Chapter VII

VIRUSES

1
 VIRUSES

A. General Characteristics of Viruses

B. Size and Shapes of Viruses
C. Viral Structure
D. Classification and Origins of Viruses
E. Viroids and Prions
F. Animal Virus Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses
2. Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency
3. The Life Cycle of HIV
4. Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection
5. The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production
G. Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
2. The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
H. Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses
I. Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria
J. Control of Viruses
K. Types of Viral Infections

2
 General Characteristics of Viruses

They can infect animals, plants, bacteria (bacteriophages), fungi (mycophages) and protozoa.

1. Living characteristics of viruses

a. They reproduce at a fantastic rate, but only in living host cells.
b. They can mutate.

2. Nonliving characteristics of viruses

a. They are acellular (no cytoplasm or cellular organelles).
b. They carry out no metabolism on their own and must replicate using the host cell's
metabolic machinery.
c. The vast majority of viruses possess either DNA or RNA but not both.

Since viruses lack metabolic machinery, they cannot be grown in synthetic culture media.

3
 VIRUSES

A. General Characteristics of Viruses

B. Size and Shapes of Viruses
C. Viral Structure
D. Classification and Origins of Viruses
E. Viroids and Prions
F. Animal Virus Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses
2. Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency
3. The Life Cycle of HIV
4. Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection
5. The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production
G. Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
2. The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
H. Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses
I. Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria
J. Control of Viruses
K. Types of Viral Infections

4
 Size and Shapes of Viruses

Viruses are usually much smaller than bacteria and are submicroscopic. Most range in size
from 5 to 300 nm, although some Paramyxoviruses can be up to 14,000nm long.

Animal RNA Viruses

5
Animal DNA Viruses

Bacteriophages

6
 Size and Shapes of Viruses

a. Helical viruses consist of nucleic

acid surrounded by a hollow protein
cylinder or capsid and possessing a
helical structure

7
 b. Polyhedral viruses consist of nucleic acid surrounded by a polyhedral (many-sided) shell
or capsid, usually in the form of an icosahedron
The subunits of the capsid are located
around the vertices or face of an
icosahedron. An icosahedron has 20
equilateral triangles arranged around the
face of a sphere. It is defined by having
2, 3 and 5 fold axis of symmetry.

Transmission Electron Micrograph of Adenovirus 8

c. Enveloped viruses consist of nucleic acid surrounded by either a helical or polyhedral core
and covered by an envelope

Enveloped Helical Virus

Enveloped Polyhedral Virus

TEM of Coronavirus (phv) TEM of Herpes simplex Viruses (phv)

9
d. Binal (complex) viruses have neither helical nor polyhedral forms, are pleomorphic
(irregular shaped), or have complex structures

Electron Micrograph of Coliphage T4

A T-even bacteriophage consisting of a head, sheath, and tail

Electron Micrograph of a bacteriophage

10
 VIRUSES

A. General Characteristics of Viruses

B. Size and Shapes of Viruses
C. Viral Structure
D. Classification and Origins of Viruses
E. Viroids and Prions
F. Animal Virus Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses
2. Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency
3. The Life Cycle of HIV
4. Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection
5. The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production
G. Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
2. The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
H. Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses
I. Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria
J. Control of Viruses
K. Types of Viral Infections

11
 Viral Structure

An intact infectious viral particle is called a virion and consists of:

1. A genome: RNA or DNA

2. A capsid
nucleocapsid or naked viruses.
Attachment proteins project out from the capsid and bind the virus to susceptible host cells.

3. An envelope
The envelope may come from the host cell's nuclear membrane, vacuolar membranes
(packaged by the Golgi apparatus), or outer cytoplasmic membrane.

12
 Some bacteriophages are structurally much more complex than typical nucleocapsid or
enveloped viruses and may possess a unique tail structure composed of a base plate, tail
fibers, and a contractile sheath. Other bacteriophages, however, are simple icosahedrals or
helical.

