ABSTRACT

Traffic data is essential for supporting a large number of transportation-related decisions and is a
significant and critical component for many traffic-related researches; and project planning,
design, construction, operation, monitoring and maintenance. Historically, traffic data collection
methods, both permanent and temporary, have evolved from manual, through mechanical and
automatic and currently to complex and intelligent mechanisms in many parts of the world today.
Though manual methods may be better suited for certain situations, automatic methods offer
several advantages in the areas of accuracy, costs, and safety and are often preferred in such as
areawide data collection. That notwithstanding, traffic data and its collection methods, whether
manual or automated must be accurate, affordable, easy and sustainable such that every locality
can apply the methods in its entirety

As we gradually move towards smarter cities, having greater control of the traffic in the city
becomes of utmost importance. In addition, to efficiently manage such traffic, it is critical to be
able to predict the impact of different traffic policies, and potential changes to the city road
systems structure. To this end, accurate traffic simulation models must be derived that can help in
this task.

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 CHAPTER-1

Introduction

Transportation (land, water, air) plays a direct role in poverty reduction, fostering
regional integration and enhancing economic development by facilitating income
generation activities linked to agriculture and many other sectors [1]. Collecting
necessary roadway information has always posed a major challenge for state and local
agencies [2]. Thus, it is imperative that traffic data collection related to research and
actual implementation of road projects must be based on affordable, accurate, precise and
easy collection methods. For many years, routine data collection was not considered
important in Botswana for the development and management of the road network until
the early 1970’s when it realized that a wide variety of information is required in respect
of traffic characteristics for proper, planning, design, maintenance and management of the
national road network [3.4]. Municipalities of European countries have in the past
detected lack of data on urban freight transport [5]. Except for data of HGV traffic counts
which are relatively uninformative when attempting to develop suitable strategies and
policy measures [6]. Inadequate and uninformative data or lack thereof often results in a
limited insight from authorities into transportation operation patterns.

For optimal decision-making practices all over the world, improvements in roadway
safety performance, general transportation system design, operation and maintenance,
timely, adequate and accurate traffic data is expedient. It is on account of this that
national transport policies, guidelines, road designs and maintenance manuals are drawn
for the benefit of all road users. As explicitly captured by [7], “a better management of
transportation services is an alternative strategy to satisfy the increasing traffic demand”.
Collecting traffic data has a double function in the decision-making process providing
information for new measures and policies and evaluating the implementation of such
measures.

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The character of traffic is random in nature by time, day, season and even the mood of the
road user (driver). The effect of mood on traffic by some researchers has shown a positive
relationship [8,9]. That not withstanding, there are some established defined patterns that
make it possible for traffic to be studied. Traffic and highway data needs are many and
varied and span over volume studies, travel time and delay studies, spot speed studies,
accident studies, parking studies among other studies. An analysis of the data may lead to
project design and maintenance, road safety interventions, traffic operations and control
and provide statistics for planning future projects that fits into the national transport plan.
Data may also be necessary for assessing whether improvements made on the road
networks have been effective or not.
Conventional methods of traffic data collection include manual with human enumerators
and automated magnetic loop detectors such as piezo sensors, induction loops etc., radar
technology and image detection technologies using image analysis and machine vision
[10]. Traffic data collection by enumerators or human efforts require high demand of
personnel who are exposed to road environment hazards and unsafe, harsh weather
conditions such as sunburns and inhalation of exhaust fumes. Another disadvantage of the
manual method is that it is only about 70-95% accurate depending on the effort invested
and is greatly affected by length of survey, time of desired delivery of results, fatigue of
staff, etc. making the error rate susceptible to changes in time [11]. The enormity of
traffic data required is a determinant to the collection methodology adopted. Whereas
larger amounts of data may entail more sophisticated and automated methods, manual
methods may be more suitable for smaller data volumes. Modern data collection
techniques include those methods that are intelligent. These methods may be site specific
or area wide. According to [10], the innovative Intelligent Transport System (ITS) probe
vehicle, which has a GPS receiver embedded in it, is a eat for data collection. Many
methods exist under modern ITS technologies. [12] grouped traffic sensor technologies
into three broad categories; point sensors, point-to-point sensors and area wide sensors.
The researchers [4] noted that point sensors are the most widely used detectors today and
they span inductive loop detectors, radar/infrared/microwave/acoustic/ultrasonic sensors,
video image detection systems and weighin-motion systems [12]. The point-to-point

