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Prospect and retrospect of 3D bio-printing

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bio printing 3

Prospect and retrospect of 3D bio-printing

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naghola58
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Acta Histochemica 124 (2022) 151932

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Acta Histochemica
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/acthis

Prospect and retrospect of 3D bio-printing


Pranav Prabhakaran a, Thirunavukkarsu Palaniyandi a, d, *, B. Kanagavalli a, V. Ram kumar a,
Rajeswari Hari a, V. Sandhiya a, Gomathy Baskar a, Barani Kumar Rajendran b, Asha Sivaji c
a
Department of Biotechnology, Dr. M.G.R Educational and Research Institute, Deemed to University, Chennai, India
b
Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
c
Department of Biochemistry, DKM College for Women, Vellore, India
d
Department of Anatomy, Biomedical Reseach Unit and Laboratory Animal Centre, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical
Sciences, Saveetha University, Chennai, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: 3D bioprinting has become a popular medical technique in recent years. The most compelling rationale for the
3D bioprinting development of 3D bioprinting is the paucity of biological structures required for the rehabilitation of missing
Bioinks organs and tissues. They’re useful in a multitude of domains, including disease modelling, regenerative medicine,
In situ bioprinting
tissue engineering, drug discovery with testing, personalised medicine, organ development, toxicity studies, and
Applications
Organ and tissue
implants. Bioprinting requires a range of bioprinting technologies and bioinks to finish their procedure, that
Inkjet-based bioprinting, extrusion-based bioprinting, laser-assisted bioprinting, stereolithography-based bio­
printing, and in situ bioprinting are some of the technologies listed here. Bioink is a 3D printing material that is
used to construct engineered artificial living tissue. It can be constructed solely for cells, but it usually includes a
carrier substance that envelops the cells, then there’s Agarose-based bioinks, alginate-based bioinks, collagen-
based bioinks, and hyaluronic acid-based bioinks, to name a few. Here we presented about the different bio­
printing methods with the use of bioinks in it and then Prospected over various applications in different fields.

1. Introduction patient-specific drug designs, high precision, cheap cost, and on-demand
creation of complicated structures in a short amount of time. Due to an
3D Bioprinting is a cutting-edge technology used in tissue engi­ increase in the frequency of essential organ failure, a higher success rate,
neering and regenerative medicine to create complex tissue architec­ and improved post-transplant outcomes, the global demand for organ
tures that closely resemble natural organs and tissues, where the transplantation has been significantly increasing since the late 1990 s.
printing process occur in vitro conditions. This procedure is extremely As a result, the transplant waiting list has grown significantly (Elalouf,
important in our present generation because of various terrible diseases 2021). So, it has enabled the development of diverse allogenic biological
such as organ failure, cancer, etc (Chameettachal et al., 2019). Despite constructs derived from small blood arteries to resemble functional or­
the fact that 3D bioprinting is a promising technology, major hurdles gans and reduce the risk of organ rejection. The allogenic organ trans­
such as bioprinter speed and better bioinks for boosting cell survival and plant is most likely to blame for the rejection. The ability to construct
function in research remain (Kronemberger et al., 2021). Bioink is made complex and programmable 3D tissue models in a greater resolution is
up of biomaterial and live cells that are printed to create one of 3D bioprinting’s primary advantages. Although 3D bioprinting is
three-dimensional tissue architectures (Gopinathan and Noh, 2018). The a promising technique, major difficulties must be overcome in order to
living cell is made up of patient-derived cell samples and bioinks of improve research outcomes. Bioinks play an important role in 3D bio­
various types, including ECM, are employed. The benefits of 3D bio­ printing that such as agarose-based bioinks, alginate-based bioinks,
printing in the biomedical area include the construction of personalised collagen-based bioinks, hyaluronic acid-based bioinks, and others are

Abbreviation: 3D, Three dimensional; ECM, Extracellular matrix; KHz, kilohertz; AM, Additive manufacturing; UV, Ultraviolet; Gel MA, Gelatin methacrylate;
HAMA, Hyaluronic acid methacrylate; LAB, LaserAssisted Bioprinting; LIFT, Laser-induced forward transfer; PSL, Projection Based Stereolithography; DLP, Digital
Light Processing; DOF, Degrees of freedom; nHA matrix, nanohydroxyapatite matrix; PBS, Phosphate buffered saline; A2P3F0, A2P3F1, A2P3F2, and A2P3F3; HA,
Hyaluronic acid; CNS, Central nervous system; PT, Proximal tubule.
* Corresponding author at: Department of Biotechnology, Dr. M.G.R Educational and Research Institute, Deemed to University, Chennai, India.
E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Palaniyandi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acthis.2022.151932
Received 14 June 2022; Received in revised form 23 July 2022; Accepted 23 July 2022
Available online 23 August 2022
0065-1281/© 2022 Published by Elsevier GmbH.
P. Prabhakaran et al. Acta Histochemica 124 (2022) 151932

