AC circuits

AC generator
The source of AC generator produces a time dependent EMF given by
e= eosinω𝑡
Where eo is the peak value of EMF and
ω is the angular frequency of rotation of the coil in the generator.
The current in a circuit connected to the generator will be of the form
i= iosin(ω𝑡+α)
Where α represent the phase difference between current and EMF,and io represent the
peak value of current.
Average value of AC:-
The average over full cycle is always zero since the average value of sinω𝑡over a cycle
is zero. So the mean value of AC over a cycle has no significance and the mean value
of AC is defined as the average over half cycle
Average value of sinω𝑡 in the range of ω𝑡= 0 to π is
π
<sin θ> = [∫sin θ dθ]/d θ
𝑂
= [cos θ]π0/[ θ ]0π
= 2/π
= 0.637
Therefore average value of AC current or EMF is equal to 0.637 into their peak value.
iavg = 0.637io
RMS value:-
The moving coil instruments cannot be used to measure the alternating current and
voltages. In order to measure these quantities it is necessary to make use of property
which does not depend upon the changes in direction of aternating current or voltage.
Heating effect depends upon the square of the current and hence does not depend
upon the direction of flow of current (For AC measurements hot wire ammeters and
voltmeters are used)

Consider an alternating current of peak value io flowing through a resistance R. Let H

be the heat produced in time t. Now the same quantity of heat can be produced in the
same resistance R in the same time t by passing a steady current(DC) of constant
magnitude through it. The value of such steady current is called the effective value or
virtual value or RMS value of the given alternating current(irms)
irms= io/√2 = 0.707 io
and erms= eo/√2 = 0.707 eo
Phasors
A rotating vector that represents a quantity varying sinusoidally with the time is called a
phasor and the diagram representing it is called phasor diagram.
The phasor for alternating EMF and alternating current are inclined to the horizontal axis
at an angle ω𝑡
or (ω𝑡+α)and rotate in an anticlockwise direction. The length of the arrow represents the
maximum value of the quantity. The projection of the vector on a fixed axis gives the
instantaneous values of alternating current and alternating EMF

If Projection is taken on y-axis

e= eosinω𝑡 and i= iosinω𝑡
If Projection is taken on X-axis
e= eocosω𝑡 and i= iocosω𝑡

Different types of AC circuits

a) AC voltage applied to a resistor

Suppose a resistor of resistance R is connected to an AC source of EMF with

instantaneous value
e= eosinω𝑡…….1

Let e be the potential drop across the resistance

e= iR
iR = eosinω𝑡
i= eosinω𝑡/R
i= iosinω𝑡 …….2
Where io=eo/R
From above we find that resistors behave similarly for both AC and DC voltage. The
behavior of resistor in dc and ac circuits is the same. R can reduce DC as well as AC
equally, effectively. From above we know that for a resistor there is zero phase
difference between instantaneous alternating current and instantaneous alternating
EMF that is they are in phase.
Phasor diagram
b)AC voltage applied to an inductor

Let us connect the source of alternating EMF to a circuit containing pure inductor only.
Let us assume that the inductor has negligible resistance. Suppose the alternating emf
supplied is represented by
e= eosinω𝑡…………….1
When the key K is closed current i begins to grow in the inductor because magnetic flux
linked with it changes and induced EMF is produced which opposes the applied EMF
According to Lenz's law
e' =-Ldi/dt
To maintain the flow of current in the circuit applied EMF must be equal and opposite to
the induced EMF e'. According to Kirchhoff's voltage law as there is no resistance in the
circuit
e=-e'
e= -(-Ldi/dt). =Ldi/dt
di=( e/L)dt
Integrating the above equation on both sides we get

∫di= ∫( e/L)dt= ∫( eosinω𝑡/L)dt

i= eo/L(-cosω𝑡/ω)

i=iosin[ωt-π/2].......................2

Here io= eo/ωL

On comparing 1 and 2, we find that the alternating current I lags behind alternating
EMF e by if phase angle of π/2c or 90° or voltage across L leads the current by phase
angle of π/2c or 90°
Phasor diagram
Inductive reactance (XL)
We have
io= eo/ωL
By Ohm's law
io= eo/R
On comparing we find that ωL represents the effective resistance offered by the
inductance L, it is called the inductive reactance and denoted by XL
Thus XL= ωL= 2πfL
Where f is the frequency of AC supply.
The function of the inductive reactance is similar to that of resistance in a purely
resistive circuit. The dimensions of inductive reactance is the same as those
of resistance and its SI unit is ohm.
Note
For DC circuits f=0 hence XL=0

