Experience Seamless Full Ebook Downloads for Every Genre at textbookfull.

com

Microwave Remote Sensing Tools in Environmental

Science Costas A. Varotsos

https://textbookfull.com/product/microwave-remote-sensing-
tools-in-environmental-science-costas-a-varotsos/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWNLOAD NOW

Explore and download more ebook at https://textbookfull.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

Advances in passive microwave remote sensing of oceans 1st

Edition Raizer

https://textbookfull.com/product/advances-in-passive-microwave-remote-
sensing-of-oceans-1st-edition-raizer/

textboxfull.com

Environmental Remote Sensing in Flooding Areas: A Case

Study of Ayutthaya, Thailand Chunxiang Cao

https://textbookfull.com/product/environmental-remote-sensing-in-
flooding-areas-a-case-study-of-ayutthaya-thailand-chunxiang-cao/

textboxfull.com

Environmental Remote Sensing and GIS in Iraq Ayad M.

Fadhil Al-Quraishi

https://textbookfull.com/product/environmental-remote-sensing-and-gis-
in-iraq-ayad-m-fadhil-al-quraishi/

textboxfull.com

Multisensor Image Fusion and Data Mining for Environmental

Remote Sensing First Edition Bai

https://textbookfull.com/product/multisensor-image-fusion-and-data-
mining-for-environmental-remote-sensing-first-edition-bai/

textboxfull.com
Unmanned Aerial Remote Sensing : UAS for Environmental
Applications 1st Edition David R. Green

https://textbookfull.com/product/unmanned-aerial-remote-sensing-uas-
for-environmental-applications-1st-edition-david-r-green/

textboxfull.com

Polarization Remote Sensing Physics Lei Yan

https://textbookfull.com/product/polarization-remote-sensing-physics-
lei-yan/

textboxfull.com

Advanced Environmental Monitoring with Remote Sensing Time

Series Data and R 1st Edition Alexandra Gemitzi

https://textbookfull.com/product/advanced-environmental-monitoring-
with-remote-sensing-time-series-data-and-r-1st-edition-alexandra-
gemitzi/
textboxfull.com

Hyperspectral remote sensing of vegetation. Volume IV,

Advanced applications in remote sensing of agricultural
crops and natural vegetation Second Edition Huete
https://textbookfull.com/product/hyperspectral-remote-sensing-of-
vegetation-volume-iv-advanced-applications-in-remote-sensing-of-
agricultural-crops-and-natural-vegetation-second-edition-huete/
textboxfull.com

Fundamentals of Satellite Remote Sensing Emilio Chuvieco

https://textbookfull.com/product/fundamentals-of-satellite-remote-
sensing-emilio-chuvieco/

textboxfull.com
Costas A. Varotsos
Vladimir F. Krapivin

Microwave
Remote
Sensing Tools in
Environmental
Science
Microwave Remote Sensing Tools in Environmental
Science
Costas A. Varotsos • Vladimir F. Krapivin

Microwave Remote Sensing

Tools in Environmental
Science
Costas A. Varotsos Vladimir F. Krapivin
National and Kapodistrian Institute of Radio-Engineering and Electronics
University of Athens (NKUA) Fryazino, Russia
Athens, Greece

ISBN 978-3-030-45766-2 ISBN 978-3-030-45767-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45767-9

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the
material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

The problem of global environmental change is the subject of global ecoinformatics

in the context of which information technologies have been developed to ensure the
combined use of various data on the past and present state of the climate-nature-
society system (CNSS). The intensification of anthropogenic effects on the environ-
ment creates a large number of CNSS optimization management problems. How-
ever, the existing tools for the solution of arising problems do not allow effective
technologies to reliably diagnose numerous environmental processes and allow for
the prognosis assessment of possible consequences for the population. Nevertheless,
the recent research results obtained by the authors of this book are encouraging,
since it is expected that the combined use of microwave remote sensing tools and
ecoinformatics methods will contribute to the development of new efficient and
reliable technologies for operational diagnostics and forecasting environmental
processes of both regional and global scales.
The global climate change discussed in recent years in relation to the global
carbon cycle and greenhouse effect is of particular concern. The scientific problems
arising here are related to the overcoming information uncertainties in the context of
the state of the environment assessment and forecasting. Specific theoretical and
applied tasks arise when the spatial image is reconstructed on the basis of monitoring
data that are provided fragmentally over time and space.
This book describes the theoretical and applied aspects of the combined devel-
opment of radiovision and ecoinformatics methods. Particular attention is paid to the
formulation and solution of applicable decision-making tasks based on microwave
remote sensing monitoring data for nature-anthropogenic systems. The most sophis-
ticated stages of the synthesis of the information-modeling systems are highlighted.
Their purpose is to overcome information uncertainties and to allow the adoption of
environmental monitoring systems in the real object or process.
It is suggested to use a range of methodologies, algorithms, and information
technologies to solve specific tasks for the diagnosis of natural environmental
systems to support monitoring of data set that takes into account the specific
conditions of its implementation formation and enables optimization of the obser-
vational data collection and analysis using microwave sensors.
v
vi Preface

The role of microwave radiometry in the study of environment change is taken

into account given the existing scientific results associated with applications of
microwave radiometry for the investigation of vegetation, soil, and water systems,
including characteristics such as soil moisture, snow water equivalent, atmosphere,
and water environment pollution. The main aspects of physical basis of microwave
radiometry are also discussed.
The use of microwave sensors located on satellites requires the elaboration of
remote sensing systems to be developed with acceptable spatial resolution that is
possible due to the effective data processing algorithms. Many scientists are trying to
find answers to this task. The first attempts in understanding these key problems of
microwave remote sensing have recently been made in a number of publications by
Krapivin (2009) and Krapivin et al. (1998b, 2005, 2007, 2015a, 2018a, b; Varotsos
et al. 2019). Certain results of discussions and publications allow the production of a
constructive synthesis of a geoecological information-modeling system (GIMS) of
natural processes by examining a set of spatial scales.
The theoretical part of the book has chapters outlining various algorithms and
models. The applied part of the book addresses the specific problems of the envi-
ronment dynamics. The purpose of the theoretical and applied parts is the develop-
ment of universal information technology for the estimation of the state of the
environment subsystems operating in various climatic and anthropogenic conditions.
The basic idea of the approach proposed in this book is to combine Geographical
Information System (GIS) techniques with modeling technology to estimate the
functionality of the CNSS. This idea is implemented using the new methods for
spatial-temporal reconstruction of incomplete data.
Algorithms, models, methods, criteria, and software are designed to synthesize
GIS with modeling functions for complex estimation of nature-society subsystem’s
state. The newly developed GIMS focuses on systematic observations and evalua-
tion of the environment related to changes attributable to human aspects in environ-
mental subsystems. One of the important operating aspects of an integrated system is
the ability to forecast the capability to respond to adverse environmental changes.
Various applications of GIMS-technology are described. There are chapters
describing an application of GIMS-technology for the study of soil moisture, snow
water equivalent, isolated forest fire areas, and water pollution. Particular attention is
paid to the Aral Sea zone, where ecological catastrophe is taking place.
An important part of the book deals with microwave radiometric methods that are
traditional methods of remotely sensing Earth’s cover from planes and satellites.
Combined use of microwave remote sensing, mathematical modeling of the envi-
ronment, data processing, and decision-making procedures is proposed. This book
aims to focus the reader’s attention on microwave radiometric technology as one of
the most powerful technologies in radiophysics of remote sensing of lakes, seas,
oceans, rivers, agricultural fields, irrigated lands, desert areas, forest areas, wetlands,
snow-covered ground, and ice in the wavelength range from 0.5–2 cm to 21–30 cm.
The basic objective of this book is to develop new approaches to the creation of
environmental monitoring systems based on multidisciplinary technologies in
Preface vii

physics, mathematics, ecology, and informatics. The effectiveness of this approach

has been demonstrated by solving specific tasks from monitoring of natural systems
in different latitudinal and climate zones.
This book addresses the development of models of various processes performed
at CNSS as one of the important scientific directions of global ecoinformatics. A
global CNSS simulation model was created to be used for the study of global
ecodynamics. The CNSS model has a changeability structure that allows different
implementation of its items. It gives the opportunity to assess the significance of
each item for accurately parametrically describing the dynamics of CNSS. The
simulation experiments in the framework of studying the different principal struc-
tures of the CNSS model give the opportunity to compose the global environmental
control system, using standardized means of telecommunications, existing monitor-
ing systems, and big data processing algorithms.
This book is intended for specialists in the fields of Earth aerospace research,
environmental monitoring, climate change study, human and nature interaction
study, geopolitics, and methodology of interdisciplinary research. The book will
be useful for undergraduate and postgraduate students studying these areas of
science.
The book is divided into eight chapters. Each chapter introduces the reader to a
specific subject field and proposes methods for solving tasks that arise in that field.
Each chapter focuses on the areas of application of ecoinformatics methods and
remote sensing tools and the problems encountered in solving specific tasks.

