MAIN AUTHOR

Eurospeak Language Schools Ltd. – United Kingdom

Gonzalo Galian-Lopez

CONTRIBUTORS
Valodu Mape Sia - Latvia
Enita Sprince
Vija Mežīte
Sarmīte Švalbe

Babel Idioma y Cultura S.L. – Spain

Sandra Iglesias Pérez
Boelo van der Pool

University of Pitesti - Romania

Magdalena Danuta Pruneanu
Aurora-Tatiana Dina
Ana Cristina Lemnaru

Polaris Ltd. - Italy

Sandra Gutierrez
Francesco Pomponio
Carla Orsatti

Edited by Gonzalo Galian-Lopez

The European Commission support for the production of this publication does not
constitute an endorsement of the contents which reflects the views only of the
authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may
be made of the information contained therein.

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication 1

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication
2
Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication
3
 1 INTRODUCTION
We mostly use a kind of knowledge that is unconscious to speak our first lan-
guage. We don’t think very much about how to say what we are thinking, we
just say it. When we learn a second language, we often develop a very differ-
ent kind of knowledge, one that is conscious and requires mental effort. For
example, we may know that, in English, verbs in the present simple end in -s
in the third person singular. It is very difficult to use this kind of knowledge
while speaking because accessing this knowledge in real time isn’t easy and
because we need to pay attention to many other aspects of the conversation.
As a result, we can end up having correct knowledge of the language but not
being able to use it during fluent communication.

Experts in this area of second language acquisition today agree that to over-
come this difficulty we need large amounts of practice. According to this
view, practice at using our grammatical knowledge can help us gradually
build a knowledge system which can allow us to speak our second language
the way we speak our first language: fluently, spontaneously, and largely ef-
fortlessly. Practice can include a range of activities, from the more traditional
exercises typical of a grammar book through more communicative class-
room activities to conversations outside the classroom. All these kinds of
practice can be beneficial in different ways. The aim of this handbook is to
familiarise teachers of a second language with the way that different kinds
of practice activities can help learners develop grammatical knowledge for
spontaneous communication (GKSC).

2. BACKGROUND
WHY SHOULD GRAMMAR BE TAUGHT?

Grammar lays the foundation for effective communication; it is at the heart

of spoken and written communication and it allows us to express ourselves
with clarity. Some scholars in the past, notably Stephen Krashen, argued that
the best way to acquire grammar in second language learning environments

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

4
is through participation in meaningful interaction and not through formal
instruction. This would mirror the process of language acquisition children
go through when they acquire their first language. Today, however, research-
ers widely agree that there is a place for explicit instruction of grammatical
rules in second language learning contexts. This is, in part, because many
features of the grammatical system would likely never be learnt without ex-
plicit instruction. Additionally, second language learners don’t generally have
enough time to learn a second language the way they learnt their first lan-
guage. Grammar instruction can help make the most of the little time sec-
ond language learners have at their disposal.

THE AIMS OF GRAMMAR TEACHING

Grammar lessons can sometimes be frowned upon by teachers and learners

who have experienced grammar being taught for its own sake. Teachers and
learners alike can sometimes associate gram-
“What language mar learning with the study of a metalan-
teachers seek in gram- guage which has little impact on the develop-
mar lessons is to help ment of their communicative abilities. They
learners at-ain a good know that while traditional approaches to
command of the grammar learning can be effective towards
grammar so that they common classroom activities and procedures
can speak fluently and (e.g., written exercises and tests), they often
accurately when using fail to prepare learners for participation in real
the second language time communication outside the classroom.
in natural, spontane-
The aim of a grammar lessons is not to de-
ous communication.”
velop an understanding of complex rules for
the majority of language teachers. What language teachers seek in gram-
mar lessons is to help learners attain a good command of the grammar so
that they can speak fluently and accurately when using the second language
in natural, spontaneous communication. In other words, the goal of lan-
guage teachers is to help learners develop what will be termed grammatical
knowledge for spontaneous communication (GKSC) throughout this hand-
book. This can be defined as grammatical knowledge that can be accessed

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

5
with speed and cognitive ease for the purposes of participating in real-time
communication.

For the most part, teachers aim to help learners develop GKSC through the
provision of three key elements: explicit information about the grammar (i.e.,
grammar rules), practice, and corrective feedback. All these elements can
make significant contributions towards the development of GKSC. The pro-
vision of explicit information sets an initial foundation that learning can build
upon, and corrective feedback can then help fine-tune this foundation at a
later stage. The main focus of this handbook, however, is on practice, which
can help towards bridging the gap between initial knowledge of grammar
rules and the ability of using such rules during real-time communication.

The aim of practice in a grammar lesson is to help learners become adept at

using the grammar rules they learn in class during everyday communication
so that they can express their ideas successfully and be effective communi-
cators. More specifically, the practice activities provided in a grammar lesson
aim to help learners make the transition between a learning stage where a
new grammar rule is merely understood and a more advanced stage where
the grammar rules can be used quickly and correctly in real-time communi-
cation. There is a wide range of practice activities available to language
teachers, and different kinds of practice activities can contribute to the de-
velopment of GKSC in different ways. This handbook aims to help language
teachers understand how different kinds of grammar practice activities can
help encourage the development of GKSC.

REASONS FOR DEVELOPING GKSC IN THE CLASSROOM

There are many reasons why developing GKSC in the classroom is important.
One obvious reason is that, in the case of many learners, the ability to com-
municate fluently and accurately is perceived as the end goal of instruction.
This is particularly true where adult learners are concerned; when they attend
a language course, they often do so to improve their ability in communi-
cating in the second language (e.g., because they have a job that requires
use of the second language or because they have relocated in a country

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

6
where the second language is spoken). Thus, a learner who has developed
ample knowledge of grammar rules but little ability in using such rules upon
demand may feel that their course has failed their needs.

