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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN APPLIED SCIENCES AND
TECHNOLOGY  COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Jyotismita Chaki
Nilanjan Dey

Image Color
Feature
Extraction
Techniques
Fundamentals
and Applications
123
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Image Color Feature

Extraction Techniques
Fundamentals and Applications

123
Jyotismita Chaki Nilanjan Dey
School of Information Technology Department of Information Technology
and Engineering Techno India College of Technology
Vellore Institute of Technology Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Vellore, India

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Preface

Content-Based Image Retrieval (CBIR) is developed as a promising technique for

retrieving images and browsing bulky image databases. Currently, CBIR is among
the fast-rising topic. It is the main research area of Computer Science and
Engineering disciplines too. It is the procedure of retrieving images from a gath-
ering based on automatically extracted features. CBIR methods support in handling
of the digital images by means of computers.
The common feature extraction techniques used in CBIR may be divided into the
subsequent three groups: 1. shape feature extraction, 2. color feature extraction,
3. texture feature extraction. Color feature or color descriptor puts effort to compute
image color in various ways that agree with human perception (or task-specific
necessities). Good image retrieval accuracy needs an efficient color descriptor to be
able to efficiently discover perceptually comparable image colors from a database.
Two main variables motivate the use of color in image processing. First, color is
a strong descriptor often simplifying the recognition and retrieval of objects from a
scene. Second, people can distinguish thousands of shades of color and intensity
compared to just about two dozen shades of gray. Color is one of the most sig-
nificant characteristics that enable us to recognize images. This book emphasizes on
various image color feature extraction methods which are necessary for image
recognition and classification. Color feature helps to determine if a specified color
matches a model satisfactorily, or which of the representative class is the utmost
comparable. Color features are also required to translate or transform one color
model to another so that it best matches other image colors, completely or in
part. Different approaches for extracting image color features are conferred in this
book that will affect the image retrieval from a large database on how the proce-
dures are employed.
The following areas that are covered are the strengths of this book: (1) details
of the need of image color features in CBIR; (2) details of different properties of
image color features; (3) details of different color spaces and conversion from one
color space to another; (4) details of histogram-based color features; (5) details of
MPEG-7 color features; (6) details of other color feature extraction techniques like

v
vi Preface

color coherence, color moments, and color correlogram; (7) different applications of
image color feature in the field of content-based image retrieval; etc.
Each chapter is followed by very helpful summary or conclusion parts and a
significant amount of references to the primary sources of data, many of which are
related to latest literature in the field. The purpose of this book is not only to help
beginners with a holistic approach toward understanding color feature extraction
techniques but also to present to researchers new technological trends and design
challenges they have to cope with, while designing image retrieval systems.
The book is organized as follows:
Chapter 1 gives the overview of image color feature. The need for image color in
the field of image retrieval is discussed in this chapter. Color image processing
includes pseudocolor and full-color or true-color processing. The purpose of
pseudocolor processing is to color a grayscale image by assigning different colors in
different intensity ranges of a gray-level image. In the full-color image, the actual
color of the image is considered. In such type of images, the colors can be specified
by using different color models like RGB (linear and non-linear), HSI, HSV, CMY,
CMYK, CIE L*a*b*, YUV, YIQ, Munsell, HMMD, Opponent, etc. Algorithms for
the conversion from one color space to another are also mentioned in this chapter.
Different color quantization techniques such as scalar or uniform, vector quanti-
zation, octree, etc. are discussed in this chapter. The examples related to different
statistical texture feature extraction techniques are illustrated through MATLAB
examples.
Chapter 2 presents histogram-based image color features like histogram intersec-
tion, fuzzy histogram, and different distance measures that can be used to check the
similarity between color image histograms. Several histogram distance measures
like Histogram Minkowski distance, Histogram Euclidean Distance, Histogram
Intersection Distance, Histogram Quadratic (Cross) Distance, Histogram Manhattan
Distance, Histogram Chebyshev Distance, Histogram Cosine Distance, Histogram
Canberra Distance, Histogram Kolmogorov-Smirnov Divergence Distance,
Histogram Cramer-von Mises Distance, Histogram Chi-square Distance, Histogram
Squared Chord Distance, Histogram Kullback-Leibler Divergence Distance, and
Histogram Jeffrey Divergence Distance are discussed in this chapter. Also, several
advantages and limitations of image color histogram are discussed in this chapter.
The examples related to different statistical texture feature extraction techniques are
illustrated through MATLAB examples.
In Chap. 3, some MPEG-7 color feature extraction techniques are discussed such as
dominant color descriptor, scalable color descriptor, group of images/group of
frames color descriptor, color layout descriptor, and color structure descriptor.
Several advantages and limitations of MPEG-7 color feature are discussed in this
chapter. The examples related to different statistical texture feature extraction
techniques are illustrated through MATLAB examples.
Preface vii