Athens, Greece Costas A. Varotsos

Fryazino, Russia Vladimir F. Krapivin
Contents

1 Basic Concepts of Microwave Radiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Principal Concept of Remote Monitoring Technology . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Microwave Emission from the Water and Land Surfaces . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Brightness Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 Dielectric Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.3 Emissivity Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.4 Microwave Radiation Sensitivity to Variations of Basic
Environmental Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Remote-Sensing Research Platforms and their Equiping . . . . . . . 17
1.5 Microwave Polarization Characteristics of Snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.5.2 Theoretical and Empirical Tools for Studying the
Microwave Irradiation of Snow Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5.3 Experimental Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.5.4 Analysis and Discussion of Empirical Results . . . . . . . . 38
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2 Remote Sensing Technologies and Data Processing Algorithms . . . . . 45
2.1 Microwave Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2 Physical, Theoretical and Experimental Background of Microwave
Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.3 Remote Sensing Technologies in Infrared and Optical Bands . . . . 51
2.4 The Microwave Atmospheric Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.5 Algorithms for the Remote Data Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.5.1 Data Reconstruction Using the Harmonic Functions . . . . 64
2.5.2 Method for Parametric Identification of Environmental
Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.5.3 Differential Approach Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.5.4 Quasi-Linearization Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

ix
x Contents

2.6 Multi-channel Microwave Sensor to Measure Environmental

Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.7 Direct and Inverse Problems of the Microwave Monitoring . . . . . 89
2.8 Interferometry Methods in Geo-Risk Assessment Tasks . . . . . . . . 93
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3 Constructive Method of Vegetation Microwave Monitoring . . . . . . . 99
3.1 The Information-Modeling Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.2 Microwave Monitoring of Soil-Plant Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.3 Links Between Experiments, Algorithms, and Models . . . . . . . . . 107
3.4 Microwave Moel of Vegetation Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.4.1 Two-Level Model of Vegetation Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.4.2 Analytical Model of Vegetation Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.5 Microwave Emissivity of the Soil-Plant Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4 Microwave Remote Sensing of Soil Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.1 Uncertainty and Risk Sources in Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.2 Practical Microwave Radiometric Risk Assessment
of Agricultural Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.3 Geoinformation Monitoring System of Agricultural Function . . . . 129
4.4 Microwave Monitoring of the Soil Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.5 The State of Soils and Water Objects Evaluated by Means of
Radiometry Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5 Vegetation Screening Effect in Remote Sensing Monitoring . . . . . . . 145
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.2 Attenuation of Electromagnetic Waves in Vegetation Media . . . . 147
5.3 Measuring System for Retrieving Attenuation of Microwaves
in the Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.4 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.5 Theoretical Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.6 Conclusion and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6 Microwave Tools for Diagnosing Forest Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.1 Wildfire Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.2 Wildfires and Global Ecodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.2.1 Fires and Forest Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.2.2 Wildfires, Dynamics of the Biosphere, and Climate . . . . 167
6.2.3 Biomass Burning and Atmospheric Chemistry . . . . . . . . 170
6.2.4 Wildfires and Carbon Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.3 Microwave Radiometric Observations of Temperature
Anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Contents xi

6.4 Microwave Monitoring Features of the Wildfires . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

6.4.1 Microwave Model of the Wildfires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.4.2 Forest Fire Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.4.3 SHF-Radiation of Forest Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.4.4 Natural SHF-Radiation of Peat Formations . . . . . . . . . . 187
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7 Space Methods and Monitoring Tools for the Investigation
of Aquatic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.2 Microwave Radiometry in the Remote Monitoring
of the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7.3 Application of Big Data Approach to the Study of Arctic
Basin Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.3.2 Geoecological Information-Modeling System . . . . . . . . . 203
7.3.3 Modeling the Pollutant Dynamics in the Arctic Basin . . . 206
7.3.4 Simulation Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.3.5 Conclusion and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.4 Implication of Geoecological Information-Modeling System
for the Okhotsk Sea Ecosystem Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.4.1 Quick Analysis of the Okhotsk Sea Ecosystem . . . . . . . . 218
7.4.2 Model of the Okhotsk Sea Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
7.4.3 Biocomplexity and Survivability Indicators . . . . . . . . . . 224
7.4.4 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.4.5 Conclusion and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
7.5 The Peruvian Current Ecosystem and Ecoinformatics Tools . . . . . 233
7.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.5.2 The Peruvian Current Ecosystem Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.5.3 Results of Simulation Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
7.5.4 The Effects of Environmental Parameter Variations . . . . 242
7.6 New Scenario for Recovering Water Balance of the Aral Sea . . . . 252
7.6.1 Water Problems in Central Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
7.6.2 Aral-Caspian Regional Water Cycle Model . . . . . . . . . . 253
7.6.3 Remote Sensing Database of the Aral Sea Zone
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
7.7 Mathematical Modelling and Numerical Experiment in the
Geophysical Study of the Aral Sea Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
7.7.1 Model for Structured-Functional Analysis of
Hydrophysical Fields of the Aral Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
7.7.2 Model of the Regional Water Balance of the Aral Sea
Aqua-geosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
7.7.3 Model of the Kara-Bogaz-Gol Gulf Aqua-geosystem . . . 274
7.7.4 Parameterization of the Water Balance in the Aral Sea
Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
xii Contents

7.8 Simulation Experiments and Forecast of the Water Balance

Components of the Aral Sea Hollow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.8.1 Scenario for Potential Directions of Changes in Water
Balance Components of the Aral Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.8.2 Model Estimation of Aral Sea Water Balance Dynamics in
the Case of Preserved Natural-Anthropogenic Situation in
the Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.8.3 Recommendations on the Monitoring Regime of the
Aral Sea Aqua-geosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
7.8.4 Reliability of Scenario Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8 Microwave Remote Sensing Monitoring and Global Climate
Change Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.2 Interactive Character of the Global Climate Problems . . . . . . . . . 297
8.2.1 Anomalous Situations and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
8.2.2 The Global Carbon Cycle and Its Climatic
Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
8.2.3 Sources and Sinks of Carbon Dioxide in the
Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
8.3 Anthropogenic Sources of Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
8.4 Resources of Biosphere and the Greenhouse Effect . . . . . . . . . . . 321
8.5 The Greenhouse Effect and Global Carbon Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
8.6 A Coupled Model of Carbon Dioxide and Methane Global
Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
8.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
8.6.2 Conceptual Scheme of Global Carbon Dioxide and
Methane Global Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
8.6.3 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
8.6.4 Conclusions and Discussion of the Results . . . . . . . . . . . 342
8.7 Microwave Remote Sensing Monitoring and Environmental
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
8.8 Aerosol Radiative Forcing and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
8.8.1 The Problem with Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
8.8.2 Empirical Diagnostics of the Global Climate . . . . . . . . . 353
8.8.3 The Radiative Forcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
8.9 Aerosol Long-Range Transport and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
8.9.1 Aerosol and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
8.9.2 Aerosol Long-Range Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
8.9.3 Numerical Modeling of the Aerosol Long-Range
Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Contents xiii

9 Global Climate Monitoring with Microwave Measurements . . . . . . . 395

9.1 Microwave Monitoring of Disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
9.2 The Interactions of Nature and Human Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
9.3 Natural Disasters Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
9.4 Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Natural Disasters . . . . . . 412
9.5 Environmental Impacts of Natural Disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
9.6 Role of Natural Disasters in the Climate/Biosphere System
Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
9.7 Reality and Expected Changes of the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . 420
9.8 The Current Needs on Ecological-Climatic Modelling . . . . . . . . . 424
9.9 Satellite Observations of Climate-Nature-Society System
Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
9.10 The Earth’s Population Survivability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
9.10.1 Short Description of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
9.10.2 General Description of the Survivability Model . . . . . . . 439
9.10.3 A Scenario-Based Prognosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
9.10.4 Looking to the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Summary

This book discusses the following topics:

• Remote sensing and mathematical modeling for effective forecast of dynamics of
large-scale land territories and water areas behavior.
• Practical applications of microwave radiometric technologies along with other
remote sensing technologies in different environmental situations in hydrology,
geophysics, thermal hazards phenomena, and fire hazard determination in for-
ested and peat bog environments.
• Decision making in complicated conditions.
• Target-oriented models which may be effective in socioeconomic areas.
• The regional and global ecological monitoring functioning based on the funda-
mentals of the noosphere paradigm.
• Development algorithms and informational tools for the study of land covers,
World Ocean, and seas using the microwave radiometric measurements.
• Synthesis of the geoecological information-modeling system (GIMS) as universal
instrument for the study of the evolution processes in the climate-nature-society
system overcoming uncertainties in environmental big data.
This book may be recommended to scientists and students to deepen science and
extend knowledge to the areas described in therein. The book focuses on scientists
developing new information technologies for big data processing that are provided
in fragments in time and space by monitoring systems.

xv
Abbreviations and Acronyms

AAHIS Advanced Airborne Hyperspectral Imaging Spectrometer

AAMU Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University
AATSR Advance Along Track Scanning Radiometer
ABE Arctic Basin Ecosystem
ABL Atmospheric Boundary Layer
ACMR Airborne C-band Microwave Radiometer
ACS Aral-Caspian System
ADEOS Advanced Earth Observing Satellite
AER Atmospheric and Environmental Research
AHRS Altitude and Heading Reference System
AI Aerosol Index
AIMR Airborne Imaging Microwave Radiometer
AIS Airborne Imaging Spectrometer
AMAP Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme
AMMR Airborne Multichannel Microwave Radiometer
AMPR Advanced Microwave Precipitation Radiometer
AMSR-E Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer - Earth Observing
System
AMSU Advanced Microwave Sensing Unit
ANSS Advanced National Seismic System
AOCI Airborne Ocean Color Imager Spectrometer
AOT Aerosol Optical Thickness
APAR Absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation
APHW Asia Pacific Association of Hydrology and Water Resources
ARF Aerosol Radiative Forcing
ARIMA AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average
ARISTI All Russian Institute for Scientific and Technical Information
ASPPR Arctic Shipping Pollution Prevention Regulations
ASTAR Agency for Science, Technology And Research

xvii
xviii Abbreviations and Acronyms

ASTR Along Scanning Trace Radiometer

ASWR Absorbed Short Wave Radiation
ATL Atmospheric Top Layer
ATSR Along Track Scanning Radiometers
AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
AVI Advanced Vegetation Index
AVSS Atmosphere-Vegetation-Soil System
AWSR Airborne Water Substance Radiometer
BAMS Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
BC Black Carbon
BSI Bare Soil Index
BVOC Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds
CALIPSO Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite
Observations
CALRS Cluster Analysis focused on the account of Local Reading of
Sensors
CASI Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager
CASRS Cluster Analysis focused on sings Space of Remote Sensors.
CBSS Climate-Biosphere-Society System
CCM Community Climate Model
CCN Cloud Condensation Nuclei
CCSP Climate Change Science Program
CDNC Cloud Drop Number Concentration
CF Cloud Feedback
CFC ChloroFluoroCarbon
CFFDRS Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System ().
CHRIS Compact High Resolution Imaging Spectrometer
CMCDMC Coupled Model of Carbon Dioxide and Methane Cycles
CMIS Conical Microwave Imager Sounder
CNSS Climate-Nature-Society System
CNSSGSM CNSS Global Simulation Model
CRC Chemical Rubber Company
CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
DA Dust Aerosol
DEAD Dust Entrainment And Deposition
DOE Department Of Energy
DOM Dissolved Organic Matter
ECMWF European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts
EFFIS The European Forest Fire Information System
EIA Earth Incidence Angle
EMAC European Multisensor Airborne Campaign
EMIRAD Electromagnetic Institute Radiometer
EMISAR Electromagnetic Institute SAR
Abbreviations and Acronyms xix