A T-even bacteriophage consisting

of a head, sheath, and tail

Electron Micrograph of a Bacteriophage

with a Contractile Sheath TEM of Coliphage T4 13
 VIRUSES

A. General Characteristics of Viruses

B. Size and Shapes of Viruses
C. Viral Structure
D. Classification and Origins of Viruses
E. Viroids and Prions
F. Animal Virus Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses
2. Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency
3. The Life Cycle of HIV
4. Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection
5. The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production
G. Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
2. The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
H. Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses
I. Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria
J. Control of Viruses
K. Types of Viral Infections

14
 Classification and Origins of Viruses

Features such as morphology, physicochemical properties, genome, macromolecule,

antigenic properties, biological properties can be considered in classification.

Hierarchical virus classification:

order - family - subfamily - genus - species - strain/type

All families have the suffix viridae e.g.

· Poxviridae
· Herpesviridae
· Parvoviridae
· Retroviridae

e.g HIV, SIV, FIV, BIV…

Genera have the suffix virus. Within the Picornaviridae (transmitted via the faecal/oral and
airborne routes) there are 5 genera:
· enterovirus (alimentary tract) species e.g. poliovirus 1, 2, 3
· cardiovirus (neurotropic) species e.g. mengovirus
· rhinovirus (nasopharyngeal region) species e.g. Rhinovirus 1a
· hepatovirus (liver) species e.g. Hepatitits A virus 15
…
 VIRUSES

A. General Characteristics of Viruses

B. Size and Shapes of Viruses
C. Viral Structure
D. Classification and Origins of Viruses
E. Viroids and Prions
F. Animal Virus Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses
2. Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency
3. The Life Cycle of HIV
4. Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection
5. The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production
G. Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
2. The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
H. Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses
I. Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria
J. Control of Viruses
K. Types of Viral Infections

16
 Viroids and Prions

Viroids are even more simple than viruses. They are small, circular, single-stranded molecules
of infectious RNA which has some double-stranded regions lacking even a protein coat.

They are the cause of a few plant diseases such as potato spindle-tuber disease, cucumber pale
fruit, citrus exocortis disease, and cadang-cadang (coconuts).

The structure of potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd) is indicated schematically below:

They are all single stranded covalent circles.

There is extensive intramolecular base pairing.
Some have a ribozyme activity (a ribozyme is a catalytic RNA molecule, in this case RNA
cleavage is the ribozyme activity)
They replicate in the plant nucleolus.
Replication does not depend on the presence of a helper virus.
No proteins are made.

17
Virusoids or satellite RNAs are also several hundred nucleotides long circular and single
stranded. They depend on a helper virus for replication. This helper virus also encapsidates
them. Virusoids replicate in cytoplasm using a RNA dependent RNA polymerase. This enzymic
activity is common in plants but not found in animal cells.

It is not known if viroids and virusoids are the progenitors of modern viruses or have
degenerated from other more complicated viruses. They can be spread by vegetative
propagation, within seeds or by direct inoculation either by insects or man.

There are similar infectious agents which infect humans. One such is the Hepatitis delta virus
(HDV).

18
 Viroids and Prions

Prions are infectious protein particles thought to be responsible for a group of transmissible
and/or inherited neurodegenerative diseases including Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, kuru, and
Gerstmann-Straussler- syndrome in humans as well as scrapie in sheep and goats.

Most evidence indicates that the infectious prion proteins are modified forms of normal
proteins coded for by a host gene in the brain.

In scrapie and CJD, the normal prion protein has alpha-helices while in diseased animals it has
beta-sheets

19
 VIRUSES

A. General Characteristics of Viruses

B. Size and Shapes of Viruses
C. Viral Structure
D. Classification and Origins of Viruses
E. Viroids and Prions
F. Animal Virus Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses
2. Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency
3. The Life Cycle of HIV
4. Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection
5. The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production
G. Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
2. The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
H. Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses
I. Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria
J. Control of Viruses
K. Types of Viral Infections

20
 Life Cycle of Animal Viruses

Viruses that infect animal cells replicate by the productive life cycle.
Some viruses (HIV and herpes viruses) are able to become latent in certain cell types.
A few viruses increase the risk of certain cancers.