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sensors, however, have the ability to detect vehicles at multiple locations as they traverse
the network and they have such technologies as Automated Vehicle Identification (AVI),
vehicle identification without driver corporation and license plate recognition using
CCTV cameras as noted by [12]. [12] remarked that the area wide sensors though still
under research looks promising and will involve cell phone and smart phone and Global
Positioning Systems (GPS) technologies.

Considering the necessity of traffic data, it has become important over the years to
research on the existing methods to settle on those that are affordable, efficient, effective,
less time consuming, have fewer disadvantages and limitations over its advantages and
most significantly those that give enumerators little or no exposition to dangerous
roadway environments. [13] researched on different traffic flow data collection methods
to using new technologies in Latvia and elaborated on macro, meso and microscopic
methods of data collection.

An induction or inductive loop is an electromagnetic communication or detection system

which uses a moving magnet or an alternating current to induce an electric current in a
nearby wire. Induction loops are used for transmission and reception of communication
signals, or for detection of metal objects in metal detectors or vehicle presence indicators.
A common modern use for induction loops is to provide hearing assistance to hearing-aid
users.

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 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

There are many literatures on traffic speed estimation based on loop detectors. This section
only reviews a small portion of it, which are most relevant to this work.

1. E.K. Emam et.al (2017): "Inductive Loop Detectors: A Review"This review article
explores the fundamental principles, design considerations, and applications of inductive
loop detectors. It discusses the various loop configurations, sensitivity adjustments, and
installation methods. The authors also highlight emerging trends such as wireless
communication and intelligent transportation systems.

2. M. Kaseko et.al (2015) "Vehicle Detection Technologies for Intelligent Transportation

Systems" This comprehensive review focuses on vehicle detection technologies,
including inductive loop detectors. It examines the advantages and limitations of loop
detectors compared to other sensing technologies, such as ultrasonic, infrared, and radar.
The authors discuss the impact of loop detector parameters, such as loop size and wire
diameter, on detection performance.

3. W. Chen et al. (2018):"Performance Analysis of Inductive Loop Detectors for Vehicle

Detection" This research paper presents an empirical evaluation of the performance of
inductive loop detectors in different traffic scenarios. It investigates the effects of loop
size, installation depth, and traffic flow characteristics on detection accuracy. The study
provides valuable insights into the factors influencing the reliability and sensitivity of
loop detectors.

4. K.R. Rao et.al (2018) "Evaluation of Vehicle Detection Technologies for Traffic Flow
Monitoring"This study compares the performance of various vehicle detection
technologies, including inductive loop detectors, piezoelectric sensors, and video-based
systems. It examines the detection accuracy, cost-effectiveness, and ease of deployment

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 for each technology. The authors highlight the importance of considering specific
operational requirements and traffic conditions when selecting a detection system.
5. A. Bhaskar et al. (2020): "Optimal Design and Performance Evaluation of Inductive
Loop Detectors for Vehicle Classification"This research paper focuses on the design
optimization of inductive loop detectors for vehicle classification. It investigates the
impact of loop dimensions, loop placement, and signal processing techniques on
classification accuracy. The study provides valuable insights for improving the
performance of inductive loop detectors in applications that require vehicle classification.

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 OBJECTIVES

1. Traffic surveys aim to capture data that accurately reflects the real-world traffic situation in
the area.
 It may be counting the number of vehicles using a road or collecting journey time
information

2.Improves Traffic Flow

Traffic flow is the number one priority for local and state governments when addressing traffic.
Improved traffic data collection provides:

 More accurate times for commute.

 Commuting home.
 Peak times.
 Other important information that will help to improve traffic flow on roadways.