commonly used in 3D bioprinting (Fatimi et al., 2022). Then another equipment to reduce material waste. The recovery of ink, on the other
factor to consider while developing bioinks is the hydrogel network’s hand, is likely to result in contamination, which would be an inherent
capacity to respond to cell-mediated matrix remodelling.The inkjet flaw in bioprinting (Li et al., 2020). Thermal or piezoelectric mecha­
based bioprinting, extrusion based bioprinting, laser assisted bio­ nisms are used in most inkjet printers, with operating frequencies of
printing, stereolithography based bioprinting, and in situ bioprinting are 5–10 kHz.Generic biomaterials have been utilised in inkjet bioprinting
the five types of bioprinting technology (Bulanova et al., 2017). Using in four different categories, they are hydrogels, binders and powders,
these different methods, we can print anything we want for any appli­ polymers and small molecules (Angelopoulos et al. 2020). In an additive
cation.We discovered that the field of 3D bioprinting has many more manufacturing (AM) technique, inkjet printers deposit bioink dropwise
applications in the future when we learned about the applications, to from the "bottom up" by using heat, mechanical, or electromagnetic
mention a few are personalised medicine and organ development, etc forces to induce compression behind a nozzle. The size of the drops can
(Chameettachal et al., 2019). Recently, a business called 3d bio treat­ be regulated to be 30 m in diameter, ensuring that the final 3D product
ments succeeded in creating a human live ear for patients with the has a high resolution.Here Fig. 1(a) depicts the detailed structure.
condition microtia.
2.1.2. Extrusion based bioprinting
2. 3D bioprinting The most widespread and economical bioprinting approach is
extrusion-based printing, which was launched in the early 2000 s. These
Recent developments in 3D bioprinting technology have expedited printers disperse the bio-ink through a pneumatic or mechanical system
tissue engineering and regenerative medicine’s growth. In 1986, Charles (Donderwinkel et al., 2017) and it’s used to fabricate both 3D and 3D
W. Hull showed 3D printing, also known as solid image processing or structures. Bioink is put into a printing chamber and pumped through a
’stereolithography’ in which layers of materials were printed consecu­ round nozzle on a print head in this method. It comes out of a nozzle
tively to create a 3D structure (Chameettachal et al., 2019). An organoid with a diameter of less than 400 µm and they incorporated with a
is also a 3D model that is used in many therapeutic applications today. multi-inlet extruder nozzle and a motorized extrusion system that can
However, the fundamental drawback of organoid models is that they can make a continuous filament about the thickness of a human fingernail
precisely recreate the required organ in vitro but cannot generate or and the bioink is extruded through a nozzle tip by pressure in this bio­
make the vessels and arteries for blood flow. This flaw can be overcome printing method. After that foot pedals were used to regulate the
by utilising 3D bioprinting organs in organ transplantation and A few extrusion from both the bioink chambers and the associated UV curing
scientists at the mouse level were able to create these veins and arteries. equipment. GelMA/HAMA bioinks containing adipose-derived stem
This 3D bioprinting is a relatively new method that allows for excellent cells were found to have a high vitality (>97%) after printing in vitro
reproducibility and exact control of manufactured constructs in an (Ramesh et al., 2021). For example, 3D bioprinting of kidney organ for
automated setting, potentially allowing for high-throughput transplantation purpose, in that we can improve final nephron number
manufacturing. The bioink, which is a solution of a biomaterial or a from the same beginning cell number by modifying kidney organoid
mixture of biomaterials in the hydrogel form, usually encapsulating conformation utilising extrusion bioprinting. This shows that altering
desired cell types, is used to create tissue constructions during the bio­ the conformation may aid in the creation of bigger renal tissue fields
printing process. It is required to develop new bioink materials and in­ (Lawlor et al., 2021). Here Fig. 1(b) depicts the detailed structure.
crease the accuracy of present bio-printing equipment in order to
quickly construct correct 3D structures. "Cell preparations suited for 2.1.3. Laser assisted bioprinting
processing by automated bio-manufacturing processes" is how bioinks The direct writing is used in the laser-assisted bioprinting (LAB)
are defined (Huang et al., 2021). The first process involved in 3D bio­ technique, which is based on laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT)
printing was decellularization (Gungor-Ozkerim et al., 2018). Decellu­ technology, which was originally developed for high-resolution
larization is the process of removing native cells from tissues and organs patterning of metals for computer chip production (Ventura, 2021)
while keeping the ECM structure and composition intact, which is a and this was first introduced in 1999. The device includes a
major or much need step in the creation of bioprinting product.The ribbon-shaped donor layer with an energy-absorbing layer (gold or ti­
decellularization stage can be completed using one of three methods: tanium) that responds to laser activation. A laser pulse is applied to the
chemical (detergents, acids, and bases), biological(Enzyme - proteases donor layer during printing, heating a small piece of it. As portion of the
and nucleases), and physical (High hydrostaticpressure, supercritical donor layer evaporates, a high-pressure bubble forms (Donderwinkel
carbon dioxide and freeze-thaw cycles) (Abaci and Guvendiren, 2020). et al., 2017). A pulsed laser source and two horizontal co-planar glass
slides (26 26mm2) make up the setup in a nutshell. The top one, known
2.1. Different methods of bioprinting as the donor slide, is coated with a thin laser-absorbing layer and then a
thicker layer of the bioink to be created (Sorkio et al., 2018). This
Recent advances in three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting technology approach is mostly used to print skin for autograft face surgery (plastics
could lead to the bio-fabrication of functional things in the future surgery). That the LAB has a resolution that matches the size of a single
(Bulanova et al., 2017) and this process can be achieved using different cell, making it a promising tool for simulating the heterogenic and
methods, they are (Chameettachal et al., 2019). particular structure of skin. Because LAB is mostly used to print cells, it is
critical to comprehend the effects of the laser on the cells (Laakso,
a) InkjetBased Bioprinting 2021). In this Laser-assisted bioprinting workstations could be con­
b) ExtrusionBased Bioprinting structed to be employed inside a sterile operating room, resulting in a
c) Laser Assisted Bioprinting novel personalised and "tailor-made" therapeutic technique that allows
d) Stereolithography Based Bioprinting for exact organisation of cells or biomaterials to implant at a micron
e) In Situ Bioprinting scale (Kérourédan et al., 2018). Here Fig. 1(c) depicts the detailed
structure.

