Engineering Dynamics Lab Report

Experiment No. 13
“To determine Coefficient of Friction of Oscillating Bar on Rotating
Pulley System”

1. Objective:
i. To learn about the coefficient of kinetic and static friction
ii. To learn about the pulleys.
iii. To determine Coefficient of Friction of Oscillating Bar on Rotating Pulley System

2. Apparatus:
i. Rotating pulley system
ii. Bar
iii. Meter rod
iv. Stopwatch

3. Introduction:
This experiment will teach us the construction and working of pulleys along with its applications
in daily life along with its relationship with forces and loads.

4. Theory:
4.1 Pulley:
“A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of
direction of a taut cable or belt, or transfer of power between the shaft and cable or belt. In the
case of a pulley supported by a frame or shell that does not transfer power to a shaft, but is used
to guide the cable or exert a force.” [1]

Figure 1: Pulley [2]

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4.2 Co-efficient of Friction:

“The coefficient of friction (COF), often symbolized by the Greek letter µ, is
a dimensionless scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies
and the force pressing them together.”
The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used; for example, ice on steel has a low
coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of friction. Coefficients
of friction range from near zero to greater than one. It is an axiom of the nature of friction
between metal surfaces that it is greater between two surfaces of similar metals than between two
surfaces of different metals— hence, brass will have a higher coefficient of friction when moved
against brass, but less if moved against steel or aluminum [3]

4.3 Types of Fiction:

There are many types of Friction, some of them are as following as,

4.3.1 Static friction:

“Static friction is friction between two or more solid objects that are not moving relative to each
other.”
For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped surface. The
coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as μs, is usually higher than the coefficient of
kinetic friction. Static friction is considered to arise as the result of surface roughness features
across multiple length-scales at solid surfaces. These features, known as asperities are present
down to Nano-scale dimensions and result in true solid to solid contact existing only at a limited
number of points accounting for only a fraction of the apparent or nominal contact area. The
linearity between applied load and true contact area, arising from asperity deformation, gives rise
to the linearity between static frictional force and normal force, found for typical Amon ton-
Coulomb type friction. [4]

Figure 2: Static Friction [5]

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4.3.2 Kinetic Friction:

“Kinetic friction, also known as dynamic friction or sliding friction, occurs when two objects are
moving relative to each other and rub together (like a sled on the ground).”
The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as μk, and is usually less than the
coefficient of static friction for the same materials. However, Richard Feynman comments that
"with dry metals it is very hard to show any difference. The friction force between two surfaces
after sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of kinetic friction and the normal force. [6]

Figure 3: Kinetic Friction [7]

4.3.3 Fluid friction:

“Fluid friction occurs between fluid layers that are moving relative to each other. This internal
resistance to flow is named viscosity.”
In everyday terms, the viscosity of a fluid is described as its "thickness". Thus, water is "thin",
having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a higher viscosity. The less viscous the
fluid, the greater its ease of deformation or movement.
All real fluids (except superfluids) offer some resistance to shearing and therefore are viscous.
For teaching and explanatory purposes it is helpful to use the concept of an inviscid fluid or
an ideal fluid which offers no resistance to shearing and so is not viscous. [8]

Figure 4: Fluid Friction [9]

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4.3.4 Lubricated friction:

“Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces.”
Lubrication is a technique employed to reduce wear of one or both surfaces in close proximity
moving relative to each another by interposing a substance called a lubricant between the
surfaces.
In most cases the applied load is carried by pressure generated within the fluid due to the
frictional viscous resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between the surfaces. Adequate
lubrication allows smooth continuous operation of equipment, with only mild wear, and without
excessive stresses or seizures at bearings. When lubrication breaks down, metal or other
components can rub destructively over each other, causing heat and possibly damage or failure.
[10]

Figure 5: Lubricated Friction [11]

4.3.5 Skin Friction:

“Skin friction arises from the interaction between the fluid and the skin of the body and is
directly related to the area of the surface of the body that is in contact with the fluid. Skin friction
follows the drag equation and rises with the square of the velocity.”
Skin friction is caused by viscous drag in the boundary layer around the object. There are two
ways to decrease skin friction: the first is to shape the moving body so that smooth flow is
possible, like an airfoil. The second method is to decrease the length and cross-section of the
moving object as much as is practicable. [12]

Figure 6: Skin Friction [13]

4.3.6 Internal friction:

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“Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material
while it undergoes deformation.”
Plastic deformation in solids is an irreversible change in the internal molecular structure of an
object. This change may be due to either (or both) an applied force or a change in temperature.
The change of an object's shape is called strain. The force causing it is called stress.
Elastic deformation in solids is reversible change in the internal molecular structure of an object.
Stress does not necessarily cause permanent change. As deformation occurs, internal forces
oppose the applied force. If the applied stress is not too large these opposing forces may
completely resist the applied force, allowing the object to assume a new equilibrium state and to
return to its original shape when the force is removed. This is known as elastic deformation or
elasticity. [14]