A more practical reason why developing GKSC should be seen as a prime

item on the agenda of language teachers is that the time available for use of
the second language outside the classroom is often scarce. For many learn-
ers, class time constitutes the bulk of their exposure to and interaction in the
second language. This means that if the development of GKSC is left to take
care of itself through language use outside the classroom, the learner may
not have sufficient opportunities for practice for GKSC to materialise.

BACKGROUND RESEARCH: CURRENT PRACTICES AND PERSPEC-

TIVES

At the outset of this project, we decided to do some background research to

find out about current practices and perspectives in relation to this area of
second language instruction. We carried out two small-scale pieces of re-
search. The first was a questionnaire which we administered to 26 second
language teachers. The second was a modest survey of popular coursebooks
used in EFL (English as a foreign language) teaching contexts. Below, our
main findings are reported.

Our first piece of research was a questionnaire which sought to find out
about language teachers’ practices and views with respect to our area of in-
terest, and this was administered to 26 second language teachers. Our main
findings are presented below:

1 Our respondents recognised the value of providing explanation of

grammar rules and more so the value of practice, as the time they re-
ported allocating to practice activities was more than double the time
they reported allocating to the provision of grammar rules.

2 Our respondents were moderately confident about their students’

ability to use the grammar rules they learn in class during real-time
communication. This was not in line with our expectations, as we had

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

7
 predicted a more negative response. However, it was also clear that our
respondents felt more confident about their students’ ability to under-
stand grammar rules and use them in simple grammar exercises than
about their ability to use them for the purposes of real-time oral com-
munication. The data also showed that our respondents identified
some scope for improvement in this area of language teaching.

3 Our respondents perceived practice as a key factor in the development

of GKSC, which suggests that they are well aware of the tight relation-
ship between practice and the development of GKSC. Our data also
suggested that while teachers do not feel powerless about this aspect
of language teaching, they do not feel as confident as they arguably
should.

The second piece of research involved an analysis of grammar practice activ-

ities in popular EFL coursebooks. Coursebooks for second language learners
have come a long way in recent decades, and their design is often informed
by research findings. However, the teachers involved in this project advised
that coursebooks don’t always include the kind of practice which would be
optimal for promoting the development of GKSC. For that reason, we de-
cided to also investigate the extent to which coursebooks can be expected
to foster the development of GKSC and thus prepare learners for the de-
mands of real-time communication.

In our research, we examined how many of the grammar practice activities

included in a series of EFL coursebooks could be considered fit for the pur-
pose of developing GKSC. To this end, we made a distinction between
knowledge-oriented activities and targeted communicative activities. The
former category refers to grammar practice activities which are provided for
the purposes of reinforcing and consolidating knowledge of newly presented
grammar rules. Targeted communicative activities, on the other hand, are
defined as activities which create opportunities for learners to use target
grammatical structures during meaningful, communicative spoken interac-
tion. These activities are more likely to help learners develop the ability to use
targeted grammatical structures in real-time communication, i.e., these are
more likely to help learners develop GKSC.

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

8
Our analysis included the following five coursebook series: English File 4th
edition (Oxford University Press, 2019); Impact (National Geographic, 2017);
Straightforward 2nd edition (Macmillan, 2012); Global (Macmillan, 2010); and
Empower (Cambridge University Press, 2015). For each of these series, we an-
alysed three coursebooks, one at a lower level (generally CEFR A2-B1), one at
an intermediate level (generally CEFR B1), and one at a higher level (generally
CEFR B2). We coded and classified all grammar practice activities into one of
two categories: (1) knowledge-oriented activities and (2) targeted communi-
cative activities.

Our findings were in line with our expectations, as 109 activities were coded
as knowledge-oriented activities while only 43 activities were coded as tar-
geted communicative activities. This means that there was roughly a one to
three ratio of targeted communicative activities to knowledge-oriented ac-
tivities. Although this was infrequent, we also found that some of the lessons
in the coursebooks did not include any targeted communicative activities at
all.

Our findings show a marked bias in the coursebooks analysed towards

knowledge-oriented activities. We fully recognise the value of such activities
and hold the view that establishing a solid understanding of grammar rules
should be a priority in grammar lessons. However, we also believe that a
higher presence of targeted communicative activities would be helpful in
making this knowledge more useable in everyday communication.

Overall, a clear picture emerges from this data:

While teachers recognise the need for learners to develop GKSC and are
aware that learners need practice in order to achieve this, learners don’t
seem to be making the gains they should in this area of language learn-
ing. This may be, in part, associated to the lacks in targeted communica-
tive practice activities in language coursebooks.

The present work aims to help second-language teachers become better

equipped to incorporate more targeted communicative practice activities
onto their courses. It is hoped that this will have an impact on the learning

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

9
outcomes delivered on their courses and that this will help their learners be-
come more effective communicators.