2.1.1. Inkjet based bioprinting 2.1.4. Stereolithography based bioprinting


The most popular type of Droplet based bioprinting is inkjet bio­ Stereolithography is a layer-by-layer technology that uses light to
printingmethod, which consists of a Continuous-inkjet, drop-on-demand selectively crosslink bio-inks. Photolytically crosslinking the bio-inks
inkjet, and electrodynamic inkjet bioprinting (Donderwinkel et al., with a laser or digital light projector allow stereolithography to cross­
2017). A droplet recovery mechanism is frequently included in its link a layer in a single printing plane (Donderwinkel et al., 2017) and

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P. Prabhakaran et al. Acta Histochemica 124 (2022) 151932

Fig. 1. (a)(b)(c)(d): The images depict the various 3D bio­


printing methods or processes, including inject-based bio­
printing, extrusion-based bioprinting, laser-based bioprinting,
and stereolithography-based bioprinting. To pattern bio­
materials with cells and produce three-dimensional tissue
models, these bioprinting techniques can be applied. (e): This is
also one of the bioprinting technique called in situ biopriting
method. This can be described as the direct printing of living
tissues or organs at a location of damage using bioinks in a
therapeutic context.

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P. Prabhakaran et al. Acta Histochemica 124 (2022) 151932

this uses a UV light create solid objects from a photoreactive liquid resin. necessary for 3D bioprinting complex tissues and certain biological cues
The rapid growth of photopolymerized-based AM employing stereo­ to enable in vitro and in vivo tissue maturation, has been one of the
lithographic methods has been noticeable, and it represents significant primary limiting problems (De Santis et al., 2021). For accurate bioink
technological advancement. Rapidly evolving technology generally evaluation, every event and process parameter that affects the defor­
provides speedier benefits to society, but it can also cause some turbu­ mation of printed inks must be examined in relation to the viscoelastic
lence in terms of clear communication, resulting in less than optimal behaviour of the material of interest. These process parameters, which
usage of the technology (Della Bona et al., 2021). Recent advancements are influenced by nozzle diameter and geometry, may differ significantly
in DLP-based 3D printing have resulted in the development of a number between bioinks (Schwab et al., 2020). Biomaterials can be used to
of advanced techniques, including projection micro stereolithography create bioinks either alone or in combination, whether they are natural
(PSL) for high-resolution 3D printing (Ge et al., 2020) and there is a or manufactured. There have lately been a few commercially available
technology known as "projection micro stereolithography" that can bioinks. Natural polymers are the polymeric components in bio-inks,
create complicated 3D objects with better resolution using DLP-based including bioinks based on hyaluronic acid, etc. A natural biomaterial
3D printing technologies. The most commonly employed monomers in that is offered for sale is called Dermamatrix, for instance. It is manu­
the free radical system in this approach are methacrylate and factured from allografted human skin made up of acellular dermis and
acrylate-based monomers, which provide quick reaction rates and cus­ has been used as a biopaper in bioprinting. (Gungor-Ozkerim et al.,
tomizable mechanical properties. The active ingredients can easily be 2018). Bioink difficulties like phase separation and sedimentation are
mixed with photocurable monomers prior to printing and become frequently caused by cells that can affect the shear thinning behaviour
trapped in the polymeric cross-linked network, making free radical during printing (Khoeini et al., 2021). Then According to Park et al.,
photopolymerisation an appealing and adaptable platform for the pro­ bioinks with zero-shear viscosities of less than 10 Pas cannot form stable
duction of pharmaceutical goods (Xu et al., 2020). Here we may use the structures (Gorroñogoitia et al., 2022).
layer-by-layer stereolithography approach because it is not prone to the
alignment problems that single nozzle extrusion machines are prone to, 3.1. Types of bioinks
can print at high resolutions quickly, and does not require additional
support material (Peele et al., 2015). Here Fig. 1(d) depicts the detailed Bioinks are often created by integrating live cells of interest into a
structure. natural or synthetic biocompatible polymeric matrix, as well as tools for
fabricating artificial living-tissue constructs that can replicate all fea­