Deviations from normal such as accidents, roadwork areas, and congested roads, can help
improve transportation facilities’ efficiency.

Accurate, timely traffic data is crucial to improving travel and transportation options and traffic
flow. This can be done by collecting traffic counts, lane use counts, freeway ramps, and
interchanges. To obtain this data as efficiently as possible, many transportation departments use
traffic data collection systems such as those produced in accordance with the Model Uniform
Traffic Code

3. Helps in Creating Efficient Transportation Systems

The data collected from transportation traffic can create more efficient transportation systems.
This is because it allows the government and other organizations to better understand how people
are using different types of transportation, as well as what kinds of problems they are facing
while traveling. The collected information can be used to determine how people move around in

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different parts of the country, which may help them decide where to place new roads or train
stations.

The data helps create efficient transportation systems by allowing the government and other
organizations to better understand how people use different types of transportation, as well as
what kinds of problems they face while traveling.

4. Helps in Improving the Safety of the Public

Transportation traffic data collection is important because it helps in improving the safety of the
public. The data collected from various sources can be used to determine the causes of accidents,
which will help improve the public’s safety. It also helps in reducing the number of accidents
that take place on roads or highways each year. The amount of time drivers take on the road
before getting into an accident is recorded in these data, which can be crucial for improving
roads with high accident rates.In addition, traffic detection trailers and other devices facilitate
improved infrastructure development and road and highway maintenance decisions. It also
contributes to planning future transportation needs by identifying where improvements should be
made so that most traffic can flow smoothly through certain areas and intersections, thereby
enhancing public safety.

5. Assists in Reducing Pollution

Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions are both exacerbated by the transportation sector.
Transportation traffic data collection is therefore important because it can help reduce pollution.
When there is less congestion on the roads, fewer emissions will be released into the air. Fewer
accidents also contribute to reduced pollution.

The reduction of pollution can be achieved by improving road infrastructure and increasing
public transportation services. This will help alleviate congestion and reduce emissions from
vehicles. It also reduces fuel consumption which in turn reduces greenhouse gas emissions.

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 CHAPTER-3

Traffic Counts and Classification Study Methods

 Vehicle counts and classification data provide traffic agencies with valuable information
regarding the use and occupancy of roadways. Knowing how many vehicles are using
roadways, and at which times, is vital to traffic planning and operations, such as signal
timing. Classification data allows agencies to understand how vehicles are using the
roadway, such as areas with heavy truck or bus traffic, and plan roadways based on the
users. While there are various methods for collecting this data, they differ greatly in
collection and accuracy. Here, a comparison of 6 different counts and classification data
collection methods

1. Manual Count
Manual traffic counts involve employees manually counting the volume of cars they see on the
roadway. The count can occur onsite, with the counter watching the roadway in real-time, or
offsite, with the counter watching a video recording. To record the data, tally sheets or
mechanical counters may be used. When classification data is also being collected, instead of
tallying the number of vehicles, counters may make tallies for the chosen classifications, and
then use the totals to determine volume afterward. Manual counts often require 2 or more
employees to collect data for each lane, and to increase accuracy.

Advantages
 Low processing costs for low-volume roadways
 No installations required for onsite counting
 Multiple simultaneous collections possible for data verification
 No network or connectivity concerns, especially for rural areas.
Disadvantages

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  High manual labor time/costs
 Safety concerns for counters
 Inefficient for high-volume or multi-lane roadways
 Limited vehicle classification
 Human error impacts the accuracy
 Lack of speed data

2. Pneumatic Tube
Pneumatic tubes are taped down on the surface of the roadway, perpendicular to traffic flow.
When a vehicle drives over a pneumatic tube, a burst of air pressure is released and sent through
the tube. The pressure burst closes an air switch, which sends an electrical signal to the counting
software. The tubes are powered by batteries, lead-acid, or gel, making them easy to
move between count sites. Pneumatic tubes are best for short-term counting and classification.
To capture classification and speed data, a second tube is required to collect axle count and
spacing. The tubes should be close enough together that different vehicles will not drive over
them simultaneously. This method is one of the most commonly used counts and classification
methods.
Advantages
 Well known and trusted
 Cost-effective
 Easy to deploy and retrieve
 Many agencies and departments already have pneumatic tubes
Disadvantages
 Not ideal for roadways with high-volumes or slow-moving traffic
 Cannot be placed where vehicles may park
 Can be less effective in various weather conditions, such as rain
 Safety concerns during deployment and retrieval
 Quickly degrade and can be easily damaged

