The inductive voltage, therefore, is directly related to the frequency (f) and the
inductance (L) of the coil.

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Response of Inductor to a Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
 A plot of vL and iL in Fig. 14.9 reveals that for an inductor, vL leads iL by
90°, or iL lags vL by 90°.

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Response of Inductor to a Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
 The opposition established by an inductor in a sinusoidal ac network can now be
found by –

 The quantity ωL called the reactance (from the word reaction) of an

inductor, is symbolically represented by XL and is measured in ohms;
that is,

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Response of Inductor to a Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
 So now we are seeing that inductor also has opposition property! Does
it dissipate energy like resistor?
 Inductive reactance is the opposition to the flow of current, which
results in the continual interchange of energy between the source and
the magnetic field of the inductor. In other words, inductive reactance,
unlike resistance (which dissipates energy in the form of heat), does not
dissipate electrical energy (ignoring the effects of the internal resistance
of the inductor.)
 Inductor receives energy from electrical source stores the energy in
magnetic field and simultaneously returns it back to the load / source
in a continuous process.
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Response of Capacitor to a Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
 For capacitive networks, the voltage across the capacitor is limited by the rate at
which charge can be deposited on, or released by, the plates of the capacitor during
the charging and discharging phases, respectively.
 In other words, an instantaneous change in voltage across a capacitor is opposed by
the fact that there is an element of time required to deposit charge on (or release
charge from) the plates of a capacitor, and V = Q/C.
 Since capacitance is a measure of the rate at which a capacitor will store charge on its
plates, for a particular change in voltage across the capacitor, the greater the
value of capacitance, the greater the resulting capacitive current.
 In addition, the fundamental equation relating the voltage across a capacitor to the
current of a capacitor [i =C(dv/dt)] indicates that for a particular capacitance, the
greater the rate of change of voltage across the capacitor, the greater the capacitive
current.
 Certainly, an increase in frequency corresponds to an increase in the rate
of change of voltage across the capacitor. 34
Response of Capacitor to a Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
 The current of a capacitor is therefore directly related to the frequency and the
capacitance of the capacitor. An increase in either quantity results in an increase
in the current of the capacitor.

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Response of Capacitor to a Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
 A plot of vC and iC in Fig. 14.12 reveals that for a capacitor, iC leads vC by 90°,
or vC lags iC by 90°.

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Response of Capacitor to a Sinusoidal Voltage or Current

 The quantity 1/ωC called the reactance of a capacitor, is symbolically represented

by XC and is measured in ohms; that is,

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Response of Capacitor to a Sinusoidal Voltage or Current

 So now we are seeing that capacitor also has opposition property!

Does it dissipate energy like resistor?
 Capacitive reactance is the opposition to the flow of charge, which
results in the continual interchange of energy between the source and
the electric field of the capacitor. Like the inductor, the capacitor does
not dissipate energy in any form (ignoring the effects of the leakage
resistance).
 Capacitor receives energy from electrical source stores the energy in
electric field and simultaneously returns it back to the load / source in
a continuous process.

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 Inductor and Capacitor Together
 It is possible to determine whether a network with one or more elements is
predominantly capacitive or inductive by noting the phase relationship between
the input voltage and current.
 If the source current leads the applied voltage, the network is predominantly
capacitive, and if the source current lags the applied voltage, it is predominantly
inductive.
1
= =

= = ∫
 Since we now have an equation for the reactance of an inductor or capacitor, we do
not need to use derivatives or integration in the examples to be considered.
 Simply applying Ohm’s law, Im = Em/XL (or XC), and keeping in mind the phase
relationship between the voltage and current for each element, will be sufficient to
complete the examples.
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 Complex Numbers
 Simple algebraic computation won’t help us in sinusoidal waveform analysis as we
have done in DC analysis.
 Complex number provides us an easy way to add / subtract / multiply / divide two
sinusoidal voltages or currents.
 Complex Number are of two types – (1) Rectangular Form. (2) Polar Form.
 For either type we need new co-ordinate system rather than simple x-axis and y-axis
convention.
 Now, we have real axis and imaginary axis in complex plane as shown in the
following figure.