2.1.5. In situ bioprinting tures of native tissues using 3D bioprinting methods (Tiwari et al.,
Direct printing of bioinks to construct or repair living tissues or or­ 2021). Bioink including other biomaterials may give extra mechanical
gans at a defect site in a clinical setting is known as in situ bioprinting support for bioprinted cells, allowing them to self-organize, migrate, and
(Singh et al., 2020). Culturing cells in 3D scaffolds in vitro is currently differentiate into functional tissues (Fatimi et al., 2022). Mostly
the most prevalent method for fabricating tissues for implantation. The commonly used bioinks for the process are,
skin bioprinter was utilised to directly bioprint human fibroblasts and
keratinocytes in a nude mouse wound model to demonstrate the possi­ a) Agarose-based bioinks
bility of in situ skin printing (DoF) and cartridge-based system are also b) Alginate-based bioinks
used for bioprinting skins (Binder, 2011). The current research examines c) Collagen-based bioinks
the possibilities and limitations of a robotic arm with 5 degrees of d) Hyaluronic acid-based bioinks
freedom (DoF) as an advanced platform for in situ bioprinting (For­
tunato et al., 2021). A robotic arm, an Arduino singlechip, a Leeco
micro-valve, a light source, a relay, a computer, and feeding equipments 3.1.1. Agarose-based bioinks
make up the robotic arm printing platform. A base, a back arm, a fore­ The agarose-based hydrogels have been studied and used in
arm, and an end-effector make up the robotic arm. It is controlled by biomedical applications such as cell culture, cartilage tissue engineer­
three stepper motors and has three degrees of freedom (Li et al., 2017). ing, drug release, and 3D bioprinting of cellularized structures as self-
The researchers subsequently concentrated on in situ printing of MSCs healing materials (Fatimi et al., 2022). Due to its biocompatibility,
within a collagen and nHA matrix in order to promote the regeneration abundance, and simple gelation behavior resulting from temperature
of a bone lesion and skin, while comparing the effects of two alternative fluctuations, it has also been widely used as a hydrogel material for
cell printing geometries (Keriquel et al., 2017). In comparison to the biomedical applications. In biochemical analysis, agarose is commonly
untreated and matrix-treated groups, open wounds treated with in-situ used to separate DNA and proteins during electrophoresis (Choi et al.,
skin bioprinting showed quicker wound closure. The wound area at 2021). Agarose is a water-soluble linear polysaccharide found in red
1-week post-surgery was 66% of the initial wound area, according to the algae and one of the key ingredients of agar. Because of their stiffness
printed group (Albanna et al., 2019). Here Fig. 1(e) depicts the detailed and functional groups, agarose-based hydrogels can support cellular
structure. adhesion, proliferation, and activity. Aside from that, agarose-based
scaffolds have been found to be appropriate for bioprinting in tissue
3. Bioinks engineering (Naranda et al., 2021). Then mixing agarose in 0.15 M
phosphate buffered saline (PBS) at final concentrations of 4% weight by
Different kinds of bioink materials are used in 3D bioprinting to build volume (w/v) Type VII powder, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, was used
tissue and organ designs. One of the most important elements of 3D to make agarose hydrogels. (López-Marcial et al., 2018).
bioprinting is the bio-ink, which is a mixture of living cells, biomaterials,
and bioactive substances and is one of the fundamental components in 3.1.2. Alginate-based bioinks
bioprinting that produces the printed (Donderwinkel et al., 2017). The Alginate, also known as algin or alginic acid, is a low-cost
creation of 3D bioprinted model things requires the use of a bioprinter biopolymer made from calcium, magnesium (Axpe and Oyen, 2016),
and bio-ink. Key qualities and characteristics of bioink used in 3D bio­ then for 3D bioprinting of bone tissues, alginate-based bioinks are
printing techniques include printability and mechanical qualities, commonly employed. The sodium alginate ions found in the cell walls
functionality changes, controlled biodegradability, and non-toxicity to and intracellular spaces of various organisms and it is a non-toxic,
cells. This enables them to obtain nutrients for growth while also biodegradable, and non-immunogenic linear polysaccharide made up
increasing their metabolic activity during tissue repair. (Gopinathan and of guluronic and mannuronic acids that occurs naturally (Axpe and
Noh, 2018). Lack of bioinks, which concurrently possess the qualities Oyen, 2016) and it’s also a sort of biopolymer. The units of