Figure 7: Internal Friction [15]

4.3.7 Braking Friction:

Any wheel equipped with a brake is capable of generating a large retarding force, usually for the
purpose of slowing and stopping a vehicle or piece of rotating machinery. Braking friction
differs from rolling friction because the coefficient of friction for rolling friction is small whereas
the coefficient of friction for braking friction is designed to be large by choice of materials
for brake pads. [16]

Figure 8: Braking Friction [17]

4.4 Difference between static and kinetic friction:

There are basically two major differences in static and kinetic friction and here they are,
i. The coefficient of static friction is always greater than the coefficient of kinetic friction.
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ii. The static friction applies on a body when a body is usually at rest while the kinetic
friction applies when the body is usually moving.

4.5 Applications:
i. Almost all fastening devices rely on frictional forces to keep them in place once
secured, examples being screws, nails, nuts, clips and clamps.
ii. Satisfactory operation of brakes and clutches rely on frictional forces being present.
iii. In the absence of frictional forces, most accelerations along a horizontal surface are
impossible; for example, a person’s shoes just slip when walking is attempted and
the tires of a car just rotate with no forward motion of the car being experienced.
iv. The friction between matchstick and match is used to burn the matchstick.
v. The friction is also used to sharpen the instruments, blades, knives etc. [18]

5. Procedure:
i. First take a steel rod of given length and place on the given two parallel pulleys.
ii. Also check the material of rod and pulleys.
iii. Now rotate the pulley and find time for ten oscillations.
iv. Calculate the time period.
v. Repeat the same process for other materials of pulleys such as brass, Al and cast iron.
vi. Calculate the value of co efficient of friction.
2
2πS
μk = 2
gT

6. Observations and Calculations:

Distance between two pulleys(S)= 19.5 cm
Table 1: Coefficient of Kinetic Friction of Oscillating Bar on Rotating Pulley System
No of Materia Material Time for 10 oscillations Time period Coefficient
obs. l of bar of pulley (s) t of Kinetic
T= avg Friction
t1 t2 t3 tavg 10
2
(s) 2πS
μk =

1. Steel Cast 18.8 18.53 18.67 18.6 1.866 11.26

2
gT

iron 6
2. Al 15.2 15.01 15.10 15.1 1.51 17.21
3. Brass 18.0 18.34 18.21 18.2 1.821 11.83
2 1
4. Steel 14.7 14.92 14.91 14.9 1.491 17.64
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7. Comments:
i. In this experiment, we learnt about the co-efficient of friction and its applications.
ii. In this experiment, we also learnt about the pulley and its various types with various uses.
iii. The co efficient of the friction tells us about the capability of material to resist.

8. References:
[1] Hanaor, D.; Gan, Y.; Einav, I. (2016). "Static friction at fractal interfaces" (PDF). Tribology
International. 93: 229–238.
[2] www.google.com/search?q=pulleys
[3] Beer, Ferdinand P.; Johnston, E. Russel, Jr. (1996). Vector Mechanics for Engineers (Sixth
ed.). McGraw-Hill.
[4] Ruina, Andy; Pratap, Rudra (2002). Introduction to Statics and Dynamics (PDF). Oxford
University Press
[5] www.google.com/search?q=Static+friction
[6] Chatterjee, Sudipta (2008). Tribological Properties of Pseudo-elastic Nickel-
titanium (Thesis). University of California.
[7] www.google.com/search?q=kinetic+friction
[8] Fishbane, Paul M.; Gasiorowicz, Stephen; Thornton, Stephen T. (1993). Physics for
Scientists and Engineers. I (Extended ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hal
[9] www.google.com/search?q=fluid+Friction
[10] Feynman, Richard P.; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands, Matthew (1964). "The Feynman Lectures
on Physics, Vol. I, p. 12-5". Addison-Wesley.
[11] www.google.com/search?q=lubricated+friction
[12] Beatty, William J. "Recurring science misconceptions in K-6 textbooks". Retrieved 2007-
06.
[13] www.google.com/search?q=skin+friction
[14] Jaslinger, J.; Nedlec, J.C. (1983). "Approximation of the Signorini problem with friction,
obeying the Coulomb law". Mathematical Methods in the Applied Sciences. 5: 422–437.
[15] www.google.com/search?q=internal+friction
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[16] Alart, P.; Curnier, A. (1991). "A mixed formulation for frictional contact problems prone to
Newton like solution method". Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering.
[17] www.google.com/search?q=braking+friction
[18] Hutchings, Ian M. (2016-08-15). "Leonardo da Vinci's studies of friction