c) AC voltage applied to a capacitor

Let the capacitor C is connected to an AC source with an EMF having instantaneous

value
e= eosinω𝑡…………….1
The current flowing in the circuit transfers charge to the plates of the capacitor, which
produces a potential difference between the plates. As the current reverses its direction
in each half cycle, the capacitor is alternately charged and discharged; suppose q is the
charge on the capacitor at any given instant t. The potential difference across the plates
of the capacitor is
V= q/C or q= CV
The instantaneous value of current i in the circuit is
i= dq/dt= d/dt(Ce)
From 1
i= d/dt(C eosinω𝑡)
i= C eocosω𝑡•ω
i= [eo/(1/ωC)] sin [ω𝑡+π/2]
i= iosin [ω𝑡+π/2]...............2
Here io= [eo/(1/ωC)]
From 1 and 2 we find that in an AC circuit containing a capacitor only the alternating
current i lead the alternating EMF by angle of π/2 radian.

Phasor diagram

Capacitive reactance(XC)

We have
io= eo/(1/ωC)
By Ohm's law
io= eo/R
On comparing we find that 1/ωC represents the effective resistance offered by the
capacitor C, it is called the capacitive reactance and denoted by XC
Thus XC= 1/ωC=1/ 2πfC
Where f is the frequency of AC supply.
The function of the capacitive reactance is similar to that of resistance in a purely
resistive circuit. The dimensions of capacitive reactance is the same as those
of resistance and its SI unit is ohm.
Note
For DC circuits f=0 hence XC=infinity
Thus capacitor blocks DC and act as open circuit while it passes AC of high frequency.
AC circuit containing resistance, inductance and capacitance in series( LCR -
series circuit)

Let the pure resistor R, a pure inductor L and ideal capacitor of capacitance C be
connected in series to a source of alternating EMF. As R,L and C are in series the
current at any instant through the three elements has the same amplitude and phase.
Let it be represented by
i= iosin(ω𝑡)
Voltage across each element bears a different phase relationship with the current. The
voltages eL,eC and eR are given by
eR= ioR,eL= ioXL and eC= ioXC

As voltage across the capacitor lags behind the alternating current by 90°, it is
represented by OC rotated clockwise through 90° from the direction of io. OC is along
OY' . As eR is in phase with current io the vector eR is drawn in the same direction as that
of i, along the positive direction of the x axis, represented by OA. The voltage across L
and C of phase difference of 180°, hence the net relative voltage is (eL-eC)
Assuming eL>eC represented by OB' in the figure
The resultant of OA and OB' is the diagonal OK of rectangle OAKB'
therefore
OK= √(OA2+ OB'2)
eo= √eR2+ (eL-eC)2
eo= √ (ioR)2+( ioXL - ioXC)2
eo= io√ R2+( XL - XC)2
eo/ io= √ R2+( XL - XC)2
eo/ io= Z
Comparing the above equation with relation V/i = R the quantity
Z= √ R2+( XL - XC)2
represents the effective opposition offered by the inductor, capacitor and resistor
connected in series to the flow of AC current. This total effective resistance of LCR
circuit is called the impedance of the circuit and is represented by Z. It is expressed in
ohm
The reciprocal of impedance of an AC circuit is called admittance. The SI unit is
-1
ohm or siemens
Phasor diagram

It can be seen that in an AC circuit containing L,C and R the voltage leads the current
by a phase angle ϕ
tan ϕ = AK/OA = OB'/OA =(eL-eC)/eR
tan ϕ = (XL-XC)/R
Therefore the alternating current in LCR circuit would be represented by
i= iosin(ω𝑡+ϕ)
Case I
When XL=XC then tanϕ= 0
Thus voltage and current are in phase. Thus AC circuit is purely a resistive circuit.
Case II
When XL>XC then tanϕ is positive
Hence voltage leads current by phase angle ϕ. Thus an AC circuit is inductive
dominated circuit.
Case III
When XL<XC then tanϕ is negative
Hence voltage lags behind current by phase angle ϕ. Thus an AC circuit is a capacitive
dominated circuit.

Impedance triangle:

The diagonal OK represents impedance Z of AC circuit.