21
 The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses

It consists of the following steps:

a.Attachment or adsorption

b. Penetration

c. Uncoating

d. Replication

e. Maturation

f. Release

g. Reinfection

22
 a. Attachment or adsorption

Adsorption involves the binding of attachment sites on the viral surface with receptor sites
on the host cell cytoplasmic membrane.

Attachment sites on the viral envelope Attachment sites on the viral capsid
bind to corresponding host cell receptors. bind to corresponding host cell receptors.

Receptors and supporting viral replication!!

23
 b. Penetration
1. Enveloped viruses enter the host cell in one of two ways:
a. Fusion with the host cell cytoplasmic membrane and release of the nucleocapsid into the
cytoplasm.
Viral envelope fuses with host cell
Attachment sites on the virus membrane and nucleocapsid
bind to corresponding receptors enters the host cell
on the host cell membrane.

b. Endocytosis.

The host cell membrane invaginates

forming an endocytic vesicle.
24
 b. Penetration
2. Naked viruses enter the cell in one of two ways:
a. In many cases, interaction between the viral capsid and the host cell cytoplasmic membrane
causes a rearrangement of capsid proteins allowing the viral nucleic acid to pass through
the membrane into the cytoplasm.

Attachment sites on the virus bind

to corresponding receptors
on the host cell membrane.

Viral capsid proteins interact with

the host cell membrane allowing viral
nucleic acid to enter the host cell.

b. Endocytosis.

The entire virus is placed in

an endocytic vesicle.

The virus begins to enter the

host cell by endocytosis.
25
 c. Uncoating
Uncoating is the release of the viral genome from the remainder of the virus.

1. With enveloped viruses, the viral envelope is first removed either by fusing with the
cytoplasmic membrane during penetration, fusing with the membrane of the endocytic vesicle
after endocytosis, or fusing with the nuclear envelope of the host cell.

After the viral envelope fuses with

host cell membrane the viral capsid
is removed releasing the viral genome.

The viral envelope fuses with the

endocytic vesicle membrane The viral capsid is then enzymatically
and the nucleocapsid is released. removed and the viral genome is released.

26
 c. Uncoating

2. Naked viruses entering by fusion.

In the case of naked viruses entering by endocytosis, the endocytic vesicle and the viral
capsid are enzymatically removed and the viral nucleic acid is released into the host cell's
cytoplasm.
The virus enters the host Endocytic vesicle and the viral The viral nucleic acid is released
cell by endocytosis. capsid are enzymatically removed into the host cell's cytoplasm.

27
 d. Replication

The viral genome directs the host cell's metabolic machinery (ribosomes, tRNA, nutrients,
energy, enzymes, etc.) to synthesize viral enzymes and viral parts.

The viral genome has to both replicate itself and become transcribed into viral mRNA
molecules. The viral mRNA can then be translated by the host cell into viral structural
components and enzymes need for replication and assembly of the virus.

(+/-) double-stranded DNA

(+) single-stranded DNA
(+/-) double-stranded RNA
(-) RNA
(+) RNA
(+) RNA Retroviruses

28
 e. Maturation

During maturation, the capsid is assembled around the genome

The viral capsid assembles around the viral genome. Viral proteins and glycoproteins are
incorporated into the host cell's membranes.

Enveloped viruses Naked viruses

29
 f. Release

1. With naked viruses, the infected cell

(cell membrane) usually disintegrates
and the virions are released

2. With enveloped viruses, the host cell may or may not be lysed. The viruses obtain their
envelopes from host cell membranes by budding. Prior to budding, viral proteins and
glycoproteins are incorporated into the host cell's membranes.