EMW Electro Magnetic Waves

ENSO El Niño–Southern Oscillation
EOF Empirical Orthogonal Functions
EOS Earth Observing System
EOSDIS EOS Data and Information System
ERB Earth Radiation Budget
EPIC Environmental Policies and Institutions for Central Asia
EPIC Earth Polychromatic Imaging Camera
ERS European Remote Sensing
ESA European Space Agency
ESDIS Earth Science Data and Information System
ESS Effective Scattering Surface
ESTAR Electronically Scanned Thin Array Radiometer
EUP Enterprise Unified Process
EVI Enhanced Vegetation Index
EWT Equivalent Water Thickness
EXPRESSO EXPeriment for REgional Sources and Sinks of Oxidants
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FCCC Framework Convention on Climate Change
FDR Fire Danger Rating
FFDI Forest Fire Danger Index
FMC Fuel Moisture Content
FOV Fields Of View
EPAR Fraction of Photosynthetically Active Radiation
FSU Former Soviet Union.
FWI Fire Weather Index
GCOS Global Climate Observation System
GCP Global Carbon Project
GCS Ground Control Station
GeoDAS Geo Data Acquisition System
GHG Green House Gas
GIMS Geoecological Information Modeling System
GIMSAF Geoecological Information Modeling System of Agricultural
Function
GIS Geographical Information System
GMNSS Global Model of the Nature-Society System
GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite
GOME Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment
GOOS Global Ocean Observing System
GPS Global Positioning System
GPS/MET Global Positioning System/METeorology
GSM Global Simulation Model
xx Abbreviations and Acronyms

GST Global Surface Temperature

GTOS Global Terrestrial Observation System
HSCaRS Hydrology, Soil Climatology and Remote Sensing
IASTED International Association of Science and TEchnology for
Development
ICGGM International Centre for Global Geo-eco-information Monitoring
ICLIPS Integrated assessments of CLImate Protection Strategies
ICSU International Council for Science
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IGAC International Global Atmospheric Chemistry
IGBP International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme
IHDP International Human Dimensions Programme
IIASA International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis
IMARC Intelligent Multi-frequency Airborne polarimetric Radar Complex
INDOEX INDian Oceanic EXperiment
INPP Integrated Net Primary Production
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ITBL Internal Thermal Boundary Layer
JCSDA Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation
KBGG Kara-Bogaz-Gol Gulf
KP Kyoto Protocol
LACE Lindenberg Aerosol Characterization Experiment
LAI Leaf Area Index
LERMA Laboratoire d’Études du Rayonnement et de la Matière en
Astrophysique et Atmosphères
LMD Laboratory of Meteorological Dynamics
LOSAC L-band Ocean Salinity Airborne Campaign
LPJ-DGVM Lund-Potsdam-Jena Dynamic Global Vegetation Model
LSAT Land Surface Air Temperature
LUT LookUp Table
LWC Liquid Water Content
LWRF Long-Wave Radiative Forcing
MABL Marine Atmospheric Boundary Layer
MACS Microwave Autonomous Copter System
MATCH Multi-scale Atmospheric Transport and CHemistry
MBGC Modelling of Biogeochemical Global Cycles
MCRS Multi-channel radiometric system
MDA Model-Driven Architecture
MEM Microwave Emission Model
MERIS Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer Instrument
MGCDC Model of Global Carbon Dioxide Cycle
MISR Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer
MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
MR Microwave Radiometer
Abbreviations and Acronyms xxi

MRSD Microwave Remote Sensing Division

MSD Mean-Square-Difference
MSRAMV Measuring System for Retrieving Attenuation of Microwaves in
Vegetation
MW Micro Wave
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NDVI Normalized Differential Vegetation Index
NDWI Normalized Vegetation Water Index
NEHRP National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Programme
NFDRS National Fire Danger Rating System
NH Northern Hemisphere
NMAT Nocturnal Marine Air Temperature
NMHC Non-Methane Hydro Carbons
MN Neural Network
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NPOESS National Polar Orbiter Environmental Satellite System
NPP Net Primary Production
NRI Neural-Robotics, Inc.
NSS Nature-Society System
NVR Nadir Viewing Radar
OCCAM Ocean Circulation and Climate Advanced Model
OCTS Ocean Color and Temperature Sensor
OIP Optical Instruments and Products
OMI Ozone Monitoring Instrument
OSAVI Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index optimized for Agricultural
Monitoring
OSCORA Okhotsk Sea & Cold Ocean Research Association
OSE Okhotsk Sea Ecosystem
OSEM OSE Model
PACE Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem
PAGES PAst Global changES
PALS Passive and Active L and S band system
PAR Photosynthetically Active Radiation
PBL Planetary Boundary Layer
PCE Peruvian Current Ecosystem
PDF Probability Density Function
PIRATA PIlot Research moored Array in the Tropical Atlantic
PMR Passive Microwave Radar
PNW Pacific North-West
POAM Polar Ozone and Aerosol Measurement
POLDER POLarization and Directionality of the Earth's Reflectance
PSR/C Polarimetric Scanning Radiometer/C-band
RAMA Research moored Array for Monsoon Analysis
RAS Russian Academy of Sciences
xxii Abbreviations and Acronyms

RF Radiative Forcing
RIV Residual Income Valuation
RMD Radiation-Moistening Dependence
RMSE Root Mean Square Error
ESAR Radar SAR
SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar
SAT Surface Atmospheric Temperature
SARVI Soil Adjusted Total Vegetation Index
SAVI Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index
SCE Snow Cover Extent
SCIAMACHY SCanning Imaging Absorption 5 spectroMeter for Atmospheric
CHartographY
SCOPE Statewide Communities Of Practice for Excellence
SDI Scalled Shadow Index
SeaWiFS Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor
SES Seismic Electric Signals
SGPE SGPE Southern Great Plains Experiment
SHF Super High Frequency
SL Surface Level
SLAR Side-Looking Airborne Radar
SMASHF Simulation Model of the Aral Sea Hydrophysical Fields
SMMR Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer
SMOS Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity
SPF Soil-Plant Formation
SPOT Systéme Probatoire d’Observation de la Terre
SR Simple Ratio
SRB Surface Radiation Budget
SSAPP Simulation System for the Atmosphere Pollution Physics
SSM/I Spatial Sensor Microwave/Imager
SST Sea Surface Temperature
SVI Spectral Vegetation Index
SWRF Short Wave Radiative Forcings
TAR Third Assessment Report
TEM Transverse Electric and Magnetic
THC ThermoHaline Circulation
TIM Theory-Information Model
TIR Thermal Infrared Radiometer
TOA Top-Of-Atmosphere
TOGA Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere
TOMS Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
TPP Total pure Primary Production
TRITION TRIangle Trans-Ocean buoy Network
TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
TTP Technology Transfer & Promotion
Abbreviations and Acronyms xxiii

UML Unified Modeling Language

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
USGS USA Geological Survey
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
VDC Volt Direct Current
VI Vegetation Indices
VIIRS Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds
VSWR Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
VWC Vegetation Water Content
WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System
WCRP World Climate Research Programme
WDI Water Deficit Index
WEP Water Evaporation/Precipitation
WISE World Information Service on Energy
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WR Wood Remains
WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development
Chapter 1
Basic Concepts of Microwave Radiometry

1.1 Introduction

Super High Frequency (SHF) radiometry began to develop in the 1950s mainly in
the former Soviet Union and the United States, with the aim of studying the emission
of natural and anthropogenic objects in all weather conditions, the composition of
radio-landscapes maps, the development of the recognition methodology for the land
and water surfaces and on their basis the application of the radio-landscape
navigation.
Remote sensing of land surfaces is based on recordings of natural or reflected and
scattered electromagnetic emissions. A possibility to obtain information about the
characteristics of land covers depends on the mechanisms of electromagnetic emis-
sion transformation that are functions of physical and geometrical characteristics of
the surface. Practically, the investigation of land and water objects is accomplished
using the wave range from 0.8 cm to 21 cm. Parameters that govern the intensity and
polarization of microwave emission are dielectric permittivity, temperature, miner-
alization, roughness of earth and water surfaces, vegetation covers, foam formations,
pollutant films on the water surface, etc.
Waves of electromagnetic radiation used for remote sensing of land cover occupy
a light range, infrared range, and radiowaves. Alternative spectrum for remote
sensing is defined by the character of the phenomenon studied and the absorption
and scattering of electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere. Transparency of the
atmosphere for a given band of electromagnetic waves is the principal factor of this
band for remote sensing. Therefore, remote sensing measurements give acceptable
results when multi-channel system is used. One example of these systems is the
Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR) which measures dual-
polarized microwave radiances from Earth’s atmosphere and surface providing
all-weather measurements of sea surface temperature, wind speed, and atmospheric
liquid water and water vapor.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

C. A. Varotsos, V. F. Krapivin, Microwave Remote Sensing Tools in Environmental
Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45767-9_1
2 1 Basic Concepts of Microwave Radiometry

Table 1.1 Different wave- Band Frequency, GHz Wavelength, cm

length bands in the microwave
P 0.3–1 30–100
region
L 1–2 15–30
S 2–4 7.5–15
C 4–8 3.8–7.5
X 8–12.5 2.4–3.8
K 12.5–40 0.5–2.4

The theory and practice of microwave remote observations widely use such basic
notions as brightness and noise temperature a precision of calculation of which
depends on the sensitivity limit of a microwave radiometer. Therefore, a quality of
remote measurement results is defined by the types of passive microwave devices
including their specified physical features and transformation type of a signal
(Janssen 1993; Krapivin and Shutko 1989, 2002, 2012; Pampaloni 2004).
Microwave region extends from 0.3 to 300 GHz frequency in different micro-
wave regions represented by P-, L-, S-, C-, X-, K- bands as indicated in Table 1.1.
Real production of remote sensing monitoring can be received after an inverse
task solution that is usually incorrect due to different errors of radiometric measure-
ments, noises of the used sensors, and inaccuracy of the used functions. Therefore,
remote sensing tools include a stage of radiometer calibration using in-situ test
measurements (Andreas and Wilcox 2016). The quality of microwave radiometer
calibrations determines the accuracy of geophysical retrievals from delivered bright-
ness temperatures after proper inverse task solution. The quality and reliability of
data collected with a microwave radiometer depends on the instrument’s thermal
stability, noise level, and the calibration accuracy (Solheim et al. 1998). The
calibration is needed to convert measured voltages/counts into brightness tempera-
tures (Tb).
Remote sensing methods include two main classes: active and passive. This book
mainly considers passive radiometric tools that analyse natural (heat) radiation
emitted by natural objects. In particular, microwave sensors of different range are
used effectively to solve environmental problems in different applications including
the study of:
• crops, forest cover, snow and ice fields, soil moisture and soil types;
• hydrological processes such as floods;
• surface temperature with detection of anomalies;
• water surface pollution from different sources; and
• productivity of natural and agricultural ecosystems.
Areas of application for microwave remote sensing technologies include the
following themes:
• On land: estimation of soil moisture, identification of crops, mapping of floods,
evaluation of snow characteristics, assessment of parameters in geology, forestry,
urban land use and control of hydrocarbons dynamics.
1.2 Principal Concept of Remote Monitoring Technology 3