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P. Prabhakaran et al. Acta Histochemica 124 (2022) 151932

b-D-mannuronic acid and a-L-glucuronic acid are linked by (1− 4) bonds transplantation therapies (Mihajlovic et al., 2021). That using metal
in this biopolymer. When combined with multivalent cations (e.g., coordination bonds, Nakaji-Hirabayashi produced a supramolecular
Ca2 +, Ba2 +, Sr2 +), the sodium salt of alginate is water soluble and hydrogel based on HA and recombinant peptides. (Nakaji-Hirabayashi
quickly forms hydrogels by forming ionic inter-chain bridges (Piras and et al., 2009). Even it has the ability to crosslink with other polymers and
Smith, 2020). Because of its tailorable degradation kinetics, simplicity of entrap drugs/growth factors for controlled release (Zheng et al., 2021)
gelation, and potential functionalization with cell sticky ligands, it is that’s they are used in drug discovery.
widely employed as a cell carrier, scaffold, and bioink. Alginate solu­
tions behave as non-Newtonian fluids with low viscosities that are un­ 4. Application of bioprinting
able to develop a 3D geometrically defined structure without
containment inside a mould prior to crosslinking (Gonzalez-Fernandez Here we highlight recent breakthroughs in tissue bioprinting and
et al., 2021) and its adaptability and application to a number of scaffold their use in treatments, as well as alternative bioprinting methodologies,
manufacturing processes is one of its most appealing properties. The upcoming trends, and applications of 3D bioprinting.One of the most
primary approach for bioink characterisation involved combining common uses of bioprinting is as a model tissue, which has a wide range
different weight fractions of fibrin (0–3%) with a 2% alginate and a 3% of applications in industry and research (Chameettachal et al., 2019).
PEO (A2P3) weighted solution are used in the methodology, which The following are some of the most recent applications in the field of 3D
resulted in A2P3F0, A2P3F1, A2P3F2, and A2P3F3 formation respec­ bioprintingin vitro condition, are.
tively. Then a magnetic bar was used to stir the liquid for two days at a
temperature of 4C. (Yeo and Kim, 2021). After the process the bioink is a) Disease modeling
ready for use. b) Regenerative medicine
c) Tissue engineering
3.1.3. Collagen-based bioinks d) Drug development with testing
Collagen is a family of structural proteins found in the extracellular e) Personalized medicine
matrix (ECM) of a variety of tissues, and it is the most prevalent protein f) Organ development
in the human body (Marques et al., 2019). Then collagen-based mate­ g) Toxicity studies
rials have showed promise for bioprinting, however there are draw­ h) Implants
backs, as collagen remains liquid at low temperatures and forms a
fibrous structure at higher temperatures or at neutral pH (Marques et al.,
2019). The technologies for processing collagen are grouped in a num­ 4.1. Disease modeling
ber of steps Esser and Engel (2021). To create structurally diverse ma­
terials with varying properties in terms of shape, mechanics, An new method of additive manufacturing is 3D bioprinting, which
physiological behavior, and handling, several stages are combined in can be used to create models of human diseases. Such as cardiovascular
various ways (Meyer, 2019). The bulk of collagen hydrogels are made disease, cancer modelling, and other in vitro disease models based on
from type I collagen, which accounts for over 90 % of the protein mass in bioprinting technologies (Memic et al., 2017). Then Patient-specific cell
mammals’ connective tissues. Type I collagen is a fibril-forming collagen sources, such as human iPSC-derived cells and primary sick cells from
that is made up of three alpha-helices that form a triple-helical structure patients, are used to apply 3D printed tissue models to personalised
(Osidak et al., 2020), then the printability of collagen bioink is deter­ disease modeling (Ma et al., 2018). The basic 3d bioprinting of disease
mined by the kinetics of the process the faster the procedure, the more model has illustrated in Fig. 2. That the multicellular blood vessels to
accurate the printing. They evaluated the rheological properties of recapitulate both the physical and chemical microenvironments native
collagen bioinks (10% XG and 8% XG, 1-part XG in 9 parts collagen) to to human vasculature are created using 3d biopriting technique (Gold
commercial (Cellink Fibrin, Cellink GelXa, and Cellulose Alginate RGD) et al., 2021), which is a main in disease modelling. Using 3-D bioprinting
bioinks that are compatible with extrusion-based bioprinters like Cellink technology for disease modeling, some researchers created a physio­
BioX (Muthusamy et al., 2021). We know that collagen-based bioink and logical 3-D glioma-vascular niche model to explore this cell-cell inter­
printing method allow for the direct creation of collagen-based con­ action (Lee et al., 2015). The Central nervous system (CNS) disorders are
tractile heart tissues, that for example prior to gelation, cells were a major problem occurs in human brain that the brain is divided into
encapsulated in a rat collagen-I based bioink and printed into a support several functionally and physically distinct domains, each having its
bath. own developmental history. As a result, representing these components
in 3D presents a distinct set of challenges (Cadena et al., 2021) and
3.1.4. Hyaluronic acid-based bioinks studying neurological illnesses with 3D bioprinting is also a biggest
Hyaluronic acid (HA) is naturally biocompatible and essential in challenge. As a result, 3D stem cell bioprinting techniques offer enor­
regulating cellular activities, and has been used for biomedical appli­ mous potential in disease modelling and therapy of cardiac disease and
cations for decades (Noh et al., 2019). The core component and heart failure, as well as toxicological investigations and tailored medi­
self-standing material is Hyaluronic acid-based bioinks, which is avail­ cation testing (Ong et al., 2018). Future research is required to create
able as a single or many chemical 111 variants with shear-thinning and materials with high tunability on the mechanical, chemical, and bio­
post-printing crosslinking for form retention, as well as mixtures of HA logical properties to replicate the protein composition as well as the
derivatives with natural and synthetic polymers (Petta et al., 2020). HA native tissue environment at the targeted health stage in order to
is a major component of the ECM in human articular cartilage, it is a construct in vitro tissue models for disease modelling and personalised
promising material for cartilage regeneration, this were the reason why drug screening (Ma et al., 2018). For instance, we can state that albumin
they are used as supporting bioink in 3D bioprinting process (Hauptstein uptake and glucose reabsorption were seen in the adult PT model and
et al., 2020). Then there’s HA, which is one of the most important that the impact of a glucose transport inhibitor was examined in a hy­
components of the brain’s extracellular matrix (ECM) and is known for perglycemia illness model (Yi et al., 2021).
its excellent natural biocompatibility and necessity in regulating cellular
activities, as well as its function in tumour progression and invasion (Ma 4.2. Regenerative medicine
et al., 2020). However, it has been claimed in a few research papers that
micro-extrusion bioprinting must be changed or coupled with other Regenerative medicine combines basic cell biology with a range of
forms of biomaterials and these hydrogels based on metal engineering tactics, including the use of 3D bioprinting technology, to
ion-coordination have also been studied as cell carriers, for neural restore wounded or sick tissues and organs (Yu et al., 2021). The