Viruses obtaining their envelope from the cytoplasmic membrane are released during the
budding process. Those obtaining their envelopes from the membranes of the nucleus or the
Golgi apparatus are then released by exocytosis via transport vesicles

Budding
30
Exocytosis

31
 g. Reinfection

Free viruses now infect new susceptible body cells.

As many as 10,000 to 50,000 animal viruses may be produced by a single infected host cell.

Some viruses, capable of causing cell fusion, may be transported from one cell to adjacent cells
without being released, that is, they are transmitted by cell-to-cell contact whereby an infected
cell fuses with an uninfected cell.

Syncytia formation: The uninfected cells and infected cell fuse together forming a
multinucleated giant cell or syncytium 32
 VIRUSES

A. General Characteristics of Viruses

B. Size and Shapes of Viruses
C. Viral Structure
D. Classification and Origins of Viruses
E. Viroids and Prions
F. Animal Virus Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses
2. Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency
3. The Life Cycle of HIV
4. Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection
5. The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production
G. Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
2. The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
H. Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses
I. Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria
J. Control of Viruses
K. Types of Viral Infections

33
 The Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency

Some dsDNA animal viruses (herpes viruses, retroviruses) are able to remain latent within
infected host cells for long periods of time without replicating or causing harm.

Some of these viruses remain latent within the cytoplasm while others are able to insert or
integrate their DNA into the host cell's chromosomes. When the viral DNA is incorporated
into the host cell's DNA, it is called a provirus.

Viral latency is thought to result primarily from the lack of production of specific host cell
proteins that are required for the activation of the viral genes responsible for turning on
viral replication.

As long as these specific host cell proteins are not being made by the host cell, the virus can't
replicate. However, because the virus is inside the infected cell, it also can't be removed by the
body's immune responses and the person carries the virus throughout their life.

Subsequent activation of the host cell's DNA in response to extracellular stimuli, however,
can lead to synthesis of the specific host cell proteins required by the virus and these
proteins now activate the viral genes leading to a burst of viral replication via the productive
life cycle. 34
Herpes viruses, for example, are often latent in some cell types but productive in others.

In the case of HSV-1, HSV-2, and VZV, primary infection causes the virus to replicate within
epithelial cells. However, some of the viruses enter and migrate down neurons where they
become latent in the body of neurons. Subsequent activation of the latently infected neurons
by a variety of extracellular stimuli enables the viruses to migrate back up the nerve cell and
replicate again in the epithelial cells.

With EBV, the virus is productive in epithelial cells but latent in B-lymphocytes.

In the case of HIV, the viral genome eventually becomes a provirus. The provirus can directly
proceed into the productive life cycle and produce more virions or, when the specific host cell
proteins required for turning on the viral genes are not being produced by the host cell, it may
remain latent in the host cell's chromosomes.
Subsequent activation of the host cell by extracellular stimuli, however, causes the needed
proteins to be made and the virus replicates via the productive life cycle.

35
 VIRUSES

A. General Characteristics of Viruses

B. Size and Shapes of Viruses
C. Viral Structure
D. Classification and Origins of Viruses
E. Viroids and Prions
F. Animal Virus Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses
2. Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency
3. The Life Cycle of HIV
4. Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection
5. The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production
G. Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
2. The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
H. Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses
I. Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria
J. Control of Viruses
K. Types of Viral Infections

36
 VIRUSES

A. General Characteristics of Viruses

B. Size and Shapes of Viruses
C. Viral Structure
D. Classification and Origins of Viruses
E. Viroids and Prions
F. Animal Virus Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses
2. Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency
3. The Life Cycle of HIV
4. Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection
5. The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production
G. Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
2. The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
H. Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses
I. Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria
J. Control of Viruses
K. Types of Viral Infections

37
 The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production

Some viruses can play a role in converting normal host cells into tumor cells.
Hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), human papilloma virus (HPV)…

38
 VIRUSES

A. General Characteristics of Viruses

B. Size and Shapes of Viruses
C. Viral Structure
D. Classification and Origins of Viruses
E. Viroids and Prions
F. Animal Virus Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses
2. Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency
3. The Life Cycle of HIV
4. Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection
5. The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production
G. Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
2. The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
H. Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses
I. Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria
J. Control of Viruses
K. Types of Viral Infections

39
 Life Cycle of Bacteriophages

There are two primary types of bacteriophages: lytic bacteriophages and temperate
bacteriophages.