3. HOW TO PROMOTE THE DEVELOPMENT

OF GRAMMATICAL KNOWLEDGE FOR
SPONTANEOUS COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION

This section will describe how language teachers can help learners develop
GKSC in the classroom. It will explain that establishing explicit knowledge
should be the starting point towards the de-

“…explicit knowledge is velopment of GKSC. This is because explicit

what makes it possible for knowledge is what makes it possible for

learners to form correct sentences with tar-
learners to form correct
get grammatical structures during practice.
sentences with target
As learners continue using explicit
grammatical structures
knowledge to form new sentences over the
during practice. As learn-
course of practice, GKSC can gradually de-
ers continue using explicit
velop. It should be noted, however, that ex-
knowledge to form new
plicit knowledge does not have much value
sentences over the course
for learners on its own, and that what can ul-
of practice, GKSC can
timately promote the development of GKSC
gradually develop.”
is the practice that follows the initial estab-
lishment of explicit knowledge. This section
will also discuss what forms of practice can promote the development of
GKSC and how different forms of practice can contribute to this develop-
ment. It will also explain that, in general, teachers can promote the develop-
ment of GKSC by sequencing practice activities so that less attention is avail-
able for focus on target grammatical features as practice unfolds.

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

10
EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE

INTRODUCTION

Explicit knowledge is conscious knowledge about features of the language,

often learned through formal classroom instruction. This knowledge can be
verbalised and shared with others. For example, a learner might know and
be able to state that we often use will or be going to followed by a verb to
indicate that something will happen in the future. It is important to note that
although a learner might have this knowledge, they may be unable to access
it during real-time communication and therefore make mistakes. This is be-
cause the learner needs to carry out cognitive operations in order to access
this knowledge (i.e., access is not automatic) and they may not be able to do
this under time pressure. This would explain why learners can often apply
grammar rules when enough time is available (e.g., in a grammar exercise or
a writing assignment) but not when there is some time pressure (e.g., oral
communication).

THE ROLE OF EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF

GKSC

Explicit knowledge is important because this is what can guide learners to

construct accurate sentences at the initial stages of learning. When a new
grammatical feature is first introduced in class, explicit knowledge is what
allows learners to use that feature accurately during grammar practice activ-
ities. Therefore, one requirement for grammar practice activities to be valua-
ble to learners is that explicit knowledge of the target grammatical feature is
available. If explicit knowledge has not been established prior to the begin-
ning of grammar practice activities, there is no reason why the learners
should be expected to use the target feature with accuracy during practice.
Explicit knowledge can guide learners during practice in two ways. First, it
can allow learners to generate correct sentences at the formulation stage, i.e.
the language production stage when the learners decide what words to use
to express their message. Second, it can allow learners to monitor their

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

11
speech in real-time and make adjustments as necessary, for example, when
a learner notices a mistake in their output and this triggers self-correction.

HOW TO HELP LEARNERS DEVELOP EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE

Teachers can help learners develop explicit knowledge in multiple ways. They
may, for example, provide metalinguistic explanations in the form of gram-
mar rules. They may also opt for more learner-centred approaches where the
learner is stimulated to work out grammar rules by themselves (e.g., guided-
discovery, consciousness raising activities, etc.). Experienced teachers often
use different approaches for different target grammatical features, and
sometimes a combination of approaches. What is important at this stage is
that learners achieve a clear understanding of the grammatical feature and
develop solid explicit knowledge, and this is what teachers should consider
when choosing deciding on their approach.

WHAT MAY PREVENT LEARNERS FROM DEVELOPING EXPLICIT

KNOWLEDGE

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

12
Grammar rules can sometimes be long and complex. They are often ex-
pressed in burdensome language and, at times, they require prior
knowledge of more basic elements of the grammar or specialised terminol-
ogy. While learners who are more experienced or have a stronger academic
background can generally cope with such grammar rules, less experienced
learners may not always be able to achieve a clear understanding. Even if
some understanding is achieved, rules that are overly long and complicated
may be inaccessible during practice activities, as there is a limit to how much
information a learner can manipulate in their working memory at any given
time. This can have an impact on the learner’s ability to implement the gram-
mar rules during practice activities. For this reason, we hold the view that the
grammar rules provided before practice should generally be concise and
transparent.

DEVELOPING GKSC

INTRODUCTION

Once learners have developed explicit knowledge, practice can start. Gram-
mar practice includes a variety of activities which can help towards the de-
velopment of GKSC in different ways (e.g., some activities are better suited
for the early stages of learning whereas others are more suitable for later
stages). In what follows, a distinction will be made between two kinds of
grammar practice activities: knowledge-oriented and targeted communica-
tive activities. The function of knowledge-oriented activities is to help consol-
idate accurate explicit knowledge in preparation for later practice. The func-
tion of targeted communicative activities is to give learners the practice they
need in preparation for spontaneous, fluent communication in everyday set-
tings. That is, knowledge-oriented activities are provided as preparation for
targeted communicative activities, and targeted communicative are pro-
vided as preparation for communication outside the classroom. We believe
that both kinds of activities are necessary for practice to achieve its aims and
that considering this distinction can help teachers select and sequence prac-
tice activities in such a way that the learning outcomes are maximised.

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

13
KNOWLEDGE-ORIENTED ACTIVITIES

Knowledge-oriented activities are simple, often mechanical grammar exer-

cises typically provided after a new grammar rule has been presented. They
can be helpful at this learning stage, as they give learners a chance to fine-
tune and reinforce their explicit knowledge of grammar rules.

Examples of these activities include the “controlled” practice activities usually

available on the grammar pages of a language coursebook (e.g., gapfill exer-
cises). These activities can be helpful for a learning stage where a new gram-
mar rule has only been initially presented. At this stage, learners don’t gener-
ally have a full, solid understanding of the new grammar rule. While some
explicit knowledge may have been established, this knowledge can often be
fragile, inaccurate, and inaccessible in real time. For these reasons, errors can
be expected during performance. Knowledge-oriented activities can be
helpful at this learning stage, as they give learners a chance to fine-tune and
reinforce their explicit knowledge of grammar rules. This can serve as prepa-
ration for subsequent practice activities which involve time pressure and
other demands inherent in real-time, spoken communication.