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P. Prabhakaran et al. Acta Histochemica 124 (2022) 151932

4.3. Tissue engineering

For 3D bioprinter tissue engineering applications, a large range of


biomaterials, both natural and synthetic, are available (Chameettachal
et al., 2019). Then to imitate the tissue environment, hard tissue engi­
neering requires a mineralized extracellular matrix. Hard tissues have
distinct cell types, such as osteoblasts cells with calcified ECM in bone
and chondrocytes cells in cartilage (Gupta and Bit, 2021). Many recent
breakthroughs in the field of tissue engineering have led to the in vitro
construction of tissues and organ components and to address the limits
of traditional approaches, tissue engineers have borrowed additive
manufacturing (AM) technology, also known as three-dimensional
printing, which is utilised in a variety of industrial applications, to
produce bioscaffolds (Zhang and Zhang, 2015). In the domains of
biomedicine and tissue engineering, three-dimensional bioprinting
provides the way for the integration of biomaterials, imaging, model­
ling, and computational technologies (Huang et al., 2021). The
high-level expectation of 3D Printing is to produce functional suitable
for in vivo transplantation to cure organ failure, which is the main goal
pursued by various tissue engineering and stem cell techniques (Liu
et al., 2021). Then in the clinic, the 3D artificial bone scaffold is
employed for bone regeneration. If the faults are minor, bone has great
self-healing capacity (Gu et al., 2018).3D bioprinting is used in tissue
engineering to create artificial bone, neural, vascular tissue, skin, and
cartilage, among other things (Gu et al., 2018).