• Oceanographic applications include such significant themes as ocean circulation,

shallow-water system evolution depending on the climate change, and ocean
pollution by oil products.
• Meteorological predictions depending on the ocean-state, including ocean circu-
lation and its pollution.
• Assessment of mesoscale atmospheric processes such as cyclones (hurricanes,
typhoons) and profiling of moisture and temperature.
The use of microwave bands for remote sensing monitoring is based on their
all-weathering when the atmosphere is transparent to microwave waves. However, a
reservation that radio-transparency of the atmosphere is relative it must to be made.
For example, the water vapor has an absorption line at 1.35 cm wave-length and
oxygen absorption at 0.5 cm wave-length. At the same time non-compact and short
vegetation weakly absorbs microwave radiation that allows for the realization of
radio-observation through vegetation cover. A microwave attenuation problem in
the vegetation covers is discussed separately.
One of the problems arising under the application of microwave remote sensing
consists of low spatial resolution that is mainly defined by the altitude of the onboard
platform radiometer (Migliaccio and Gambardella 2005; Küchler et al. 2016). It is
well known that spatial resolution of optical sensors is better than microwave
radiometers. Scanning radiometer data processing can allow enhancing the limited
intrinsic spatial resolution. Camps and Tarongí (2010) showed that the radiometric
resolution of noise-injection radiometers can be optimized by dynamically adjusting
the integration times devoted to the three measurements: antenna, antenna plus
noise, and reference load. According to Park et al. (2004) discussed the possibility
to improve spatial resolution of microwave radiometers using Fourier Transform
Method and spatially adaptive Capon beam formulation method (Monjardin et al.
2009). Spatial resolution is an important variable in the processes controlling the
energy and water fluxes at the interface between the Earth’s surface and the atmo-
sphere. For continental to global scale modeling of these land surface processes there
is a need for long term remote sensing–based Tb for validation and data assimilation
procedures. The spatial resolution of thermal infra-red (TIR) measurements ranges
from 1 to 5 km for polar orbiting satellites to 50 km for geostationary platforms. Low
spatial resolution makes it difficult to take into account the land surface roughness
and the heterogeneity of vegetation cover.

1.2 Principal Concept of Remote Monitoring Technology

The elements of SHF-radiometry relate to the 1950s when in the USA and the
Former Soviet Union all-weather control of the Earth begun with both satellite
launches and remote sensing sensors designed for:
• realization of latent all-weather radio observations;
• synthesis of maps for the radio landscapes;
4 1 Basic Concepts of Microwave Radiometry

• development of methods for landscape recognition; and

• radio landscape navigation.
SHF-radiometry is based on the registration of natural emission from natural
objects such as land, water, atmosphere, clouds, reservoirs, vegetation, etc. Various
different SHF-sensors and platforms for their placement have been described in
many publications (Krapivin and Shutko 2012; Krapivin et al. 2019; Woodhouse
2005; Mickelsen 1971).
The solution of the majority of applied problems of present ecodynamics is
difficult because the effective methods of controlling soil-plant formations (SPF)
and ocean ecosystems are insufficiently developed. The need for the creation of new
effective information technology to remote data processing and interpretation is
dictated by different areas of human activity. Many global environmental problems
such as greenhouse effect or natural disasters have principal limitations when their
prognosis is considered. The set of international scientific programs make efforts to
focus investigations on understanding the processes that affect the recognition of the
importance of the physical, biological and chemical environment for life. Unfortu-
nately, the objective of many of them is no realized. It is evident that new paradigms
for studying the Earth and its environs did not develop. One of the most effective
information technologies that have been developed in recent times is Geographic
Information System (GIS) technology. It has great interest as a geographically
oriented computer technology with commercial orientation. But GIS has numerous
limitations associated with its functions to predict environmental dynamics. The
difficulties arising here are related to the complexity of the earth surface and the lack
of detailed data that reflect environmental dynamics. It is corroborated, for example,
by the problems that were formulated within the Global Carbon Project (GCP).
Land surface properties and processes play an important role in the formation of
global ecodynamics including climate change. Land surface is characterized by
many parameters such as soil-plant formation type, leaf area index (LAI), roughness
length, and albedo. Other parameters determine the processes taking into place in the
atmosphere-land system: evaporation, precipitation, and photosynthesis. The Global
Climate Observation System (GCOS) and Global Terrestrial Observation System
(GTOS) supply the LAI with accuracy of
0.2 to 1.0 over large areas. For example,
MODIS gives a 1-km global data product updated once every eight-day period
throughout the year. The Multi-angle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR) supplies
LAI with a special resolution of 1.1 km every 8 days. There are several categories of
methods to estimate LAI (Fang and Liang 2003):
• using the empirical relationship of LAI and vegetation indices (VI);
• through the inversion of a radiative transfer (RT) model;
• lookup table (LUT) method;
• neural network (NN) algorithms.
Each of these approaches has specific parameters as input information of the
method. The VI approach is based on the correlation between LAI and VI. The RT
model inversion method describes the physical processes of radiance transfer in the
1.2 Principal Concept of Remote Monitoring Technology 5

soil-vegetation system. LAI can be determined relatively cheaply and easily using
imagery from various satellites. The most commonly used satellites for determining
LAI are SPOT, NOAA AVHRR and Landsat TM, all with differing spatial and
spectral resolutions. Multi-channel image data, such as TM, and empirical relation-
ship, such as NDVI-LAI relation or SR-LAI relation, are used to estimate LAI.
While multi-angular remote sensing data provide more information for canopy
structure. Particularly, multi-angular data and model inversion method is used to
estimate LAI.
Enormous information about the environmental sub-systems is provided by the
Earth Observing System (EOS). EOS technologies provide the global perspective
needed for an integrated, long-term, scientific, integration of our home planet.
Combined change in the Earth system is inevitable. Numerous environmental
problems associated with global climate change are the subject of debate among
scientists. Unfortunately, the limits of future global changes remain to be assessed.
Kondratyev et al. (2004) proposed a methodology for solving this problem based on
EOS data.
The numerous instruments and platforms hardware of EOS supply the spacious
information really about all sub-systems of the Earth system:
• Clouds, radiation, water vapor, precipitation.
• Oceans (circulation, productivity, air-sea exchange, temperature).
• Greenhouse gases and tropospheric chemistry.
• Land surface (ecosystems and hydrology).
• Ice sheets, polar and alpine glaciers, and seasonal snow.
• Ozone and stratospheric chemistry.
• Volcanoes, dust storms, and climate change.
The EOS Program includes scientific and technical support of the environmental
investigations (Asrar and Dozier 1994; Tianhong et al. 2003). The EOS missions and
EOS Data and Information System (EOSDIS) provide data and infrastructure to
facilitate interdisciplinary research about the Earth system. EOSDIS, as NASA’s
Earth science data system, enables the Earth science data collection, command and
control, scheduling, data processing, and data archiving and distribution services for
EOS missions. The EOSDIS science operations are performed within a distributed
system of many interconnected centers with specific responsibilities for production,
archiving, and distribution of Earth science data products. These data centers provide
search and access of science data and data products to many science data users. The
EOSDIS is managed by the Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS)
which is part of the Earth Science Projects Division under the Flight Projects
Directorate at Goddard Space Flight Center and is responsible for:
• Processing, archiving, and distributing Earth science satellite data (e.g., land,
ocean and atmosphere data products).
• Preparation of tools to facilitate the processing, archiving, and distribution of
Earth science data.
6 1 Basic Concepts of Microwave Radiometry

• Collecting metrics and user satisfaction data to learn how to continue improving
services provided to users.
• Ensuring scientists and the public have access to data to enable the study of Earth
from space to advance scientific understanding and meet societal needs.
But there is no effective technology that enables this infrastructure to adapt to the
basic environmental problems. The GIS and modeling technique being coupled give
such technology. The GIS provides efficient analytical tools for generating prospec-
tive maps by several combination processes in a knowledge driven approach includ-
ing Boolean logic combination, algebraic combination, index overlay combination,
fuzzy logic and vector fuzzy logic combinations, and so on (Givant and Halmos
2009; Anaokar and Khambete 2016). There are several synthetic modeling tech-
niques including standard modeling languages such as Unified Modeling Language
(UML), Model-Driven Architecture (MDA) and Enterprise Unified Process (EUP).
However, these languages do not cover all existing models of environmental systems
and processes. Many models have been created based on other approaches
(Cracknell et al. 2009). Combination of such models with GIS is realized by
means of GIMS-technology (Krapivin et al. 2015; Krapivin and Shutko 1989;
Krapivin et al. 2006).
Over the last few years, the global carbon cycle problem has gained particular
prominence because of the greenhouse effect. Knowledge of the state of the SPF and
ocean ecosystems allows one to have a real picture of the spatial distribution of
carbon sinks and sources on Earth’s surface. As is well known, among the types of
remote sensing techniques, microwave radiometry proves effective for observations
of SPF environmental parameters. However, these observations are a function of
different environmental conditions mainly depending on the SPF type. That is why it
is necessary to develop data processing methods for microwave monitoring that
allow reconstruction of the SPF characteristics with consideration of vegetation
types and that provide the possibility of synthesizing their spatial distribution.
As noted by Chukhlantsev (2006), the problem of microwave remote sensing of
vegetation cover requires the study of the attenuation of electromagnetic waves
(EMW) within the vegetation layer. The solution to the problems arising here is
made possible by the combination of experimental and theoretical studies. The
vegetation cover is usually characterized by varied geometry and additional param-
eters. Therefore, knowledge of the radiative characteristics of the SPF as functions of
time and spatial coordinates can be acquired by means of a combination of in-situ
measurements and models. General aspects of such an approach have been consid-
ered by many authors (Del Frate et al. 2003; DeWitt and Nutter 1988; Dong et al.
2003; Friedi et al. 2002; Lopez-Iturri et al. 2015). But these investigations were
mainly restricted to investigating models describing the dependence of vegetation
medium on environmental properties, as well as the correlation between morpho-
logical and biometrical properties of vegetation and its radiative characteristics.
One of prospective approach to solving the problems arising here is GIMS-
technology (GIMS ¼ GIS[Model). This approach was proposed by Krapivin and
Shutko (1989, 2002, 2012) and developed by Varotsos and Krapivin (2017). A
1.3 Microwave Emission from the Water and Land Surfaces 7

combination of an environmental acquisition system, a model of the functioning of

the typical geo-ecosystem, a computer cartography system, and an artificial intelli-
gence tool will result in the creation of a geo-information monitoring system for the
typical natural element that is capable of solving many arising tasks in remote
monitoring of global vegetation cover. The GIMS-based approach, within the
framework of EMW attenuation by the vegetation canopies, allows the synthesis
of a knowledge basis that establishes the relationships between the experiments,
algorithms and models. The links between these areas have an adaptive character
giving an optimal strategy for experimental design and model structure. The purpose
of this chapter is to explain and assess the application of the GIMS method to
reconstruct the spatial and temporal distribution of the SPF radiative characteristics.