DESIGN FEATURES OF EFFECTIVE KNOWLEDGE-ORIENTED ACTIVI-

TIES

This section will provide an overview of some design features that can help
make knowledge-oriented activities effective. The first consideration is that
these activities should create opportunities for the learner to use the target
grammatical feature repeatedly. This is because repeated use of the target
feature can gradually help consolidate the relevant explicit knowledge as
well as make it more easily accessible during practice. Hence, repetition is
encouraged for these activities. That said, activities should not become overly
repetitive, as this could compromise the learner’s engagement. For this rea-
son, it may be appropriate to spread these activities over several lessons.

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

14
These activities should also provide opportunities for corrective feedback.
This is because, as explained above, errors are likely at this stage of practice,
and corrective feedback can help learners adjust their understanding and

thus lead to more accurate explicit knowledge. Activities like gapfill exercises
are ideal for this stage of practice because they allow teachers to give feed-
back to all learners simultaneously. Simple oral drills performed as a whole
class may also be appropriate for this stage of practice.

Finally, knowledge-oriented
activities should not involve “…knowledge-oriented activities
much time pressure. This is should generally provide opportuni-
because access to the rele- ties for repeated use of target gram-
vant explicit knowledge may matical features, sufficient thinking
still be slow and effortful, and time to apply the relevant explicit
so the learner may not be knowledge, and opportunities for
able to access it under time corrective feedback.”
pressure conditions. Written
grammar activities generally
involve a low degree of time pressure, and so they can make ideal
knowledge-oriented activities, especially for the earliest stages of practice.
Oral activities like grammar drills which involve simple manipulation of
grammatical features can also be suitable as long as they offer enough time
to access the relevant explicit knowledge.

Summing up, knowledge-oriented activities should generally provide oppor-

tunities for repeated use of target grammatical features, sufficient thinking
time to apply the relevant explicit knowledge, and opportunities for correc-
tive feedback. Written activities often make excellent candidates for this
stage of practice, but some oral activities can also be helpful as long as they
allow the learner to access their explicit knowledge and can offer corrective
feedback. Introducing oral activities after some initial written activities can
help make this stage of practice more varied and bring in a progressive level
of difficulty.

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

15
WHAT COULD MAKE KNOWLEDGE-ORIENTED ACTIVITIES UNSUC-
CESSFUL?

There are a number of factors which can impede knowledge-oriented activ-

ities from achieving their best outcomes. Some of these are related to the
design features described in the previous section (i.e., lack of opportunities
for repetition and feedback or too much time pressure). There are other fac-
tors beyond these. An obvious one is that the necessary explicit knowledge
should be available before practice begins. If this knowledge is too fragile or
inaccurate, the learner may be forced to rely on their own resources to com-
plete the practice activities, rendering the activity futile. Another factor which
was touched upon in the previous section is that the activities should not be-
come excessively repetitive, as repetitive activities may make learners disen-
gaged. Although some repetition is desirable, this should not come at the
expense of learner engagement. Additionally, knowledge-oriented activities
should not be too easy or too difficult; they should be pitched at the learners’
level of proficiency while stimulating and challenging them within reason.
Care should be taken to avoid obscure examples and sentences which re-
quire an understanding of complex language in (e.g., more advanced vocab-
ulary). Finally, lack of sufficient practice can also be problematic. Since the
aim of these activities is to allow learners to fine-tune and consolidate their
explicit knowledge, it follows that learners should work on these activities un-
til a low error rate has been achieved.

THE LIMITATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE-ORIENTED ACTIVITIES

Knowledge-oriented activities can play a fundamental role towards the aims

of practice in grammar teaching. They can initiate the process of bridging
the gap between initial explicit knowledge of grammatical rules and the ul-
timate objective of developing the ability to apply that knowledge during flu-
ent, spontaneous communication. However, these activities cannot be ex-
pected to bring about the development of such an ability on their own.
Hence, although we see these activities as a good starting point and advo-
cate them for the purposes of fine-tuning and consolidating explicit
knowledge at the initial stages of practice, we believe that if the aim of

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

16
practice in a grammar lesson is to promote the development of GKSC,
knowledge-oriented activities, on their own, are bound to be ineffective. In
our view, these activities need to be followed by other more communicative
and demanding activities. These activities are referred to as targeted com-
municative practice activities and will be the focus of the next section.

TARGETED COMMUNICATIVE PRACTICE

INTRODUCTION

Once explicit knowledge is accurate and robust, the targeted communica-

tive practice stage can begin. Targeted communicative activities can help
learners develop the ability to use target grammatical structures with speed
and with minimal attention and effort. Hence, these are the activities which
can truly prepare learners for the demands of fluent, spontaneous commu-
nication in everyday settings.

As this section will show, the aim of preparing learners for this kind of com-
munication requires that these activities mirror more closely the demands of
real-time communication, e.g., involving more time pressure and a shift to-
wards more communicative interaction.

WHAT ARE TARGETED COMMUNICATIVE PRACTICE ACTIVITIES?

The term targeted communicative practice covers a range of activities

which are designed to engage learners in using target grammatical features
during meaningful, communicative interaction.

