 Universal Relation: Contains all possible ordered pairs from

sets A and B.
 Sets: Collections of well-defined objects. Ex: For A={a,b} and B={1,2}, U(R)={(a,1),(a,2),(b,1),(b,2)}.
 Elements: Can be numbers, letters, points, etc.  Identity Relation: Consists of pairs where both elements
 Notation: Sets denoted by capital letters, elements by are identical.
lowercase. Ex: For set C={x,y,z}, IC or ΔC ={(x,x),(y,y),(z,z)}.
 Membership: x∈A means "x belongs to A."  Void Relation: Contains no pairs; it's an empty set
ex : If A = {1, 2, 3} and
as R = {(a + b) |a + b > 5}, a, b  A then R = .
 Finite Set: Contains a finite or countable number of  Inverse Relation: Consists of pairs reversed from the
elements. Ex. {1, 2, 3, 4} original relation.
 Infinite Set: Contains an infinite number of elements. Ex: If T={(1,2),(2,3),(4,5)}, then T-1 ={(2,1),(3,2),(5,4)}.
Ex. {1, 2, 3, ...}  Complement of a Relation: Contains pairs not present in
 Null Set: Contains no elements; denoted by ∅ or {}. the original relation.
 Singleton Set: Contains only one element. {5} Ex: For E={m,n,o} and F={6,7},
 Subset: A set where all elements belong to another set. {1, if G={(m,6),(o,7)}, then Gc={(m,7),(n,6),(n,7),(o,6)}.
2} is a subset of {1, 2, 3}
 Superset: A set that contains all elements of another set.
{1, 2, 3} is a superset of {1, 2}  Reflexive: Every element is related to itself.
 Proper Subset: A subset that is not equal to the original set. Ex: If R is relation on set A, then (a,a) is in R for every a in A.
{1, 2} is a proper subset of {1, 2, 3}  Symmetric: If a is related to b, then b is related to a.
 Universal Set: A set that contains all sets under Ex: If R is a relation on set A, and ((a,b) is in R, then (b,a) is
consideration. also in R.
The set of all integers, denoted by ℤ  Transitive: If a is related to b, and b is related to c, then a is
 Equal Set: Two sets with identical elements. related to c.
{1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1} Ex: If R is a relation on set A, and (a,b) and (b,c) are in R,
 Disjoint Set: Sets with no common elements. then (a,c) is also in R.
{1, 2, 3} and {4, 5, 6} are disjoint sets.  Antisymmetric: If a is related to b and b is related to a,
then a equals b.
Ex: Let A={1,2,3} and consider the relation
 Union: Combines elements from two or more sets, R={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(1,2),(2,3)}
removing duplicates.  Irreflexive: No element is related to itself.
Ex: If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 4, 5} then A U B ={1,2,3,4,5} Ex: If R is a relation on set A, then (a,a) is not in R for any a
 Intersection: Finds elements common to two or more sets. in A.
Ex: If A = {1, 2, 3} ,B = {3, 4, 5} then A∩B={3} Asymmetric: If a is related to b, then b is not related to a.
 Set Difference: Subtracts elements of one set from another. Ex: If R is a relation on set A, and (a,b) is in R, then (b,a) is
Ex: If A = {1, 2, 3} B = {3, 4, 5} then A−B={1,2} not in R.
 Complement: Finds elements not in a specified set.
N.1: Consider the following five relations on the set
Ex: If U is the universal set and A = {1, 2, 3}, A = {1, 2, 3);
then A′ (complement of A) would be the set of all elements R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 3)} Ø = empty relation
in U that are not in A. AXA = universal relation S = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)
 Cartesian Product: Creates pairs of elements from two sets. T = ((1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3))
Determine: (a) reflexive; (b) symmetric, (c) transitive; (d)
Ex: If A = {a, b} B = {1, 2}, then A×B={(a,1),(a,2),(b,1),(b,2)}.
antisymmetric (e) draw directed graph
 Power Set: Generates the set of all subsets of a given set.
Ex: If A = {1, 2}, then the power set P(A)={{},{1},{2},{1,2}}. (a) R is not reflexive since 2 ∈ R but (2, 2) & R.
T is not reflexive since (3, 3) ∈T and,