3. Inductive Loop Detectors

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Inductive loop detectors are a ‘loop’ of insulated wire installed in the pavement. A detector unit
passes an electric current through the loop wire, creating an electromagnetic field. When a
conductive metal object moves through this field, a change in energy level occurs, decreasing the
inductance of the loop. This increases the oscillation frequency and sends a pulse to the
controller, marking the presence of a vehicle. While not all single loops can collect classification
data, newer loops or a double loop can classify vehicles and collect speed data.
Advantages
 Well known and commonly used
 Cost-effective, especially if pre-existing
 Double loops can provide speed data
 Work in all lighting and weather conditions
Disadvantages
 Can be damaged by water or street maintenance
 Disruption of traffic and safety concerns during installation and maintenance
 Improper installation or maintenance will lead to inaccurate data.
4. Video Image Detection (VID)

Video image detection (VID) systems use one or more cameras, a microprocessor-based
computer, and software to capture and analyze video footage of a roadway. The cameras are able
to differentiate and classify moving vehicles, and unlike manual count video footage, vehicle
count and classification is analyzed and processed by the accompanying software. At night,
vehicle counts are conducted using headlight detection, and classification data may not be
possible depending on nearby lighting.
Advantages
 No manual labor time after installation
 No disruption of traffic or safety concerns
 More accurate data than previous methods
 Better for high-volume or congested roadways than previous methods
Disadvantages
 Classification data may be limited or not possible at night
 Adverse weather conditions may obscure video footage

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  More expensive than previous methods
 Needs to be installed at an optimal location/height in order to view the road with no
potential obstacles
 Privacy concerns
5. Thermal Imaging Cameras
Like VID, when a vehicle or pedestrian enters a thermal camera detection zone, traffic data is
automatically processed and collected based on dedicated algorithms. Thermal cameras detect
heat signatures, allowing them to accurately detect vehicles, pedestrians, and bicycles while
measuring speed. Based on the heat signature, vehicles are detected and classified accordingly.
Unlike VID, thermal imaging works best at night and in low-light conditions, such as when there
is fog or when pedestrians are obscured by shadows.
Advantages
 No sensitivity to light interference, including darkness, shadow, or sun glare
 No manual labor time after installation
 No disruption of traffic or safety concerns
 No privacy concerns since vehicles and pedestrians are not identifiable
Disadvantages
 More expensive than invasive methods
 Need to be installed at an optimal location/height
 No significant advantages over VID during regular daytime conditions

6. Radar Sensors
Radar technology is relatively new for traffic data, but it offers far more insight and accuracy
than previous methods. There are two main types of radar: doppler and FMCW. Doppler
radar sensors transmit microwave signals, and when there is vehicle motion, the frequency of the
reflected signal changes, allowing sensors to detect the presence and speed of a vehicle. FMCW
radars transmit a signal, and upon reception, measure differences in phase or frequency. Radar
sensors are able to determine vehicle length and use that data to accurately classify vehicles. This
allows radar sensors to offer more classes than the previous methods, including pedestrians and
bikes.

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Side-Firing vs Forward-Firing Radar

There are two primary traffic radar technologies: side-firing and forward-firing. Both use radar to
detect the presence of moving vehicles on the road and are able to classify vehicles based
on vehicle length measurements. Side-firing radar is installed at the side of the roadway, and
sends a radar beam across the road, perpendicular to the traffic flow. While side-firing radars can
collect count and classification data, dual beams are needed in order to collect speed data by
creating a speed trap. Forward-firing radar can be installed at infrastructure along the roadway,
as the radar beams in a forward direction. Multiple beams create a larger field of view, meaning
objects stay in view for much longer. Companies like smartmicro, using forward firing beams,
can detect up to 256 vehicles at once, in up to ten different lanes. One radar sensor can replace
up to 32 loops, making them more efficient for data collection.