Many activities typical of communicative language teaching designed to be

carried out in pairs or small groups fall under this category. Examples of these
activities are the oral activities often provided as freer practice in language
coursebooks. These range from simpler activities such as communicative
drills to more complex activities such as interviews, information-gap activi-
ties, or opinion-sharing activities. These activities aim to help students

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

17
develop the ability to use the grammatical structures they learn in class in
real-time communication, i.e., to help bridge the gap between the outcomes
of knowledge-oriented activities and the demands of everyday communica-
tion outside the classroom. The focus of this handbook is on practice de-
signed to help learners improve their oral skills, and so, this section will only
include activities which involve oral communication.

DESIGN FEATURES OF EFFECTIVE TARGETED COMMUNICATIVE AC-

TIVITIES

As mentioned above, for GKSC to develop over the course of practice, it is

essential that learners engage in using their explicit knowledge of the target
grammatical feature. For that reason, targeted communicative practice
should continue to encourage use of this explicit knowledge. As the learner
continues to access and deploy this knowledge, the cognitive effort and
speed this task require can be expected to gradually decrease.

The aim of targeted communicative activities is to prepare learners for fluent,

spontaneous communication in everyday situations. The ideal kind of prac-
tice towards that aim would comprise activities which create opportunities
for language use within settings which resemble those of everyday commu-
nication outside the classroom. However, such activities don’t make a good
choice at the beginning of the targeted communicative practice stage. This
is because such activities are fairly demanding of attention at different levels
beyond use of grammar (e.g., content of the message, vocabulary, pronunci-
ation, etc.), and the learner may be deprived of attentional resources which
they very much need for focus on the target grammatical feature at this
stage of practice. This would interfere with the aim of encouraging learners
to use their explicit knowledge to form correct sentences containing the tar-
get form.

Before learners can perform practice activities which resemble real-time

communication in everyday situations, they need to develop the ability to ac-
cess their explicit knowledge when only some attention is available for focus
on the grammar. To this end, teachers can sequence practice activities in

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

18
such a way that attentional demands increase as practice unfolds so that less
and less attention is available for focus on the target grammatical feature.

At the beginning of this stage, activities which are less demanding of atten-
tion can be provided so that the learner can focus on the target grammatical
feature with ease. Subsequently, activities can become more complex so that
less attention is available for focus on grammar. This can push the learner to
develop the ability of accessing their explicit knowledge under increasingly
demanding conditions, and thus serve as preparation for the demands of flu-
ent everyday communication.

The attentional demands of an activity can be moderated by several factors.

One important factor is time pressure. As time pressure increases, the time
available to access the relevant explicit knowledge decreases and so does the
attention available for focus on form. A second important factor is related to
the degree of spontaneity the activity requires. At higher degrees of sponta-
neity, more attention will be needed for focus on the content of the message
and attention available for focus on the target form will decrease. Another
factor is the focus of the activity. The focus of an activity can sometimes be to
practise using a target feature, whereas at other times an activity may be de-

Things to compare
signed to provide practice of a target
feature while also pursuing other com-
1 a pencil, a ball, a garden rake municative goals. Activities which have
2 an elephant, a snake, a crocodile
the lesser requirement of practising a
3 a television, a lamp, a chair
4 a rock, a mountain, a river
target feature are likely to consume less
5 a car, an aeroplane, a bicycle attention than activities which also have
other communicative goals. These are
Figure 1: Prompt for a communicative some examples of factors which can
drill (from Ur, 1988)
moderate the attention

al demands of an activity, but there are other factors in addition to these –

some of which will be introduced below. Considering these factors can help
teachers sequence activities so that the learner has less and less attention
available as practice unfolds. Over time, this can push the learner to develop
the ability of accessing their explicit knowledge when only minimal attention
is available.

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

19
Early targeted communicative practice should include activi-
ties less demanding of attention, which can be achieved by
having, for example, less time pressure, lower spontaneity, and
a narrower focus on form. Activities such as communicative
Encouraging
drills can make a suitable candidate for this stage of practice.
the develop-
Communicative drills are activities which provide opportunities
ment of GKSC
for repeated use of target features within meaningful yet sim-
ple messages. For example, the activity presented in Figure 1 Activities like the
communicative drill
can be used to provide practice of comparatives and superla- above can encourage
tives. In this activity, the learners are asked to make compari- the development of
GKSC but to a limited
sons of their choice between several items (e.g., an elephant is
extent only. This sug-
heavier than a snake). gests that, as prac-
tice unfolds, a shift
There are several reasons why such an activity can serve as suit- towards more com-
plex activities is
able practice for learners towards the beginning of the tar- needed.
geted-oriented practice stage. For a start, the activity is fairly
simple: it can be completed with simple vocabulary and gram-
For practice to be ef-
matical forms, and it does not require production beyond the fective, it should rep-
sentence level. Because the focus of the activity is largely on us- licate the processing
conditions which
ing the target structure, sufficient attention should be available
learners will encoun-
for focus on form and thus the learner has better chances of ter while performing
being able to construct correct sentences with the target fea- in the real world.

ture. On the other hand, there is a departure from the simplicity

of knowledge-oriented activities in several ways. For one thing, As targeted commu-
the learner is responsible for creating the content of their mes- nicative practice pro-
gresses, activities
sage. While the learner has to use the target structure to com- should mirror more
plete the activity successfully, they are free to choose how to closely oral commu-
nication in everyday
use it (e.g., which adjectives to use). Hence, use of the target settings.
structure is no longer mechanical and predictable. The activity
is also designed to be performed orally, and so some time pres-
sure will be involved. Together, these features make this a more
complex activity than knowledge-oriented activities, and one
that can begin to push the learner towards developing the ability to access
their explicit knowledge during real-time communication.