4.4. Drug development and testing

In comparison to traditional methods for creating 3D in vitro models,


bioprinting is a high-throughput fabrication process with a high level of
automation that offers the advantages of improved accuracy, resolution,
and precision for drug discovery (Satpathy et al., 2018). The process of
drug discovery is an important part of pharmaceutical research. How­
ever, the current drug discovery approach is both time-consuming and
costly (Satpathy et al., 2018), As a result, adopting a 3D bioprinted
model for drug discovery and development is a simple, cost-effective,
and time-saving method. Bioprinted tissue can be accessed at any time
during medication treatment, enabling for the monitoring of
tissue-specific physiologic drug reactions such as microvessel rear­
rangement or cell death. Although it is currently impossible to replicate
human tissue in its entirety, bioprinted tissue equivalents have several
Fig. 2. One of the major application of 3D Bioprinting is a Disease modeling. advantages over animal drug testing (Hagenbuchner et al., 2021). Then
Which translates to “build models of human diseases” For instance, in vitro hepatotoxicity is the major and last screening procedure in the drug
disease models include cardiovascular disease, cancer, and other conditions screening process that the hepatotoxicity (liver toxicity testing) can be
based on bioprinting technologies. assessed using a self-renewing hepatocyte 3D bioprinted model and it is
one of the most common reasons for drug failure in vivo, even when the
combination of imaging technologies, cell-laden inks, and 3D bio­ treatment is effective in vitro (P. Pranav et al., 2022). The liver’s pri­
printing technology will result in a new paradigm in regenerative mary role is to detoxify and metabolise foreign toxins and substances,
medicine (Gupta and Bit, 2021). It’s a promising alternative to trans­ which makes it an important component in the development of "safe-­
plantation that avoids donor shortages and immunological issues to-use medications" and Hepatotoxicity, or liver injury caused by drug
including bone mending, heart therapy, and muscle regeneration (Yu toxicity, is a key roadblock in medication development (Memic et al.,
et al., 2021). The fundamentals of a variety of biomaterials and 2017).
biomaterials-assisted regenerative medicine are discussed with such
biomaterials Gelatin, Collagen, matrigel and Silk fibroin that theytar­ 4.5. Personalized medicine
geted sometissue like bone,cartilage,muscle,epithelial,cardiac and
pancreas, etc. (Nii and Katayama, 2021). Then for repair of cartilage on One of the most exciting applications of 3D printing in the phar­
the articular surface and meniscus at the moving site, for example, ne­ maceutical industry is the capacity to customise dose formulations for
cessitates mechanically strong regenerative implants, whereas cell individual patients (every single person), that the term "polypill" is used
printing and the differentiation niche necessitate zone-specific soft to describe this notion (Vaz and Kumar, 2021).A polypill, on the other
materials (Li and Cui, 2022).In any case, In the realm of skeletal muscle hand, is a single tablet that contains a combination of numerous drugs
regeneration, dECM-based scaffolds provide an optimal biochemical that can be tailored to a polypharmacy patient’s specific needs (Vaz and
milieu for cell development and differentiation, Incorporating structural Kumar, 2021). As an example, 3D bioprinting allows for the creation of
proteins such as collagen, glycosaminoglycans, and growth hormones customised drug-loaded patches for the delivery of salicylic acid for acne
(Li and Cui, 2022). treatment on the skin (Germain et al., 2022).Despite the fact that 3D
bioprinting is being used to create individualised bone transplants and
bone-on-a-chip devices for tailored treatments (Elçin, 2017).