1. Bacteriophages that replicate through the lytic life cycle are called lytic bacteriophages, and
are so named because they lyse the host bacterium as a normal part of their life cycle.

2. Bacteriophages capable of a lysogenic life cycle are termed temperate phages. When a
temperate phage infects a bacterium, it can either replicate by means of the lytic life cycle and
cause lysis of the host bacterium, or, it can incorporate its DNA into the bacterium's DNA and
become a noninfectious prophage.
40
 VIRUSES

A. General Characteristics of Viruses

B. Size and Shapes of Viruses
C. Viral Structure
D. Classification and Origins of Viruses
E. Viroids and Prions
F. Animal Virus Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses
2. Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency
3. The Life Cycle of HIV
4. Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection
5. The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production
G. Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
2. The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
H. Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses
I. Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria
J. Control of Viruses
K. Types of Viral Infections

41
 The Lytic Life Cycle of Lytic Bacteriophages

After infecting bacteria with lytic bacteriophages (DNA or RNA) in the lab, plaques can be
seen on the petri plates. Plaques are small clear areas on the agar surface where the host
bacteria have been lysed by lytic bacteriophages.

Plaques on an agar surface after infecting 42

Escherichia coli with Coliphage T- 4
The lytic life cycle is somewhat similar to the productive life cycle of animal viruses and consists
of the following steps:

a. Adsorption
b. Penetration
c. Replication
d. Maturation
e. Release
f. Reinfection

43
 a. Adsorption

Attachment sites on the phage adsorb to receptor

sites on the host bacterium. Most bacteriophages
adsorb to the bacterial cell wall (LPS), although some
are able to adsorb to flagella, pili, TA and proteins.
Some others (DNA phages) adsorb especially to F pili.
Specific strains of bacteriophages can only adsorb to
specific strain of host bacteria (viral specificity).

b. Penetration

In the case of phages that adsorb to the bacterial cell

wall, a phage enzyme "drills" a hole in the bacterial
wall and the phage injects its genome into the
bacterial cytoplasm. Some phages accomplish this by
contracting a sheath which drives a hollow tube into
the bacterium. This begins the eclipse period.

The genome of phages which adsorb to flagella or pili

enter through these hollow organelles. In either case,
only the phage genome enters the bacterium so there is
44
no uncoating stage.
 c. Replication

Enzymes coded by the phage genome shut down the bacterium's macromolecular (protein, RNA,
DNA) synthesis. The phage replicates its genome and uses the bacterium's metabolic
machinery to synthesize phage enzymes and phage structural components.

d. Maturation

The phage parts assemble around the genomes.

45
Most of the phages (arrows) have assembled.
 e. Release

Usually, a phage-coded lysozyme breaks down the

bacterial peptidoglycan causing osmotic lysis and
release of the intact bacteriophages.

f. Reinfection

From 50 to 200 phages may be produced per infected bacterium.

46
 VIRUSES

A. General Characteristics of Viruses

B. Size and Shapes of Viruses
C. Viral Structure
D. Classification and Origins of Viruses
E. Viroids and Prions
F. Animal Virus Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses
2. Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency
3. The Life Cycle of HIV
4. Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection
5. The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production
G. Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
2. The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
H. Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses
I. Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria
J. Control of Viruses
K. Types of Viral Infections

47
 The Lysogenic Life Cycle

Bacteriophages (only DNA) capable of a lysogenic life cycle are termed temperate phages.

a. Adsorption
b. Penetration

OR
c. Replication
c. Prophage
formation d. Maturation
d. Maintaining e. Release
(Binary Fission)
e. Induction