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

20
Simple communicative activities such as communicative drills can help take
the learner one step further so that they can access their explicit knowledge
with more speed and less effort. This, however, is not enough preparation for
spontaneous, real-time oral communication. There are several reasons for
this: real-time communication is, among other things, time pressured, mes-
sage-focused, and more complex in the sense that it involves a number of
tasks beyond using explicit knowledge (e.g., content creation, message or-
ganisation, and input decoding). Thus, activities like the communicative drill
above can encourage the development of GKSC but to a limited extent only.
This suggests that, as practice unfolds, a shift towards more complex activi-
ties is needed.

It is also widely believed among researchers that, for practice to be effective,

it should replicate the processing conditions which learners will encounter
while performing in the real world, i.e., practice should be transfer appropri-
ate. According to this view, if grammar practice activities replicate the pro-
cessing conditions involved in oral communication in everyday settings, then
the knowledge resulting from class activities will be more likely to transfer to
performance outside the classroom. This suggests that the practice cycle
should involve a stage where activities mirror the processing conditions
learners will find in real-time oral communication outside the classroom. As
mentioned, such practice can be expected to be overly demanding at the
initial phases of practice, but it may be more appropriate as targeted com-
municative practice shifts towards more complex activities.

It follows from the above that as targeted communicative practice pro-

gresses, activities should mirror more closely oral communication in every-
day settings. Such activities can be expected to provide better preparation
for learners to be ready for the attentional demands they will find in the tar-
get communicative scenarios while making it more likely that what they
practise in class is transfer appropriate. Accordingly, these are the activities
which may ultimately provide the preparation learners need in order to be
able to access their grammatical knowledge during spontaneous communi-
cation outside the classroom. As such, these activities play a fundamental
role towards achieving the aims of practice.

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

21
The activities used at this final stage of practice would continue to provide
opportunities for practice of targeted grammatical features, but they should
have their main focus on the message and encourage the use of language
as a means towards an outcome. That is, language use during these activities
should be meaningful and purposeful. This would make them closer to real-
time communication in everyday situations. An example of a communicative
activity suitable as practice of comparatives is provided in Figure 2.

Prepare to tell your partner This activity requires oral production at the
about two cities you have visited. discourse level with a range of linguistic ele-
Compare the two cities so that
your partner can decide which
ments in addition to comparatives, involves
one they would prefer to visit. some time pressure, and focuses primarily on
Consider, for example:
the message. Together, all these features
- cost
- weather should make this activity more demanding of
- size attention than a simpler activity like a com-
- transport
municative drill while making it closer to eve-
- cleanliness
- safety ryday oral communication.
- accommodation
- food It should be noted that the role of explicit
- comfort
knowledge is as important as ever during
Use comparatives.
this final stage of practice, as explicit
knowledge is what allows learners to con-
Figure 2: Instructions for a com-
municative activity struct correct sentences with the target fea-
ture. This is important because learners can
sometimes get too absorbed in the conversation during these activities and
forget that the main aim is to improve their grammar. Accordingly, teachers
should continue encouraging learners to use explicit knowledge. This can be
done in multiple ways, e.g., by instructing learners to use the target structure,
providing corrective feedback, and encouraging learners to monitor their
speech or their partners’ speech.

One shortcoming of these activities is that they are less likely to elicit re-
peated production of the target feature. Knowledge-oriented activities and
simpler targeted communicative activities such as communicative drills of-
ten require frequent use of the target feature (e.g., in every sentence), but the
same is not true for more advanced targeted communicative activities. Some
design features can maximise the chances that target features are used (e.g.,

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

22
through instructions or planning time), but even then, many learners may
only produce a handful of sentences containing the target feature. Accord-
ingly, it seems reasonable that these activities should form a significant por-
tion of the targeted communicative practice stage.

SEQUENCING TARGETED COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES

As this section has shown, there are many kinds of targeted communicative
activities. The activities presented in figures 1 and 2 above, for example, are
very different from each other, as can be seen in the commentary provided
below each activity. This brings the question of which activities are most suit-
able for earlier and later stages of practice and, more broadly, how different
activities should be sequenced over the course of practice. As said in the in-
troduction of this section, this handbook presents the view that practice ac-
tivities should be sequenced in such a way that attention available for focus
on the target feature gradually decreases over the course of practice.

There are a number of factors that can contribute to how much attention is
available for focus on the target feature during practice. A selection of key
factors which can affect how much attention is available for focus on the tar-
get feature during practice is presented in Figure 3 below.

1 Time pressure: Low time pressure vs. high time pressure

2 Planning time: Planning vs. no planning time

3 Degree of spontaneity: Rehearsed/structured vs. spontaneous per-

formance

4 Prompts for target feature: Provided vs. not provided

5 Focus of the activity: Focus on form mostly vs. focus on form and
message

6 Range of linguistic features: Narrow (use of the target feature mostly)

vs. wide (use of a range of linguistic forms)

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

23
 7 Discourse level: Production at sentence level vs. production at dis-
course level

Figure 3: Key factors which can determine the attentional demands of practice activities

Each of the features provided Figure 3 and their relationship with attentional
demands are explained below.

1 Time pressure: Low time pressure vs. high time pressure

The first feature refers to the degree of time pressure the activity involves.
Some activities involve less time pressure and thus allow a degree of thinking
time (e.g., a simple communicative drill whose primary purpose is to practise
a target feature), whereas other activities (e.g., a two-way dialogue with a
more communicative purpose) may convey a higher sense of urgency and
more time pressure. Low time pressure can be expected to place lower de-
mands on attention than high time pressure.