6
P. Prabhakaran et al. Acta Histochemica 124 (2022) 151932

4.6. Organ development the use of three-dimensional printing allows for the precise seeding of
pharmaceuticals such as antibacterial, immunomodulatory, or analgesic
The bioprinting technology given the high demand for organ trans­ compounds during the printing process, which has the potential to
plantation and the scarcity of organ donors, bioprinting is a promising create a new class of bioactive medical implants (Jovic et al., 2020). The
method for addressing the organ shortage by fabricating fully functional most recent 3D bioprinted implants are the intervertebral discs (IVDs)
entire organs such as the kidney, bladder, heart, ear etc. The initial and knee menisci are primarily made of fibrocartilage, which has a high
process entails imaging of the tissue or organ using computed tomog­ tensile strength because it contains thick, coiled, and well organised
raphy (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound imaging collagen (type I) fibre (Perera et al., 2021) and a technology company
techniques, as well as the reconstruction of 3D models from the imaging called 3D bio treatments recently printed a real human ear for a patient
(Vijayavenkataraman et al., 2018), which are then transferred to com­ who was born with a disease called microtia (The Newyork Times By
puter format and then printed using any of the above-mentioned Roni Caryn Rabin,. June 2, 2022).
printing methods with the help of bioinks and other components. For
example, a technology company called 3D bio treatments recently 5. Conclusion and future perspective
printed a real human ear for a patient who was born with a disease called
microtia. Microtia is an uncommon congenital abnormality in which the 5.1. Conclusion
auricle, or external component of the ear, is deformed and undersized
and it also can affect hearing in the ear (Doctors Transplant Ear of This review discusses 3D bioprinting and its technology culture. The
Human Cells, Made by 3-D Print, The Newyork Times By Roni Caryn invention that specialises in 3D bioprinting, Charles Hull devised Bio­
Rabin, June 2, 2022). According to Doctor Dr. Arturo Bonilla, who printing in 1984 and it was initially displayed in 1988, when Klebe was
performed the procedure, because the cells come from the patient’s own working on it.They have a wide range of applications in the medical field
tissue, the new ear is unlikely to be rejected by the body. We can and others, in addition to this. That the disease modelling, regenerative
conclude from this example that 3D bioprinting will be an important medicine, tissue engineering, drug discovery and testing, personalised
technology in the future. medicine, organ development, toxicity investigations and implants,
which are the some of the applications of bioprinting these days.For
4.7. Toxicity studies example, recently a company named 3D bio therapies was made live
human ear using 3D technology and then implant it to a person born
A substance’s harmful effects, whether they come from a single with disordermicrotia.Then we may primarily use 3D technology for
encounter or several exposures within a short period of time, are thein vitro drug screening. Because most drugs testing in 3D technology
described through toxicity studies (Yadav and Rohane, 2021). That a was effective in the in vitro, it stands to reason that it would be suc­
vast range of 3D culture systems, including microarrays, with diverse cessful in vivo. They have wide range of application in medical filed and
ECM compositions have been produced for various pharmaceutical others.
purposes, such as targeted drug delivery, therapeutic efficacy, or toxicity
studies (Peng et al., 2017). Some types of toxicity studies carried out in a 5.2. Future perspective
developed model are hepatotoxicity studies, local toxicology studies,
hypersensitivity studies, genotoxicity studies and carcinogenicity From prior study we came to know that 3D bioprinting would play a
studies. For instance, we saw in drug screening literature about hepa­ vital role in various field, as evidenced by several applications of the
totoxicity, which is a type of toxicity study in drug screening, so that technology, which have been futuristic. In the next 20 years, bioprinted
some bioprinting businesses have developed bioprinted tissue models implants for surgical use will become available, but there are numerous
for toxicity studies. When compared to 2D monolayers, 3D models such ethical, legal, and technical obstacles that must all be overcome before
as organoids and bioprinting have been found to have higher surviv­ they can be used in actual clinical settings. Researchers frequently have
ability and functional stability, underlining their relevance for long-term to compromise because this is not always simple to accomplish. Through
toxicity research in vitro (Schmidt et al., 2020). In order to better the improvement of bioprinting parameters including layer structure
investigate toxicity, researchers are now using 3D models. It was and thickness, it may be possible to achieve more native-like cell such as
decided to conduct a study where cells were kept alive for 28 days while densities of corneal stroma in further research. Even though we have
metabolic and toxicological tests were run. The results of the toxicity seen a live ear created using 3D bioprinting technology, which is a
tests were contrasted with the standard for the market at the time, 2D significant achievement for scientists and specialists, this creation would
hepatocyte cultures. Later, he continued, "3D culture is preferable to 2D be a significant step forward in the future. While other scientists work to
culture." (Mazzocchi et al., 2019). print miniature organs like a heart, liver, and lungs so they may test
novel pharmaceuticals more accurately without needing to use animals
4.8. Implants as test subjects. That we may argue that the 3D biopriting model for drug
screening technique is a future technology in clinical drug development.
A cast of the patient’s anatomy, as well as a matching patient-specific
implant, can be manufactured using computer 3D modelling software CRediT authorship contribution statement
and the patient’s neuroimaging data (Mobbs et al., 2017). Then dental,
vertebral, and hip implants have all been made using this method. Pranav Prabhakaran: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft
Previously, implants had to be verified before they could be utilised in preparation Kanagavalli B and Ram kumar V: Visualization Thir­
clinical settings, which took a long time (Ventola, 2014). The implant unavukkarasu Palaniyandi and Rajeswari Hari and Barani Kumar
design process then began, with global dimensions derived from the Rajendran: Supervision SandhiyaV and Gomathy Baskar and Asha
resection and concept sketches provided by the surgeon. Following that, Sivaji: Validation.
plastic implant prototypes were built for a trial fit on the resected
anatomy models to test alternative implant designs (Mobbs et al., 2017). Data availability
Currently 3D-printed implants are increasingly being made out of a
range of metals and polymers, and more recently, live cells have been No data was used for the research described in the article.
used to produce implants (Ventola, 2014). The application of this
technology could extend to implantable medical devices including
cochlear implants, pacemakers, and joint replacements. Additionally,

7
P. Prabhakaran et al. Acta Histochemica 124 (2022) 151932

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