 A relation R from set A to set B is a collection of ordered similarly, Ø is not reflexive. S and A × A are reflexive.
pairs (a,b), where a is from A and b is from B.
 If (a,b) is in R, we say a is related to b by R; (b) R is not symmetric since (1, 2) ∈ R but (2, 1) & R,
 otherwise, a is not related to b by R similarly T is not symmetric except R and T all sets are
ex : Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {1, 2} and aRb symmetric.
iff a × b = even number Then R = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 2), (4, ( c) T is not transitive since (1, 2) and (2, 3) belong to T, but (1, 3)
1), (4, 2)} does not belong to T. The other four relations are transitive.
(d) S is not antisymmetric since 1≠2, and (1, 2) and (2, 1) both  Suppose x =y (mod m), so x - y is divisible by m. Then - (x - y)
= y -x is also divisible by m, so y = x (mod m). Thus
belong to S. Similarly, AXA is not antisymmetric. The other
the relation is symmetric.
three relations are antisymmetric.
 Now suppose x = y (mod m) and y = z (mod m), so x -y and
y - z are each divisible by m. Then the sum (xy)+(y-z) = x-z is
also divisible by m;
Let R={(1,2),(3,4)} and S={(2,3),(4,5)}.  hence x = z (mod m).
 Union: R∪S={(1,2),(2,3),(3,4),(4,5)}. Thus the relation is transitive.
 Intersection: R∩S=∅,
 Composition : R∘S={(1,4),(2,5)}. Accordingly, the relation of congruence modulo m on Z in an
 Inverse : If R={(1,2),(2,3)}, then the inverse of is equivalence relation.
R−1={(2,1),(3,2)}

 A binary relation R defined on set A is called Partial Order

 Equivalence of relations refers to a specific property that Relation (POR) if R satisfies following properties :
relations can possess.  Reflexive :(a, a)  R  a  A
 An equivalence relation on a set satisfies three important  Antisymmetric If (a, b)  R and (b, a)  R, then a = b
properties:  Transitive If (a, b)  R and (b, c)  R  (a, c)  R where a,
1.Reflexivity: For every element a in A, a is related to itself. b, c  A
(a,a)∈R
A set A together with a partial order relation R is called partial
2.Symmetry: If a is related to b, then b is related to a.
order set or poset.
(a,b)∈R⟹(b,a)∈R
3.Transitivity: If a is related to b and b is related to c, then a is N.4 Show that the inclusion relation  is a partial ordering on
related to c. (a,b)∈R ∧ (b,c)∈R ⟹ (a,c)∈R the power set of a set S

 Reflexivity : A  A whenever A is a subset of S.

N.2: To prove that the relation R={(a,b)∣a−b is divisible by 4} is an Antisymmetry : If A and B are positive integers with A  B
equivalence relation on the set of integers Z and B  A, then A = B.
 Transitivity : If A  B and B  C, then A  C.
 we need to demonstrate three properties: reflexivity,
symmetry, and transitivity.
 Reflexivity:
 For every integer a in Z, we must show that a−a is  It is a graphical representation of poset)
divisible by 4.  It captures ordering relations among the elements without
 Since a−a=0, which is divisible by any integer, including redundancies.
4, reflexivity holds. Properties:
 Symmetry:
 If a−b is divisible by 4, we need to show that b−a is also  Elements of the poset are represented as nodes or points.
divisible by 4.  If element a is directly below or less than element b in the
 Since a−b=−(b−a), if a−b is divisible by 4, then b−a is poset (i.e., a≤b), there is a line connecting a and b in the
also divisible by 4. Hence, symmetry holds. diagram.
 Transitivity:  A Hasse diagram only includes lines between elements
 a−b and b−c are both divisible by 4, we must show directly related in the poset, avoiding redundant lines.
that a−c is also divisible by 4.
N.5: Consider the set A = {4, 5, 6, 7}. Let R be the relation ≤
 Since a−c=(a−b)+(b−c), if a−b and b−c are divisible by
4, then a−c is also divisible by 4. Thus, transitivity on A. Draw the directed graph and the Hasse diagram of R.
holds. N.6: Draw the Hasse diagram for the set P(S), where S = {a, b,
Since R satisfies reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity, it is an c, d}.
equivalence relation on Z
N.3: Show that R = {(a, b)|a  b (mod m)} is an equivalence relation
on Z.