2 Planning time: Planning vs. no planning time

The second feature is related to the provision of planning time. If learners are
provided time to plan their speech, lower demands will be placed on atten-
tion during performance than if planning time is not provided. This is be-
cause the message will have been partly conceptualised and so more atten-
tion is available for focus on the target form at the stage where the message
is formulated.

3 Degree of spontaneity: Rehearsed/structured vs. spontaneous per-

formance

The third feature is related to degree of spontaneity, and it can overlap to a

certain extent with the second feature above (planning time). If the degree
of spontaneity required is lower, more attentional resources will be available
for focus on the target feature. The degree of spontaneity could be lower, for
example, if the activity provides opportunities for rehearsal or if the talk to be
produced is pre-structured (e.g., when prompts for the content are supplied).
The less scaffolding the activity provides, the more spontaneous and thus de-
manding on attention the activity will be.

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

24
 4 Prompts for target feature: Provided vs. not provided

It is possible to design activities in such a way that prompts for the target
feature are provided or absent. If prompts for the target feature are provided,
the learners’ task will be simpler and thus they will generally need fewer at-
tentional resources to supply the target feature with accuracy.

5 Focus of the activity: Focus on form mostly vs. focus on form and
message

The fifth feature is related to the focus of the activity. Sometimes, the focus
of a targeted communicative activity is to practise using a target feature and
there is little purpose beyond that. At other times, an activity may be de-
signed to give practice of a target feature while also having other communi-
cative goals. Activities which have the lesser requirement of practising the
target feature are likely to consume less attention than activities which also
have other communicative goals.

6 Range of linguistic features: Narrow (use of the target feature

mostly) vs. wide (use of a range of linguistic forms)

Some activities only require a very narrow range of linguistic features (e.g., a
communicative drill), whereas others require a much wider range. An activity
that only requires a narrow range of linguistic features can be expected to
place lower demands on attention than an activity that requires use of a
wider range of linguistic features.

7 Discourse level: Production at sentence level vs. production at dis-

course level

The last feature is related to the discourse level. Some activities only require
production of short and simple sentences. Others require the production of
a longer and more complex speech which involves considering aspects of
communication such as discourse organisation and pragmatics. The higher
discourse level an activity requires, the bigger the cognitive burden it will
place on attention.

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

25
Although this selection of factors is not exhaustive, an effort has been made
to include the features which we consider to be likely to have the most sig-
nificant effect on the burden an activity places on attention. It is hoped that
this will offer language teachers guidance towards assessing the nature of
different activities and towards making an informed selection and sequenc-
ing of practice activities.

WHAT COULD MAKE TARGETED COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES UN-

SUCCESSFUL?

There are a number of factors which can compromise the effectiveness of

targeted communicative activities. Some factors which can often be prob-
lematic will be discussed in what follows. Sometimes the targeted commu-
nicative practice stage can be very brief, and as a result it may not include
sufficient opportunities for practice. When this happens, learners may be
given either activities which are too simple and cannot be expected to pro-
mote GKSC to a desirable degree, or activities which are too complex for the
learners. In the latter case, the learners may not have the means to use their
explicit knowledge during the activity (e.g., because attentional demands are
too high) and this may lead to either omission of the target feature or inac-
curacies. For these reasons, we would like to emphasise that the sequence of
targeted communicative practice should be carefully designed and planned
for in line with the learners’ needs and competences, ensuring that they will
be able to perform well over the course of practice and that opportunities will
be created for a meaningful degree of GKSC to develop.

Another common issue during targeted communicative activities is that

learners can sometimes engage in communication in such a way that they
focus exclusively on the message and neglect their language use. This is
problematic for obvious reasons: the learner is not using their explicit
knowledge and thus practice cannot be expected to support the develop-
ment of GKSC. As explained above, we hold the view that learners should
continue using their explicit knowledge throughout the stage of targeted
communicative practice. As such, we deem it essential that learners are

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

26
aware of the aims of practice activities and are prepared to monitor their
speech and apply their explicit knowledge during performance.

4. SAMPLE ACTIVITIES AND PROCEDURES

INTRODUCTION

In this section, some sample activities will be presented with the aim of giv-
ing the reader a better understanding of what targeted communicative
practice activities can look like and how they may be sequenced. The assess-
ment grid presented in Table 1 below will be used to assess the demands
each activity places on attention and thus how much attention is available
for focus on the target feature of the activity.

Table 1: Assessment grid

Activity feature Attentional demands

Low Medium High

1 Time pressure

2 Planning time

3 Degree of spontaneity

4 Prompts for target feature

5 Focus of the activity

6 Range of linguistic features

7 Discourse level

This assessment grid can be helpful towards understanding the nature of

different targeted communicative practice activities and towards sequenc-
ing activities in such a way that attention available for focus on the target
feature decreases over the course of practice. It can also help teachers ensure
that a range of activities are provided over the course of practice, with easier
activities towards the beginning and more complex activities as practice

Teaching Grammar for Spontaneous Communication

27
unfolds. One caveat is that there is no reason to believe that all features 1-7
above will contribute equally to how much attention an activity will consume.
The purpose of the grid is thus indicative.

ACTIVITY 1

Level: Upper-intermediate
Target feature: Reporting verbs
Materials:
Read the following sentences and try to memorise them. Then cover the
sentences and try to report what each person said from your memory.

a Martin: Shall I help you with the a Martin offered…

dishes?
b Anna asked…
b Anna: Did you go to work yesterday?
c Jessica apologised…
c Jessica: We are sorry but we can’t
help you. d Carol told James…

d Carol: James, switch off the light e Eric promised…

please.

e Eric: I won’t tell anyone your secret.