1.3 Microwave Emission from the Water and Land

Surfaces

1.3.1 Brightness Temperature

Practically microwave radiometry uses millimeter, centimeter and decimeter waves.

Really the following waves were used for remote sensing monitoring tasks
(Haarbrink et al. 2011; Krapivin and Shutko 2012): 0.8, 1.35, 1.55, 1.6, 1.9, 2.25,
3, 3.2, 3.4, 4.3, 5.5, 6, 8.5, 18, 21, 43, and 73 cm. The SHF-radiometer captures the
radiant energy emitted by the monitoring object. Usually the SHF-radiometer con-
sists of the following elements:
• antenna section providing spatial and polarization selectivity of measured radiant
energy and its transformation into brightness temperature;
• radiometric receptor enabling it to measure brightness temperature with certain
precision and sensitivity; and
• recording device allowing unique comparison of the emitting element location in
space with its radiation intensity.
The intensity of natural radio-thermal radiation of the subjacent media in micro-
wave range according to Releigh-Jeans approximation and Kirchhoff’s law is
characterized by brightness temperature Tb:

T b ¼ κT eff : ð1:1Þ

where κ ¼ 1-R is the emission coefficient (or absorbing surface ability, or blackness
level), Teff (K) is the effective surface temperature, R is the reflectivity of the ground
at the land-air interface:
8 1 Basic Concepts of Microwave Radiometry

8


>
η cos θ η cos θ
2
<
ηa cos θaa þηg cos θgg
for horizontal polarization,
R¼

a g

2
>
:

η cos θ η a cos θ g

ηg cos θa þηa cos θg
for vertical polarization:
g a

where ηa(ηg) is the intrinsic impedance of the air (ground), θa is the incidence angle,
θg is the transmission angle.
Emissivity coefficient of uniform by depth media restricted by slot surface at the
wavelength λ of the electromagnetic wave is described by means of reflective
Fresnel formulas that include environmental characteristics such as complex dielec-
tric transmissivity ελ ¼ ε0λ  iε00λ , incidence angle θ and are defined by vertical
(V) and horizontal polarizations (H). Microwave radiometers measure emitted
microwave radiation, expressed in terms of brightness temperature, for vertical or
horizontal polarization. The emission of microwave energy is commonly referred to
as microwave brightness temperature (Tb). Brightness temperature, in common case,
can be calculated starting from the following expression:
  
T b ¼ τ ðH, θÞ Rτsky þ ð1  RÞT surf þ T atm ðH, θÞ ð1:2Þ

where τ is the atmospheric transmittance, τsky is the atmospheric downward thermal

emission, Tatm(H,θ) is the upwelling thermal emission of the atmosphere received by
the radiometer, Tsurf is the soil surface thermometric temperature, R is the smooth
surface reflectivity, H is the altitude of the radiometer, and θ is the incidence angle.
Fairly often the brightness temperature is calculated using the following formula:
 
hc 1 2hc2
Tb ¼ ln 1þ ð1:3Þ
kB λ I λ λ5

where λ is wavelength (cm), h is Planck’s constant (6.62607004  1034 m2kg/s,

c ¼ 3  108 m/s is the speed of light (km/s), kB ¼ 1.38  1023 J/K is Boltzmann
constant, Iλ is the spectral radiance of the black body:

2hc2 1
Iλ ¼ 5 exp ðhc=k TλÞ  1
, ð1:4Þ
λ B

where T is the temperature of black body (K).

Figure 1.1 gives an illustrative representation of the physical parameters averaged
by spectrums and wave bands for typical environments such as metallic surface,
water surface, wet and dry soil. All physical bodies with a temperature that does not
equate to absolute zero emit energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. This
energy is reflected, absorbed and reradiated by others bodies. The idealized body that
absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of
incidence, is named as absolute black body. Exact dependence between the emission
1.3 Microwave Emission from the Water and Land Surfaces 9

Fig. 1.1 Averaged SHF-radiation characteristics of typical environments

Fig. 1.2 Example of spatio-temporal Tb variations depending on the rainfall regime. Wavelength
λ ¼ 21 cm

intensity of the black body If, its thermodynamic temperature T (by the Kelvin scale)
and frequency f (Hz) of the emission is given by the Planck law:

2hf 3 1
If ¼  ð1:5Þ
c2 exp hf  1
kB T

Figure 1.2 demonstrates a dependence of radiobrightness temperature on the

rainfall regime. Measurements made just after heavy rainfall show the heterogeneity
of the landscape for monitoring. Existing lowlands are filled with water that results in
a Tb decrease. Figure 1.3 shows microwave emissivity for different surface types
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Still, even so and when you come right down to it, was there
anything so terrible about her writing a celebrity like that and asking
for his picture, if that was all she had done. But was it? Those long-
enveloped gray letters he had found in the fireplace that morning,
after that day in which he had seen her in the car (or thought he had)
—or at least traces of them. And the queer way she had looked at
him when he brought them up in connection with that closed car in
Bergley Place. She had squinted her eyes as if to think, and had
then laughed rather shakily when he charged her with receiving
letters from Raskoffsky, and with his having come here to see her.
His finding them had been entirely by accident. He always got up
early to “start things,” for Beryl was a sleepyhead, and he would start
the fire in the grate and put on the water to boil in the kitchen. And
this morning as he was bending over the grate to push away some
scraps of burnt wood so as to start a new fire, he came across five or
six letters, or the ashes of them, all close together as though they
might have been tied with a ribbon or something. What was left of
them looked as though they had been written on heavy stationery
such as a man of means might use, the envelopes long and thick.
The top one still showed the address—“Mrs. Beryl Stoddard, Care of
——” He was bending over to see the rest when a piece of wood
toppled over and destroyed it. He rescued one little scrap, the half-
charred corner of one page, and the writing on this seemed to be like
that on Raskoffsky’s picture, or so he thought, and he read: “to see
you.” Just that and nothing more, part of a sentence that ended the
page and went to the next. And that page was gone, of course!
But it was funny wasn’t it, that at sight of them the thought of
Raskoffsky should have come to him? And that ride in the park.
Come to think of it, the man in the car had looked a little like
Raskoffsky’s picture. And for all he knew, Raskoffsky might have
then been in town—returned for this especial purpose,—and she
might have been meeting him on the sly. Of course. At the Deming.
That was it. He had never been quite able to believe her. All the
circumstances at the time pointed to something of the kind, even if
he had never been able to tie them together and make her confess
to the truth of them.
 But how he had suffered after that because of that thought! Things
had seemed to go black before him. Beryl unfaithful? Beryl running
around with a man like that, even if he was a great violinist?
Everybody knew what kind of a man he was—all those men. The
papers were always saying how crazy women were over him, and
yet that he should come all the way to C—— to make trouble
between him and Beryl! (If only he could prove that!) But why should
she, with himself and Tickles to look after, and a life of her own which
was all right—why should she be wanting to run around with a man
like that, a man who would use her for a little while and then drop
her. And when she had a home of her own? And her baby? And her
mother and sister right here in C——? And him? And working as
hard as he was and trying to make things come out right for them?
That was the worst of it. That was the misery of it. And all for a little
notice from a man who was so far above her or thought he was,
anyhow, that he couldn’t care for her or any one long. The papers
had said so at the time. But that was the whole secret. She was so
crazy about people who did anything in music or painting or anything
like that, that she couldn’t reason right about them. And she might
have done a thing like that on that account. Personally he wouldn’t
give a snap of his finger for the whole outfit. They weren’t ordinary,
decent people anyhow. But making herself as common as that! And
right here in C——, too, where they were both known. Oh, if only he
had been able to prove that! If only he had been able to at that time!
When he had recovered himself a little that morning after he had
found the traces of the letters in the ashes he had wanted to go into
the bedroom where she was still asleep and drag her out by the hair
and beat her and make her confess to these things. Yes, he had.
There had been all but murder in his heart that morning. He would
show her. She couldn’t get away with any such raw stuff as that even
if she did have her mother and sister to help her. (That sly little Alice,
always putting her sister up to something and never liking him from
the first, anyhow.) But then the thought had come to him that after all
he might be wrong. Supposing the letters weren’t from Raskoffsky?
And supposing she had told the truth when she said she hadn’t been
in the car? He had nothing to go on except what he imagined, and
up to then everything had been as wonderful as could be between
them. Still....
Then another thought had come: if the letters weren’t from
Raskoffsky who were they from? He didn’t know of anybody who
would be writing her on any such paper as that. And if not
Raskoffsky whom did she know? And why should she throw them in
the fire, choosing a time when he wasn’t about? That was strange,
especially after the automobile incident of the day before. But when
he taxed her with this the night of the Bergley Place car incident—
she had denied everything and said they were from Claire Haggerty,
an old chum who had moved to New York just about the time they
were married and who had been writing her at her mother’s because
at that time he and she didn’t have a home of their own and that was
the only address she could give. She had been meaning to destroy
them but had been putting it off. But only the night before she had
come across them in a drawer and had tossed them in the fire, and
that was all there was to that.
But was that all there was to it?
For even as he had been standing there in front of the grate
wondering what to do the thought had come to him that he was not
going about this in the right way. He had had the thought that he
should hire a detective at once and have her shadowed and then if
she were doing anything, it might be possible to find it out. That
would have been better. That was really the way. Yet instead of
doing that he had gone on quarreling with her, had burst in on her
with everything that he suspected or saw, or thought he saw, and
that it was, if anything, that had given her warning each time and had
allowed her to get the upper hand of him, if she had got the upper
hand of him. That was it. Yet he had gone on and quarreled with her
that day just the same, only, after he had thought it all over, he had
decided to consult the Sol Cohn Detective Service and have her
watched. But that very night, coming back from the night conference
with Mr. Harris Cohn, which was the only time he could get to give it,
was the night he had seen the car in Bergley Place, and Beryl near
it.
 Bergley Place was a cross street two doors from where they lived
on Winton. And just around the corner in Bergley, was an old vacant
residence with a deal of shrubbery and four overarching trees in
front, which made it very dark there at night. That night as he was
coming home from Mr. Harris Cohn’s—(he had told Beryl that he was
going to the lodge, in order to throw her off and had come home
earlier in order to see what he might see) and just as he was
stepping off the Nutley Avenue car which turned into Marko Street,
about half a block above where they lived whom should he see—
But, no, let us put it this way. Just at that moment or a moment later
as he turned toward his home an automobile that had been going the
same way he was along Winton swung into Bergley Place and threw
its exceptionally brilliant lights on a big closed automobile that was
standing in front of the old house aforementioned. There were two
vacant corner lots opposite the old house at Bergley and Winton and
hence it was that he could see what was going on. Near the rear of
the automobile, just as though she had stepped out of it and was
about to leave, stood Beryl—or, he certainly thought it was Beryl,
talking to some one in the car, just as one would before parting and
returning into the house. She had on a hooded cape exactly like the
one she wore at times though not often. She did not like hooded
capes any more. They were out of style. Just the same so sure had
he been that it was Beryl and that at last he had trapped her that he
hurried on to the house or, rather, toward the car. But just as he
neared the corner the lights of the car that had been standing there
lightless flashed on for a second—then off and then sped away. Yet
even with them on there had not been enough light to see whether it
was Beryl, or who. Or what the number on the license plate was. It
was gone and with it Beryl, presumably up the alley way and into the
back door or so he had believed. So sure was he that she had gone
that way that he himself had gone that way. Yet when he reached the
rear door following her, as he chose to do, it was locked and the
kitchen was dark. And he had to rap and pound even before she
came to let him in. And when she did there she was looking as
though she had not been out at all, undressed, ready for bed and
wanting to know why he chose to come that way! And asking him not
to make so much noise for fear of waking Tickles...!
 Think of it. Not a trace of excitement. No cape with a hood on. The
light up in the dining-room and a book on the table as though she
might have been reading—one of those novels by that fellow
Barclay. And not a sign about anywhere that she might have been
out—that was the puzzling thing. And denying that she had been out
or that she had seen any car, or anything. Now what would you
make of that!
Then it was, though, that he had burst forth in a fury of suspicion
and anger and had dealt not only with this matter of the car in
Bergley Place but the one in Briscoe Park, the letters in the ashes
and the matter of Naigly seeing her come out of the Deming, to say
nothing of her writing to Raskoffsky for his picture. For it was
Raskoffsky, of course, if it was anybody. He was as positive as to
that as any one could be. Who else could it have been? He had not
even hesitated to insist that he knew who it was—Raskoffsky, of
course—and that he had seen him and had been able to recognize
him from his pictures. Yet she had denied that vehemently—even
laughingly—or that he had seen any one, or that there had been a
car there for her. And she did show him a clipping a week later which
said that Raskoffsky was in Italy.
But if it wasn’t Raskoffsky then who was it—if it was any one. “For
goodness’ sake, Gil,” was all she would say at that or any other time,
“I haven’t been out with Raskoffsky or any one and I don’t think you
ought to come in here and act as you do. It seems to me you must
be losing your mind. I haven’t seen or heard of any old car. Do you
think I could stand here and say that I hadn’t if I had? And I don’t like
the way you have of rushing in here of late every little while and
accusing me of something that I haven’t done. What grounds have
you for thinking that I have done anything wrong anyhow? That silly
picture of Raskoffsky that Alice sent for. And that you think you saw
me in an automobile. Not another thing. If you don’t stop now and let
me alone I will leave you I tell you and that is all there is to it. I won’t
be annoyed in this way and especially when you have nothing to go
on.” It was with that type of counter-argument that she had
confronted him.
 Besides, at that time—the night that he thought he saw her in
Bergley Place—and as if to emphasize what she was saying, Tickles
in the bedroom had waked up and begun to call “Mama, Mama.” And
she had gone in to him and brought him out even as she talked. And
she had seemed very serious and defiant, then—very much more
like her natural self and like a person who had been injured and was
at bay. So he had become downright doubtful, again, and had gone
back into the dining-room. And there was the light up and the book
that she had been reading. And in the closet as he had seen when
he had hung up his own coat was her hooded cape on the nail at the
back where it always hung.
And yet how could he have been mistaken as to all of those
things? Surely there must have been something to some of them. He
could never quite feel, even now, that there hadn’t been. Yet outside
of just that brief period in which all of these things had occurred there
had never been a thing that he could put his hands on, nothing that
he could say looked even suspicious before or since. And the
detective agency had not been able to find out anything about her
either—not a thing. That had been money wasted: one hundred
dollars. Now how was that?