Z= √ R2+( XL - XC)2 , the base OA represents the ohmic resistance R and the
perpendicular AK represents reactance(XL-XC)
<AOK= ϕ is the phase angle by which the voltage leads the current.
Where
tanϕ = (XL-XC)/R
Power in AC circuit :-
The power in AC circuit at a given instant is the product of instantaneous voltage and
instantaneous current
A) average power in AC circuit with resistance only
In a pure resistor, the alternating current developed is in phase with alternating voltage
applied
i.e. e= eosinω𝑡 and i= iosinω𝑡
Now instantaneous power is
P= ei
P= eosinω𝑡 • iosinω𝑡
P= eo iosin2 ω𝑡
The instantaneous power varies with time, hence we consider the average power for a
complete cycle by integrating above equation
Pav= [work done in one cycle]/
time for one cycle
 𝑇 𝑇
= ∫Pdt/ T= [ ∫eo iosin2 ω𝑡dt]/T
0 0

𝑇
= eo io/T [∫sin2 ω𝑡dt]
0
𝑇
= eo io/T(T/2). Since ∫sin2 ω𝑡dt = T/2
0
= eo/√2 io/√2
Pav= erms×irms
This is also called as apparent power.
B) average power in AC circuit with an iductor only
In an purely inductive circuit the current lags behind the voltage by a phase angle of π/2
i.e.When e= eosinω𝑡
Then i= iosin(ω𝑡-π/2)
Now instantaneous power is
P =e×i
P= eosinω𝑡 × iosin(ω𝑡-π/2)
P= - eosinω𝑡 × iocosω𝑡
Now
Pav= [work done in one cycle]/
time for one cycle

𝑇
= ∫Pdt/ T
0
𝑇
= [ ∫- eosinω𝑡 × iocosω𝑡dt]/T
0

𝑇
=- eo io/2 [∫2sin ω𝑡cosω𝑡dt]/T
0
Pav=0
Therefore average power of a complete cycle of AC through an ideal inductor is zero.
C) average power in AC circuit with a capacitor only:-
Pav=0
the average power of a complete cycle of AC through an ideal capacitor is also zero.

D) average power in LCR circuit :-

●
 Let e= eosinω𝑡 be the alternating EMF applied across the series combination of pure
inductor, capacitor and resistor as shown in figure.
There is a phase difference ϕ between the applied EMF and current given by

i= iosin(ω𝑡±ϕ)
Instantaneous power is given by
P= e×i
P= eosinω𝑡× iosin(ω𝑡±ϕ)
P= eoio sinω𝑡[sinω𝑡cosϕ±𝑐𝑜𝑠ω𝑡sinϕ]
P= eoio[sin2ω𝑡cosϕ±𝑐𝑜𝑠ω𝑡sinϕsinω𝑡]
Now avg power is given as
Pav= [work done in one cycle]/
time for one cycle

𝑇
= ∫Pdt/ T
0
𝑇
= ∫eoio[sin2ω𝑡cosϕ±𝑐𝑜𝑠ω𝑡sinϕsinω𝑡]
0
dt/ T
𝑇 𝑇
2
= eoio/T[cosϕdt∫[sin ω𝑡]±[sinϕ∫𝑐𝑜𝑠ω𝑡sinω𝑡]dt
0 0
𝑇
Again ∫[sin2ω𝑡dt]= T/2
0
𝑇
And ∫𝑐𝑜𝑠ω𝑡sinω𝑡]dt= 0
0
Therefore
Pav= eoio/T[cosϕT/2]±[0]

Pav= eoio/2[cosϕ]
Pav= eo/√2 io/√2 [cosϕ]
Pav= erms irms[cosϕ]
This power is also called as true powe. The average power dissipated in the AC circuit
of inductor, capacitor and resistor connected in series not only depends on RMS values
of current and EMF but also on the phase difference ϕ between them
The factor cosϕ is called power factor

cosϕ= Pav/ erms irms

Power factor= true power/apparent power
From impedance triangle
cosϕ= R/(√ R2+( XL - XC)2)
cosϕ= R/Z
Note :-
If XL = XC
cosϕ= R/R = 1
In a purely inductive and capacitive circuit
ϕ= 90°
Therefore power factor=0
Thus current through pure inductor or ideal capacitor which consumes no power for its
maintenance in the circuit, hence it is called wattless current or idle current.