Assessment of attentional demands:

Activity feature Attentional demands

Low Medium High

1 Time pressure X

2 Planning time X

3 Degree of spontaneity X

4 Prompts for target feature X

5 Focus of the activity X

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28
 6 Range of linguistic features X

7 Discourse level X

Attentional demands rating: Low

ACTIVITY 2

Level: Upper-intermediate
Target feature: Obligation and permission
Materials:
Think about your secondary school. Look at the sentences below and de-
cide how you could complete them. Then, share your sentences with your
partner. How similar or different were your experiences at school?

When I was at school…

a … we weren’t allowed…

b … we were forced…

c … the teachers didn’t let us…

d … we were supposed…

e … the teachers made us…

Assessment of attentional demands:

Activity feature Attentional demands

Low Medium High

1 Time pressure X

2 Planning time X

3 Degree of spontaneity X

4 Prompts for target feature X

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 5 Focus of the activity X

6 Range of linguistic features X

7 Discourse level X

Attentional demands rating: Low

ACTIVITY 3

Level: Pre-intermediate
Target feature: Past simple
Materials:
Tell your partner about your last holiday. Talk about the following:

a Where and when you went

b Who you went with

c What you did there

d Where you stayed

e What you enjoyed

f What you didn’t enjoy

Remember to use the past simple correctly when you speak to your part-
ner.

Assessment of attentional demands:

Activity feature Attentional demands

Low Medium High

1 Time pressure X

2 Planning time X

3 Degree of spontaneity X

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 4 Prompts for target feature X

5 Focus of the activity X

6 Range of linguistic features X

7 Discourse level X

Attentional demands rating: Medium

ACTIVITY 4

Level: Intermediate
Target feature: Past tenses
Materials:
Note about materials: Reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press from English
file inte mediate students' book by Latham-Koenig, C., Oxenden, C., & Lambert, J. © Oxford
University Press 2019.

Assessment of attentional demands:

Activity feature Attentional demands

Low Medium High

1 Time pressure X

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31
 2 Planning time X

3 Degree of spontaneity X

4 Prompts for target feature X

5 Focus of the activity X

6 Range of linguistic features X

7 Discourse level X

Attentional demands rating: Medium

ACTIVITY 5

Level: Pre-intermediate
Target feature: Comparative adjectives
Materials:
You are going to speak with your partner about the following pairs of items.

Using comparative adjectives, make sentences to compare the items in

each pair. If your partner disagrees with you, justify your opinion.

a A river and the sea

b France and China

c Motorbikes and bicycles

d Cats and dogs

e Maths and history

f Watches and shoes

g Football and tennis

h Chicken and salad

First, plan what you are going to say.

Assessment of attentional demands:

Activity feature Attentional demands

Low Medium High

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32
 1 Time pressure X

2 Planning time X

3 Degree of spontaneity X

4 Prompts for target feature X

5 Focus of the activity X

6 Range of linguistic features X

7 Discourse level X

Attentional demands rating: Low-medium

ACTIVITY 6

Level: Intermediate
Target feature: Comparative adjectives
Materials:
Your partner wants to go somewhere on a holiday and would like you to
help with suggestions. Prepare to tell your partner about two cities you
have visited, if possible, in different countries. Consider the following:

a Cost
b Size
c Temperature
d Safety
e Temperature
f Light
g Cleanliness
Explain your ideas; provide reasons, examples, etc.

Assessment of attentional demands:

Activity feature Attentional demands

Low Medium High

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33
 1 Time pressure X

2 Planning time X

3 Degree of spontaneity X

4 Prompts for target feature X

5 Focus of the activity X

6 Range of linguistic features X

7 Discourse level X

Attentional demands rating: High

ACTIVITY 7

Level: Intermediate
Target feature: Comparative adjectives
Materials:
Note: To be provided after activity 6 above.

Now, repeat the same talk with another partner. Focus on your use of com-
parative adjectives.

Assessment of attentional demands:

Activity feature Attentional demands

Low Medium High

1 Time pressure X

2 Planning time X

3 Degree of spontaneity X

4 Prompts for target feature X

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 5 Focus of the activity X

6 Range of linguistic features X

7 Discourse level X

Attentional demands rating: Medium-high

ACTIVITY 8

Level: Intermediate
Target feature: Would for imaginary situations
Materials:
Interview your partner about their dream job. Ask them questions about
the following:

a Job title

b Place of work

c Main tasks

d Hours of work

e Salary

f Downsides

Assessment of attentional demands:

Activity feature Attentional demands

Low Medium High

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35
 1 Time pressure X

2 Planning time X

3 Degree of spontaneity X

4 Prompts for target feature X

5 Focus of the activity X

6 Range of linguistic features X

7 Discourse level X

Attentional demands rating: High

ACTIVITY 9

Level: Pre-intermediate
Target feature: Future forms
Materials:
Talk to your partner about your plans for this weekend. Talk about what you
are planning to do in the morning and in the evening each day. If you are
listening, ask your partner follow-up questions.

Assessment of attentional demands:

Activity feature Attentional demands

Low Medium High

1 Time pressure X

2 Planning time X

3 Degree of spontaneity X

4 Prompts for target feature X

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36
 5 Focus of the activity X

6 Range of linguistic features X

7 Discourse level X

Attentional demands rating: High

References

Latham-Koenig, C., Oxenden, C., & Lambert, J. (2019). English file intermediate
students' book (4th ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Ur, P. (1988). Grammar Practice Activities: A Practice Guide for Teachers.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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