 We must show that the relation is reflexive, symmetric, and

transitive.
 For any x in Z we have x = x (mod m) because x - x = 0 is
divisible by m.
Hence the relation is reflexive.
 N.8 : Consider the set L={1,2,3,4,6,12} partially ordered by
An element with no predecessors (no elements are directly divisibility. Determine whether L forms a lattice or not. If it does,
below it) in a Hasse diagram. find the join and meet operations for each pair of elements.

 :
An element with no successors (no elements are directly
above it) in a Hasse diagram.

The lowest element in a Hasse diagram, if it exists, with no
edges leading downward from it.

The highest element in a Hasse diagram, if it exists, with no
edges leading upward from it.

A common ancestor of elements in a subset, located at a
level below all elements in the subset.

First, we need to verify that the poset on the set L.
A common descendant of elements in a subset, located at
a level above all elements in the subset. Step:1

 Reflexivity: Every element divides itself, so a∣a for all a in L.
The lowest common ancestor of elements in a subset.
 Antisymmetry: If a∣b and b∣a, then a=b.
 :  Transitivity: If a∣b and b∣c, then a∣c.
The highest common descendant of elements in a subset.
 : Since it follows three property then it is poset on L.
A Hasse diagram forms a join semilattice if it provides a step:2
least upper bound (lub) for every pair of elements.
 :
A Hasse diagram forms a meet semilattice if it provides a
greatest lower bound (glb) for every pair of elements.
N.4: determine the minimum , maximum , minimal , maximal , lb ,
ub , glb , lub , join semilattice(v) , meet semilattice (^)

Step 3: Conclusion

Since for every pair of elements in L, both the join and meet
operations exist, and they satisfy the lattice properties, L forms
a lattice under the divisibility relation.
N.7: For any positive integer D36, then find whether (D36, ‘|’)
is lattice or not ?

 A lattice is a partially ordered set where every pair of 1.Idempotent property : i. a  a = a ii. a  a = a
elements has a least upper bound and a greatest lower
bound, denoted by ∨ and ∧ respectively. 2.Commutative property : i. a  b = b  a ii. a  b = b  a
 It's represented as (L,∨,∧). 3.Associative property :

i. a  (b  c) = (a  b)  c ii. a  (b  c) = (a  b)  c
4.Absorption property : i. a  (a  b) = a ii. a  (a  b) = a :
5.Distributive Inequality :  A lattice (L, ) is called modular lattice if, a  (b  c) = (a  b)
i.a  (b  c)  (a  b)  (a  c)  c whenever a  c for all a, b, c  L.

ii.a  (b  c)  (a  b)  (a  c)

 A lattice L is said to be bounded if it has the greatest

element I and a least element 0.

 A lattice L is called complete if each of its nonempty

subsets has a least upper bound and greatest lower bound.
Example:
1. (Z, <=) is not a complete lattice
2. It is a complete lattice

 for any element a in L, its complement a is another

element such that when combined with a,
 it produces the greatest element 1, and their meet results
in the least element 0.

 A lattice L is said to be distributive if for any element a, b

and c of L following properties are satisfied :

i.a  (b  c) = (a  b)  (a  c)

ii. a  (b  c) = (a  b)  (a  c)

otherwise L is non-distributive lattice