SMARTMICRO AUTOMOTIVE RADAR

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 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

-Work under all

weather conditions -More expensive than in-road methods
-No manual labor or safety -Less effective when vehicles are
Both
concerns stopped
Radars
-Lowest power consumption -Still relatively new compared to
-Highest count and classification previous methods
accuracy

-Ideal for use at intersection stop

-Increased risk of obstruction in high-
bars
Side-Firing volume roadways
-Highly effective for roadways
Radar -More limited existing infrastructure for
without high volumes of
installation
congestion

-Highest speed accuracy

Forward- -Larger field of view -Restriction in installation near large
Firing -Easier to install since they are objects such as big signs, bridges, etc
Radar more compatible with existing due to signal reflection.
infrastructure

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Inductive Loop Detectors

 Inductive loop detector

Inductive loop detectors are one kind of traffic sensor used to identify the different
vehicle classes using the induced current from the loop of a wire which is fixed to
the pavement. These are extensively used in highways as they possess very high accuracy
and are economical as well.

Types of detectors

There are various types of detectors available based on their functionality and usage. They are

1. Pressure type,
2. Push button type,
3. Magnetic,
4. Magnetometer,
5. Inductive loop,
6. Radar type,
7. Sonic type,
8. Radiofrequency type and
9. Light emission detectors.

Out of all these Inductive loop and magnetometer types are widely used for various purposes

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 CHAPTER-4

METHODOLOGY:

Inductive loops are very much useful in transmitting the signals by identifying the presence of
vehicles passing through the loop. The entire process in which loop detectors work is depicted
below.

Inductive Loop Mechanism

There are mainly three components for loop detectors that govern the entire mechanism.

 Inductive loop detectors consist of one or more turns of wire in a saw cut slot in the road
surface at the area where vehicles will pass and need to be detected.
 The ends of the loop are connected by a cable to an electronic amplifier which is usually
placed in the controller cabinet.
 When the vehicle moves over the loop and disturbs the loop magnetic field, this, in turn,
is sensed by the amplifier because the loop detector can detect either the presence or
passage of the vehicle and it will introduce a new dimension to the traffic control.

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 Inductive loops can be triggered when a heavy metal object or vehicle passes through the
loop placed over the pavement. When the vehicle moves over the loop or stops over the
loop it will generate a vortex current in the loop and thus decreases its inductance. The
reduced inductance activates the electronics element output relay, which sends a current
to the controller to inform the presence of a vehicle.

Thin Film Inductive Loop Detectors:

 Thin film inductive loop detectors use a flexible film-based material to create a loop,
reducing the thickness and weight of the detector unit. This makes installation easier and
more efficient and reduces the impact on the pavement surface.
 These innovative inductive loop detector technologies demonstrate the potential for new
materials, processes, and technologies to improve the accuracy, reliability, functionality,
and sustainability of traffic control systems

ANEMINATION VEDIO; https://youtu.be/DQfR7a1xctg

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Application of induction loop detector in traffic
managenment system.
1.Traffic engineers use inductive loop detectors.

There are various types of detectors available, out of these inductive loop detectors are widely
used by traffic engineers due to their and higher accuracy and a wide variety of applications. The
most common inductive loop detector applications fall into six categories and are described
below.

2.Isolated intersection control:

Inductive loop detectors can be used for isolated intersections to regulate the flow of traffic
without considering the operation of adjacent street signals.

3.Arterial Intersection control:

Inductive loop detectors used in open arterial networks ensure that the traffic progress along a
roadway by the display of successive green signals for the flow of traffic.

4.Closed Network control:

In closed networks, Inductive loop detectors coordinate a network of intersection signals within a
defined area such as the city’s Central Business District (CBD).