48
The adsorption (attachment to F pili of Gram-negative bacteria) and penetration steps are the
same as in the lytic life cycle.
c. Prophage formation

However, the phage does not shut down the host cell. Instead,
the phage DNA inserts or integrates into the host
bacterium's DNA. At this stage the virus is called a prophage.
Expression of the phage genes controlling phage replication is
blocked by a repressor protein, and the phage DNA replicates as
a part of the bacterium's DNA so that every daughter bacterium
now contains the prophage.

d. Maintaining the Prophage

As the bacterium replicates, the prophage

replicates as a part of the bacterium's
nucleoid.

In about 1/105-6 to 1/108-9 bacteria containing a prophage, spontaneous induction occurs.

The phage genes are activated and new phages are produced by the lytic life cycle. 49
The Lysogenic Life Cycle

50
 VIRUSES

A. General Characteristics of Viruses

B. Size and Shapes of Viruses
C. Viral Structure
D. Classification and Origins of Viruses
E. Viroids and Prions
F. Animal Virus Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses
2. Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency
3. The Life Cycle of HIV
4. Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection
5. The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production
G. Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
2. The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
H. Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses
I. Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria
J. Control of Viruses
K. Types of Viral Infections

51
 Bacteriophage-Induced Alteration of Bacteria

1. Lytic phages usually cause the host bacterium to lyse.

2. Lysogenic conversion by prophages

The prophage may enable a bacterium to possess new genetic traits. For example, the
prophage allows for coding of protein exotoxin (diphtheria exotoxin, Spe, neurotoxin,
exfoliatin, cholera exotoxin, shiga toxins) or other virulence factors.

52
 VIRUSES

A. General Characteristics of Viruses

B. Size and Shapes of Viruses
C. Viral Structure
D. Classification and Origins of Viruses
E. Viroids and Prions
F. Animal Virus Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses
2. Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency
3. The Life Cycle of HIV
4. Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection
5. The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production
G. Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview
1. The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
2. The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
H. Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses
I. Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria
J. Control of Viruses
K. Types of Viral Infections

53
 CONTROL OF VIRUSES

Since viruses lack the structures and metabolic processes that are altered by common
antibiotics, antibiotics are virtually useless in treating viral infections.

Amantadine and rimantidine are drugs that prevent influenza A viruses from the uncoating
step necessary for viral replication.

Zanamivir and oseltamivir are inhibitors of the influenza virus surface enzyme called
neuraminidase that is needed for release of newly formed influenza viruses from the infected
cell.

Fomivirsen inhibits cytomegalovirus (CMV) replication.

Most antiviral agents, however, work by inhibiting viral DNA synthesis (drugs chemically
resemble normal DNA nucleosides). They are selectively toxic because viral polymerases
are more prone to incorporate nucleotide analogs into their nucleic acid than are host cell
polymerases
54
Current anti-HIV drugs include the following:
1. HIV nucleoside-analog (NA) reverse transcriptase inhibitors: most RT inhibitors are
NA. This prevents HIV provirus formation.
Zidovudine

Once zidovudine is
inserted into the growing
DNA strand being
transcribed from the viral
RNA by reverse
transcriptase, no further
nucleotides can be
attached
55
2. HIV non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors [e.g, nevirapine (Viramune)
delavirdine (Rescriptor), efavirenz (Sustiva)]

3. HIV protease inhibitors

Protease inhibitors include:

saquinavir (Inverase; Fortovase), ritonavir (Norvir)…

4. Agents interfering with the entry of HIV-1 into cells by inhibiting fusion of viral
envelopes with cellular membranes (e.g, enfuvirtide (Fuzeon) ).

56
5. Certain cytokines are showing some success for viral infections.

None of the current antiviral agents kill and eliminate the viruses, they
simply inhibit their replication and decrease the severity of the disease.
In the case of some drugs, resistant virus strains are starting to emerge.

57
 MERCI
THANKS
&
GOOD
LUCK
58