II

The trouble with Gil was that he was so very suspicious by nature
and not very clever. He was really a clerk, with a clerk’s mind and a
clerk’s point of view. He would never rise to bigger things, because
he couldn’t, and yet she could not utterly dislike him either. He was
always so very much in love with her, so generous—to her, at least—
and he did the best he could to support her and Tickles which was
something, of course. A lot of the trouble was that he was too
affectionate and too clinging. He was always hanging around
whenever he was not working. And with never a thought of going any
place without her except to his lodge or on a business errand that he
couldn’t possibly escape. And if he did go he was always in such
haste to get back! Before she had ever thought of marrying him,
when he was shipping clerk at the Tri-State and she was Mr.
Baggott’s stenographer, she had seen that he was not very
remarkable as a man. He hadn’t the air or the force of Mr. Baggott,
for whom she worked then and whose assistant Gil later became.
Indeed, Mr. Baggott had once said: “Gilbert is all right, energetic and
faithful enough, but he lacks a large grasp of things.” And yet in spite
of all that she had married him.
Why?
Well, it was hard to say. He was not bad-looking, rather
handsome, in fact, and that had meant a lot to her then. He had fine,
large black eyes and a pale forehead and pink cheeks, and such
nice clean hands. And he always dressed so well for a young man in
his position. He was so faithful and yearning, a very dog at her heels.
But she shouldn’t have married him, just the same. It was all a
mistake. He was not the man for her. She knew that now. And, really,
she had known it then, only she had not allowed her common sense
to act. She was always too sentimental then—not practical enough
as she was now. It was only after she was married and surrounded
by the various problems that marriage includes that she had begun
to wake up. But then it was too late.
Yes, she had married, and by the end of the first year and a half,
during which the original glamour had had time to subside, she had
Tickles, or Gilbert, Jr., to look after. And with him had come a new
mood such as she had never dreamed of in connection with herself.
Just as her interest in Gil had begun to wane a little her interest in
Tickles had sprung into flame. And for all of three years now it had
grown stronger rather than weaker. She fairly adored her boy and
wouldn’t think of doing anything to harm him. And yet she grew so
weary at times of the humdrum life they were compelled to live. Gil
only made forty-five dollars a week, even now. And on that they had
to clothe and feed and house the three of them. It was no easy
matter. She would rather go out and work. But it was not so easy
with a three-year-old baby. And besides Gil would never hear of such
a thing. He was just one of those young husbands who thought the
wife’s place was in the home, even when he couldn’t provide a very
good home for her to live in.
 Still, during these last few years she had had a chance to read and
think, two things which up to that time she had never seemed to
have time for. Before that it had always been beaux and other girls.
But most of the girls were married now and so there was an end to
them. But reading and thinking had gradually taken up all of her
spare time, and that had brought about such a change in her. She
really wasn’t the same girl now that Gil had married at all. She was
wiser. And she knew so much more about life now than he did. And
she thought so much more, and so differently. He was still at about
the place mentally that he had been when she married him,
interested in making a better place for himself in the Tri-State office
and in playing golf or tennis out at the country club whenever he
could afford the time to go out there. And he expected her to curry
favor with Dr. and Mrs. Realk, and Mr. and Mrs. Stofft, because they
had a car and because Mr. Stofft and Gil liked to play cards together.
But beyond that he thought of nothing, not a thing.
But during all of this time she had more and more realized that Gil
would never make anything much of himself. Alice had cautioned her
against him before ever they had married. He was not a business
man in any true sense. He couldn’t think of a single thing at which he
could make any money except in the paper business, and that
required more capital than ever he would have. Everybody else they
knew was prospering. And perhaps it was that realization that had
thrown her back upon books and pictures and that sort of thing.
People who did things in those days were so much more interesting
than people who just made money, anyhow.
Yet she would never have entered upon that dangerous affair with
Mr. Barclay if it hadn’t been for the awful mental doldrums she found
herself in about the time Tickles was two years old and Gil was so
worried as to whether he would be able to keep his place at the Tri-
State any longer. He had put all the money they had been able to
save into that building and loan scheme, and when that had failed
they were certainly up against it for a time. There was just nothing to
do with, and there was no prospect of relief. To this day she had no
clothes to speak of. And there wasn’t much promise of getting them
now. And she wasn’t getting any younger. Still, there was Tickles,
and she was brushing up on her shorthand again. If the worst came
—
But she wouldn’t have entered upon that adventure that had come
so near to ending disastrously for herself and Tickles—for certainly if
Gil had ever found out he could have taken Tickles away from her—if
it hadn’t been for that book Heyday which Mr. Barclay wrote and
which she came across just when she was feeling so out of sorts
with life and Gil and everything. That had pictured her own life so
keenly and truly; indeed, it seemed to set her own life before her just
as it was and as though some one were telling her about herself. It
was the story of a girl somewhat like herself who had dreamed her
way through a rather pinched girlhood, having to work for a living
from the age of fourteen. And then just as she was able to make her
own way had made a foolish marriage with a man of no import in any
way—a clerk, just like Gil. And he had led her through more years of
meagre living, until at last, very tired of it all, she had been about to
yield herself to another man who didn’t care very much about her but
who had money and could do the things for her that her husband
couldn’t. Then of a sudden in this story her husband chose to
disappear and leave her to make her way as best she might. The
one difference between that story and her own life was that there
was no little Tickles to look after. And Gil would never disappear, of
course. But the heroine of the story had returned to her work without
compromising herself. And in the course of time had met an architect
who had the good sense or the romance to fall in love with and
marry her. And so the story, which was so much like hers, except for
Tickles and the architect, had ended happily.
But hers—well—
But the chances she had taken at that time! The restless and yet
dreamy mood in which she had been and moved and which
eventually had prompted her to write Mr. Barclay, feeling very
doubtful as to whether he would be interested in her and yet drawn
to him because of the life he had pictured. Her thought had been that
if he could take enough interest in a girl like the one in the book to
describe her so truly he might be a little interested in her real life.
Only her thought at first had been not to entice him; she had not
believed that she could. Rather, it was more the feeling that if he
would he might be of some help to her, since he had written so
sympathetically of Lila, the heroine. She was faced by the problem of
what to do with her life, as Lila had been, but at that she hadn’t
expected him to solve it for her—merely to advise her.
But afterwards, when he had written to thank her, she feared that
she might not hear from him again and had thought of that picture of
herself, the one Dr. Realk had taken of her laughing so heartily, the
one that everybody liked so much. She had felt that that might entice
him to further correspondence with her, since his letters were so
different and interesting, and she had sent it and asked him if his
heroine looked anything like her, just as an excuse for sending it.
Then had come that kindly letter in which he had explained his point
of view and advised her, unless she were very unhappy, to do
nothing until she should be able to look after herself in the great
world. Life was an economic problem. As for himself, he was too
much the rover to be more than a passing word to any one. His work
came first. Apart from that, he said he drifted up and down the world
trying to make the best of a life that tended to bore him. However if
ever he came that way he would be glad to look her up and advise
her as best he might, but that she must not let him compromise her
in any way. It was not advisable in her very difficult position.
Even then she had not been able to give him up, so interested had
she been by all he had written. And besides, he had eventually come
to U—— only a hundred and fifty miles away, and had written from
there to know if he might come over to see her. She couldn’t do other
than invite him, although she had known at the time that it was a
dangerous thing to do. There was no solution, and it had only
caused trouble—and how much trouble! And yet in the face of her
mood then, anything had been welcome as a relief. She had been
feeling that unless something happened to break the monotony she
would do something desperate. And then something did happen. He
had come, and there was nothing but trouble, and very much trouble,
until he had gone again.
You would have thought there was some secret unseen force
attending her and Gil at that time and leading him to wherever she
was at just the time she didn’t want him to be there. Take for
example, that matter of Gil finding Mr. Barclay’s letters in the fire
after she had taken such care to throw them on the live coals behind
some burning wood. He had evidently been able to make out a part
of the address, anyhow, for he had said they were addressed to her
in care of somebody he couldn’t make out. And yet he was all wrong,
as to the writer, of course. He had the crazy notion, based on his
having found that picture of Raskoffsky inscribed to Alice, some
months before, that they must be from him, just because he thought
she had used Alice to write and ask Raskoffsky for his picture—
which she had. But that was before she had ever read any of Mr.
Barclay’s books. Yet if it hadn’t been for Gil’s crazy notion that it was
Raskoffsky she was interested in she wouldn’t have had the courage
to face it out the way she had, the danger of losing Tickles, which
had come to her the moment Gil had proved so suspicious and
watchful, frightening her so. Those three terrible days! And imagine
him finding those bits of letters in the ashes and making something
out of them! The uncanniness of it all.
And then that time he saw her speeding through the gate into
Briscoe Park. They couldn’t have been more than a second passing
there, anyhow, and yet he had been able to pick her out! Worse, Mr.
Barclay hadn’t even intended coming back that way; they had just
made the mistake of turning down Ridgely instead of Warren. Yet, of
course, Gil had to be there, of all places, when as a rule he was
never out of the office at any time. Fortunately for her she was on
her way home, so there was no chance of his getting there ahead of
her as, plainly, he planned afterwards. Still, if it hadn’t been for her
mother whom everybody believed, and who actually believed that
she and Alice had been to the concert, she would never have had
the courage to face him. She hadn’t expected him home in the first
place, but when he did come and she realized that unless she faced
him out then and there in front of her mother who believed in her,
that she as well as he would know, there was but one thing to do—
brave it. Fortunately her mother hadn’t seen her in that coat and hat
which Gil insisted that she had on. For before going she and Alice
had taken Tickles over to her mother’s and then she had returned
and changed her dress. And before Gil had arrived Alice had gone
on home and told her mother to bring over the baby, which was the
thing that had so confused Gil really. For he didn’t know about the
change and neither did her mother. And her mother did not believe
that there had been any, which made her think that Gil was a little
crazy, talking that way. And her mother didn’t know to this day—she
was so unsuspecting.
And then that terrible night on which he thought he had seen her in
Bergley Place and came in to catch her. Would she ever forget that?
Or that evening, two days before, when he had come home and said
that Naigly had seen her coming out of the Deming. She could tell by
his manner that time that he thought nothing of that then—he was so
used to her going downtown in the daytime anyhow. But that Naigly
should have seen her just then when of all times she would rather he
would not have!
To be sure it had been a risky thing—going there to meet Mr.
Barclay in that way, only from another point of view it had not
seemed so. Every one went through the Deming Arcade for one
reason or another and that made any one’s being seen there rather
meaningless. And in the great crowd that was always there it was
the commonest thing for any one to meet any one else and stop and
talk for a moment anyhow. That was all she was there for that day—
to see Mr. Barclay on his arrival and make an appointment for the
next day. She had done it because she knew she couldn’t stay long
and she knew Gil wouldn’t be out at that time and that if any one else
saw her she could say that it was almost any one they knew casually
between them. Gil was like that, rather easy at times. But to think
that Naigly should have been passing the Deming just as she was
coming out—alone, fortunately—and should have run and told Gil.
That was like him. It was pure malice. He had never liked her since
she had turned him down for Gil. And he would like to make trouble
for her if he could, that was all. That was the way people did who
were disappointed in love.
But the worst and the most curious thing of all was that last
evening in Bergley Place, the last time she ever saw Mr. Barclay
anywhere. That was odd. She had known by then, of course, that Gil
was suspicious and might be watching her and she hadn’t intended
to give him any further excuse for complaint. But that was his lodge
night and he had never missed a meeting since they had been
married—not one. Besides she had only intended to stay out about
an hour and always within range of the house so that if Gil got off the
car or any one else came she would know of it. She had not even
turned out the light in the dining-room, intending to say if Gil came
back unexpectedly or any one else called, that she had just run
around the corner in the next block to see Mrs. Stofft. And in order
that that statement might not be questioned, she had gone over
there for just a little while before Mr. Barclay was due to arrive with
his car. She had even asked Mr. Barclay to wait in the shadow of the
old Dalrymple house in Bergley Place, under the trees, in order that
the car might not be seen. So few people went up that street,
anyhow. And it was always so dark in there. Besides it was near to
raining which made it seem safer still. And yet he had seen her. And
just as she was about to leave. And when she had concluded that
everything had turned out so well.
But how could she have foreseen that a big car with such powerful
lights as that would have turned in there just then. Or that Gil would
step off the car and look up that way? Or that he would be coming
home an hour earlier when he never did—not from lodge meeting.
And besides she hadn’t intended to go out that evening at all until
Mr. Barclay called up and said he must leave the next day, for a few
days anyhow, and wanted to see her before he went. She had
thought that if they stayed somewhere in the neighborhood in a
closed car, as he suggested, it would be all right. But, no. That big
car had to turn in there just when it did, and Gil had to be getting off
the car and looking up Bergley Place just when it did, and she had to
be standing there saying good-bye, just as the lights flashed on that
spot. Some people might be lucky, but certainly she was not one of
them. The only thing that had saved her was the fact that she had
been able to get in the house ahead of Gil, hang up her cape and go
in to her room and undress and see if Tickles was still asleep. And
yet when he did burst in she had felt that she could not face him—he
was so desperate and angry. And yet, good luck, it had ended in his
doubting whether he had really seen her or not, though even to this
day he would never admit that he doubted.
 But the real reason why she hadn’t seen Mr. Barclay since (and
that in the face of the fact that he had been here in the city once
since, and that, as he wrote, he had taken such a fancy to her and
wanted to see her and help her in any way she chose), was not that
she was afraid of Gil or that she liked him more than she did Mr.
Barclay (they were too different in all their thoughts and ways for
that) or that she would have to give up her life here and do
something else, if Gil really should have found out (she wouldn’t
have minded that at all)—but because only the day before Mr.
Barclay’s last letter she had found out that under the law Gil would
have the power to take Tickles away from her and not let her see him
any more if he caught her in any wrongdoing. That was the thing that
had frightened her more than anything else could have and had
decided her, then and there, that whatever it was she was thinking
she might want to do, it could never repay her for the pain and agony
that the loss of Tickles would bring her. She had not really stopped to
think of that before. Besides on the night of that quarrel with Gil, that
night he thought he saw her in Bergley Place and he had sworn that
if ever he could prove anything he would take Tickles away from her,
or, that he would kill her and Tickles and himself and Raskoffsky
(Raskoffsky!), it was then really that she had realized that she
couldn’t do without Tickles—no, not for a time even. Her dream of a
happier life would be nothing without him—she knew that. And so it
was that she had fought there as she had to make Gil believe he
was mistaken, even in the face of the fact that he actually knew he
had seen her. It was the danger of the loss of Tickles that had given
her the courage and humor and calmness, the thought of what the
loss of him would mean, the feeling that life would be colorless and
blank unless she could take him with her wherever she went,
whenever that might be, if ever it was.
And so when Gil had burst in as he did she had taken up Tickles
and faced him, after Gil’s loud talk had waked him. And Tickles had
put his arms about her neck and called “Mama! Mama!” even while
she was wondering how she was ever to get out of that scrape. And
then because he had fallen asleep again, lying close to her neck,
even while Gil was quarreling, she had told herself then that if she
came through that quarrel safely she would never do anything more
to jeopardize her claim to Tickles, come what might. And with that
resolution she had been able to talk to Gil so convincingly and
defiantly that he had finally begun to doubt his own senses, as she
could see. And so it was that she had managed to face him out and
to win completely.
And then the very next day she had called up Mr. Barclay and told
him that she couldn’t go on with that affair, and why—that Tickles
meant too much to her, that she would have to wait and see how her
life would work out. And he had been so nice about it then and had
sympathized with her and had told her that, all things considered, he
believed she was acting wisely and for her own happiness. And so
she had been. Only since he had written her and she had had to say
no to him again. And now he had gone for good. And she admired
him so much. And she had never heard from him since, for she had
asked him not to write to her unless she first wrote to him.
But with how much regret she had done that! And how
commonplace and humdrum this world looked at times now, even
with the possession of Tickles. Those few wonderful days.... And that
dream that had mounted so high. Yet she had Tickles. And in the
novel the husband had gone away and the architect had appeared.
 XIV
THE “MERCY” OF GOD
“Once, one of his disciples, walking with him in the garden, said:
‘Master, how may I know the Infinite, the Good, and attain to union
with it, as thou hast?’ And he replied: ‘By desiring it utterly, with all thy
heart and with all thy mind.’ And the disciple replied: ‘But that I do.’
‘Nay, not utterly,’ replied the Master, ‘or thou wouldst not now ask how
thou mayst attain to union with it. But come with me,’ he added, ‘and I
will show thee.’ And he led the way to a stream, and into the water,
and there, by reason of his greater strength, he seized upon his
disciple and immersed him completely, so that presently he could not
breathe but must have suffocated and drowned had it not been his
plan to bring him forth whole. Only when, by reason of this, the
strength of the disciple began to wane and he would have drowned,
the Master drew him forth and stretched him upon the bank and
restored him. And when he was sufficiently restored and seeing that
he was not dead but whole, he exclaimed: ‘But, Master, why didst thou
submerge me in the stream and hold me there until I was like to die?’
And the Master replied: ‘Didst thou not say that above all things thou
desirest union with the Infinite?’ ‘Yea, true; but in life, not death.’ ‘That
I know,’ answered the Master. ‘But now tell me: When thou wast thus
held in the water what was it that thou didst most desire?’ ‘To be
restored to breath, to life.’ ‘And how much didst thou desire it?’ ‘As
thou sawest—with all my strength and with all my mind.’ ‘Verily. Then
when in life thou desirest union with the All-Good, the Infinite, as
passionately as thou didst life in the water, it will come. Thou wilt know
it then, and not before.’”
Keshub Chunder Sen.