5.Area-wide system control:

In this type of system, all of the traffic signals within an area will be treated as a single system.
Individual signals within this area may be controlled by using isolated intersection network
concepts.

6.Priority vehicle system control:

Inductive loop detectors help in identifying certain vehicles such as ambulances, fire trucks and
buses more continuously through busy intersections.

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7.Pedestrian Signal control:

At busy intersections where pedestrians hardly get any time to cross the signals, inductive loop
detectors can be used in pushbuttons to give the right of way to the pedestrians.

Type of Inductive Loops:

Inductive loops used for traffic signal operations are of three types and are described below.

1.Pre-timed signals:

These types of signals are having fixed cycle lengths irrespective of traffic flow along the arms.

2.Actuated signals:

Based on the actual traffic length, loop detectors will decide the cycle length for the signal.

3.Semi Actuated signals:

These types of signals are a mix of Actuated and pre-timed signals in which the mainstream
traffic will have a fixed cycle length and the cross street will have actuated signal for the
incoming traffic.

Cost of Inductive loop detector

Inductive loop detectors are generally economical and hence they are widely used for various
applications. Typical inductive loop detectors cost around Rs.1000/piece to Rs.10000/piece in
India. Prices may vary from country to country based on the manufacturing and transportation
charges etc.

Thin Film Inductive Loop Detectors:

Thin film inductive loop detectors use a flexible film-based material to create a loop, reducing
the thickness and weight of the detector unit. This makes installation easier and more efficient
and reduces the impact on the pavement surface.

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These innovative inductive loop detector technologies demonstrate the potential for new
materials, processes, and technologies to improve the accuracy, reliability, functionality, and
sustainability of traffic control systems

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CASE STUDY
01.St. Petersburg is a city on Florida’s gulf coast, part of the Tampa Bay area. Known
for its pleasant weather and beaches, it is a popular destination for golfing, boating, and
fishing. Along the waterfront, the city houses multiple renowned theatres and museums.

02. Under the Complete Streets Implementation Plan, adopted in May 2019, the City of
St. Petersburg developed a series of additional performance metrics to asses the
transportation system’s performance in accordance with the new policy. The added
measures would help implement modifications to the city’s transportation systems that
were more balanced among different roadway user types. For the City of St. Petersburg,
collecting and analyzing the required data for decision making was difficult, as the
department’s staffing level had not grown, even with the increased work associated with
the Complete Streets data collection project.
For studying travel time and travel time reliability along certain corridors across St.
Petersburg, staff would have been required to drive the corridors to perform these
studies. It often required two staff members, with one person driving safely while the
other person recorded the drive times; other staff would then review and analyze the
data. It was a labour-intensive process that was subject to human error, with a perception
of the potential for bias. For these reasons, to save staff time for data collection and

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analysis, the city decided to seek an easier approach to automate data collection for
certain traffic metrics.

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 CHAPTER-6

CONCLUSION
Inductive loop vehicle detectors are one of the most popularly used traffic detectors today. The
main reasons for this being they have good sensitivity, long life-span and cost-effectiveness
when compared to other sensing methods based on video image processing, microwave radar,
ultrasonic, optical, laser radar, pressure-switch, magnetometer etc. Civil transportation planning
must be organized and structured to be efficient. Thus, finding a simple, effective, and easy
method to install sensors with good accuracy is not only imperative but vital in the traffic
detecting field. This project presented a possible alternative approach to the traditional format by
using a single inductive loop sensor to detect the class of vehicles from the inductance change in
the loop wire placed under the pavement.

Inductive loop detectors are a valuable technology used in various applications, primarily in
traffic control and vehicle detection systems. These detectors utilize electromagnetic principles
to detect the presence and movement of vehicles by measuring changes in inductance within a
loop of wire embedded in the ground.

The applications of inductive loop detectors are diverse. They are widely used in traffic signal
control systems to monitor traffic flow and optimize signal timings, improving traffic efficiency
and reducing congestion. They are also employed in toll booths, parking facilities, and access
control systems to track vehicle movements, count vehicles, and provide data for effective
management and enforcement.

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 CHAPTER-7

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