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 Rectangular Form
 The format for the rectangular form is -

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 Polar Form
 The format for the polar form is –

 Z indicates magnitude only and θ is always measured counterclockwise (CCW)

from the positive real axis, as shown in Fig. 14.43.
 Angles measured in the clockwise direction from the positive real axis must have a
negative sign associated with them.
 A negative sign in front of the polar form has the effect shown in Fig. 14.44. Note
that it results in a complex number directly opposite the complex number with a
positive sign.

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Polar Form

43
 Conversion Between Two Complex Forms

We will take sign too in computation. If

Example 14.15, 14.16, 14.17, 14.18.
angle becomes minus(-) then we will add 180ͦ

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 Some Tips and Tricks
 If we have one complex number C1=A+jB, then there exists another number C2=
A-jB known as Complex Conjugate. Similarly for polar Z< θ and Z< -θ are
Complex Conjugates.
 For addition or subtraction we will use Rectangular Form.
 For multiplication and division we will use Polar Form.

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 Some Tips and Tricks
Example 14.19, 14.20, 14.23, 14.25

Multiplication Division

46
 Phasors (Only Slides)
 A phasor is a rotating vector representing a quantity, such as an alternating current
or voltage, that varies sinusoidally
 For all of the analyses to follow, the phasor form of a sinusoidal voltage or current
will be V = V ∠θ and I = I ∠ θ where V and I are rms values and θ is the phase
angle.
 It should be pointed out that in phasor notation, the sine wave is always the
reference, and the frequency is not represented. Phasor algebra for sinusoidal
quantities is applicable only for waveforms having the same frequency.
= sin(ωt± Ѳ) à ∠±Ѳ

= sin(ωt± Ѳ) à ∠±Ѳ

= cos(ωt± Ѳ) = sin(ωt± Ѳ+90) à ∠±Ѳ+90

= cos(ωt± Ѳ) = sin(ωt± Ѳ+90) à ∠±Ѳ+90

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 Phasors

Example 14.28

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 Phasors
EXAMPLE 14.29 Find the input voltage of the circuit in Fig. 14.75 if

49
 Phasors
If it is said to draw the waveforms -

Example 14.30 (***)

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BASIC ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Course Code: EE 131

Series-Parallel AC Networks

Aditta Chowdhury
Assistant Professor
Department of EEE, CUET
 Topics to be
covered from
Series-Parallel AC Networks
Chapter 16 (Boylestad 11th Ed.)
Art. 16.1,16.2

52
 Illustrative Examples

EXAMPLE 16.1 For the network in Fig. 16.1:

a. Calculate ZT
b. Determine Is
c. Calculate VR and VC
d. Find IC
e. Compute the power delivered VIcostheta
f. Find Fp of the network

EXAMPLE 16.2, 16.3

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Illustrative Examples

• EXAMPLE 16.4 For Fig. 16.7:

a. Calculate the current Is
b. Find the voltage Vab

54
Illustrative
Examples

• EXAMPLE 16.6 For the network in Fig. 16.12:

a. Determine the current I.
b. Find the voltage V.

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 • EXAMPLE 16.7 For the network in Fig. 16.14:
Illustrative a. Compute I.
b. Find I1, I2, and I3.
Examples c. Verify Kirchhoff’s current law by showing that I = I1 + I2 + I3
d. Find the total impedance of the circuit.
 Illustrative Examples
EXAMPLE 16.8 For the network in Fig. 16.18:
a. Calculate the total impedance ZT
b. Compute I.
c. Find the total power factor.
d. Calculate I1 and I2.
e. Find the average power delivered to the circuit.

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 Exercise
EXERCISE 7 For the network in Fig. 16.45.
a. Find the current I1
b. Find the voltage V1
c. Calculate the average power delivered to the network.

V1

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 Exercise
EXERCISE 11 Find the current I for the network in Fig. 16.49.

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 Must Practice

Exercise 5 to 11

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CT 3:
Date: 27-10-2024
Time: 8.30 AM
Syllabus: Page No. 23-60 of this slide.

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