A FRIEND of mine, a quite celebrated neurologist, psychiatrist,

and interpreter of Freud, and myself were met one night to
discuss a very much talked-of book of his, a book of clinical studies
relative to various obsessions, perversions and inhibitions which had
afflicted various people in their day and which he, as a specialist in
these matters, had investigated and attempted to alleviate. To begin
with, I should say that he had filled many difficult and responsible
positions in hospitals, asylums, and later, as a professor of these
matters, occupied a chair in one of our principal universities. He was
kindly, thoughtful, and intensely curious as to the workings of this
formula we call life, but without lending himself to any—at least to
very few—hard and fast dogmas. More interesting still life appeared
to interest but never to discourage him. He really liked it. Pain, he
said, he accepted as an incentive, an urge to life. Strife he liked
because it hardened all to strength. And he believed in action as the
antidote to too much thought, the way out of brooding and sorrow.
Youth passes, strength passes, life forms pass; but action makes all
bearable and even enjoyable. Also he wanted more labor, not less,
more toil, more exertion, for humanity. And he insisted that through,
not round or outside, life lay the way to happiness, if there was a
way. But with action all the while. So much for his personal point of
view.
On the other hand he was always saying of me that I had a touch
of the Hindu in me, the Far East, the Brahmin. I emphasized too
much indifference to life—or, if not that, I quarreled too much with
pain, unhappiness, and did not impress strongly enough the need of
action. I was forever saying that the strain was too great, that there
had best be less of action, less of pain.... As to the need of less pain,
I agreed, but never to the need of less action; in verification of which
I pointed to my own life, the changes I had deliberately courted, the
various activities I had entered upon, the results I had sought for. He
was not to be routed from his contention entirely, nor I from mine.
Following this personal analysis we fell to discussing a third man,
whom we both admired, an eminent physiologist, then connected
with one of the great experimental laboratories of the world, who had
made many deductions and discoveries in connection with the
associative faculty of the brain and the mechanics of associative
memory. This man was a mechanist, not an evolutionist, and of the
most convinced type. To him nowhere in nature was there any
serene and directive and thoughtful conception which brought about,
and was still bringing about continually, all the marvels of structure
and form and movement that so arrest and startle our intelligence at
every turn. Nowhere any constructive or commanding force which
had thought out, for instance, and brought to pass flowers, trees,
animals, men—associative order and community life. On the
contrary, the beauty of nature as well as the order of all living, such
as it is, was an accident, and not even a necessary one, yet
unescapable, a condition or link in an accidental chain. If you would
believe him and his experiments, the greatest human beings that
ever lived and the most perfect states of society that ever were have
no more significance in nature than the most minute ephemera. The
Macedonian Alexander is as much at the mercy of fate as the lowest
infusoria. For every germ that shoots up into a tree thousands are
either killed or stunted by unfavorable conditions; and although,
beyond question, many of them—the most—bear within themselves
the same power as the successful ones to be and to do, had they the
opportunity, still they fail—a belief of my own in part, albeit a hard
doctrine.
One would have thought, as I said to Professor Z—— at this
meeting, that such a mental conviction would be dulling and
destructive to initiative and force, and I asked him why he thought it
had not operated to blunt and destroy this very great man. “For the
very reasons I am always emphasizing,” he replied. “Pain, necessity,
life stung him into action and profound thought, hence success. He is
the person he is by reason of enforced mental and physical action.”
“But,” I argued, “his philosophy makes him account it all as
worthless, or, if not that, so fleeting and unstable as to make it
scarcely worth the doing, even though he does it. As he sees it,
happiness and tribulation, glory and obscurity, are all an accident.
Science, industry, politics, like races and planets, are accidents.
Trivial conditions cause great characters and geniuses like himself to
rest or to remain inactive, and mediocre ones are occasionally
permitted to execute great deeds or frustrate them in the absence of
the chance that might have produced a master. Circumstances are
stronger than personalities, and the impotence of individuals is the
tragedy of everyday life.”
“Quite so,” agreed my friend, “and there are times when I am
inclined to agree with him, but at most times not. I used to keep
hanging in one of my offices, printed and framed, that famous
quotation from Ecclesiastes: ‘I returned, and saw under the sun that
the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet
bread to the wise, nor yet favor to men of skill; but time and chance
happeneth to them all.’ But I took it down because it was too
discouraging. And yet,” he added after a time, because we both fell
silent at this point, “although I still think it is true, as time has gone on
and I have experimented with life and with people I have come to
believe that there is something else in nature, some not as yet
understood impulse, which seeks to arrange and right and balance
things at times. I know that this sounds unduly optimistic and vainly
cheerful, especially from me, and many—you, for one, will disagree
—but I have sometimes encountered things in my work which have
caused me to feel that nature isn’t altogether hard or cruel or
careless, even though accidents appear to happen.”
“Accidents?” I said; “holocausts, you mean.” But he continued:
“Of course, I do not believe in absolute good or absolute evil,
although I do believe in relative good and relative evil. Take
tenderness and pity, in some of their results at least. Our friend Z
——, on the contrary, sees all as accident, or blind chance and
without much if any real or effective pity or amelioration, a state that I
cannot reason myself into. Quite adversely, I think there is something
that helps life along or out of its difficulties. I know that you will not
agree with me; still, I believe it, and while I do not think there is any
direct and immediate response, such as the Christian Scientists and
the New Thought devotees would have us believe, I know there is a
response at times, or at least I think there is, and I think I can prove
it. Take dreams, for instance, which, as Freud has demonstrated, are
nature’s way of permitting a man to sleep in the presence of some
mental worry that would tend to keep him awake, or if he had fallen
asleep, and stood in danger to wake him.”
I waived that as a point, but then he referred to medicine and
surgery and all the mechanical developments as well as the
ameliorative efforts of life, such as laws relating to child labor,
workingmen’s compensation and hours, compulsory safety devices
and the like, as specific proofs of a desire on the part of nature,
working through man, to make life easier for man, a wish on her part
to provide him, slowly and stumblingly, mayhap, with things helpful to
him in his condition here. Without interrupting him, I allowed him to
call to mind the Protestant Reformation, how it had ended once and
for all the iniquities of the Inquisition; the rise of Christianity, and how,
temporarily at least, it had modified if not entirely ended the
brutalities of Paganism. Anesthetics, and how they had served to
ameliorate pain. I could have pointed out that life itself was living on
life and always had been, and that as yet no substitute for the flesh
of helpless animals had been furnished man as food. (He could not
hear my thoughts.) The automobile, he went on, had already
practically eliminated the long sufferings of the horse; our anti-
slavery rebellion and humane opposition in other countries had once
and for all put an end to human slavery; also he called to mind the
growth of humane societies of one kind and another, that ministered
to many tortured animals. And humane laws were being constantly
passed and enforced to better if not entirely cure inhuman
conditions.
I confess I was interested, if not convinced. In spite of life itself
existing on life, there was too much in what he said to permit any
one to pass over it indifferently. But there came to my mind just the
same all the many instances of crass accident and brutish
mischance which are neither prevented nor cured by anything—the
thousands who are annually killed in railroad accidents and industrial
plants, despite protective mechanisms and fortifying laws compelling
their use; the thousands who die yearly from epidemics of influenza,
smallpox, yellow fever, cholera and widespread dissemination of
cancer, consumption and related ills. These I mentioned. He
admitted the force of the point but insisted that man, impelled by
nature, not only for his own immediate protection but by reason of a
sympathy aroused through pain endured by him, was moved to
kindly action. Besides if nature loved brutality and inhumanity and
suffering why should any atom of it wish to escape pain, and why in
those atoms should it generate sympathy and tears and rejoicing at
escape from suffering by man, why sorrow and horror at the
accidental or intentional infliction of disaster on man by nature or
man?
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

textbookfull.com