Chapter 4 discusses different image color features like color coherence vector, color
moments, color co-occurrence matrix, color contrast occurrence matrix, color
correlogram, and reference color table method. Several advantages and limitations
of mentioned color feature are discussed in this chapter. The examples related to
different statistical texture feature extraction techniques are illustrated through
MATLAB examples.
Finally, Chap. 5 provides an overview of various applications of color features in
image recognition in the area of leaf recognition, fruit recognition, flower recog-
nition, random image, etc. Also, the way to detect edge using color features is
included in this chapter. The examples related to the application texture feature
extraction techniques of color images are illustrated through MATLAB examples.

Vellore, India Dr. Jyotismita Chaki

Kolkata, India Dr. Nilanjan Dey
Contents

1 Introduction to Image Color Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Color Spaces or Color Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 The RGB Color Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 The CMY and CMYK Color Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.3 The HSV and HSL Color Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.4 The YIQ and YUV Color Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.5 The CIE L*a*b* Color Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.6 The Munsell Color Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.7 The Opponent Color Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1.8 Hue-Max-Min-Difference Color Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.1.9 New Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2 Color Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.1 Scalar or Uniform Color Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.2.2 Vector Color Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.2.3 Octree and Other Color Quantization Algorithms . . . . . . . 22
1.3 Pseudocolor Image Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4 Full-Color Image Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2 Histogram-Based Image Color Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1 Color Histogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Histogram Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3 Color Histogram Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.1 Histogram Minkowski Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.2 Histogram Manhattan Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.3 Histogram Euclidean Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.4 Histogram Chebyshev Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.5 Histogram Intersection Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.6 Histogram Quadratic (Cross) Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

ix
x Contents

2.3.7 Histogram Cosine Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.3.8 Histogram Canberra Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.9 Histogram Kolmogorov-Smirnov Divergence Distance . . . 35
2.3.10 Histogram Cramer-Von Mises Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.11 Histogram Chi-Square Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.12 Histogram Squared Chord Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.13 Histogram Kullback-Leibler Divergence Distance . . . . . . 36
2.3.14 Histogram Jeffrey Divergence Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4 Fuzzy Color Histogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3 MPEG-7 Image Color Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.1 Dominant Color Descriptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2 Scalable Color Descriptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3 Group of Image/Group of Frames Color Descriptor . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4 Color Layout Descriptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5 Color Structure Descriptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4 Other Image Color Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.1 Color Coherence Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.2 Color Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3 Color Co-occurrence Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.4 Color Contrast Occurrence Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.5 Color Correlogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.6 Reference Color Table Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5 Applications of Image Color Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.1 Leaf Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.2 Fruit Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.3 Flower Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4 Random Image Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.5 Edge Detection of Color Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
About the Authors

Dr. Jyotismita Chaki is an Assistant Professor in

School of Information Technology and Engineering at
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India. She has
done her PhD (Engg) from Jadavpur University, Kolkata,
India. Her research interests include: Computer Vision
and Image Processing, Artificial Intelligence, Pattern
Recognition, Medical Imaging, Soft computing, Data
mining, Machine learning. She has authored many
international conferences and journal papers. She is the
author of the following books titled: (1) A Beginner’s
Guide to Image Preprocessing Techniques (CRC Press,
Taylor and Francis), (2) A Beginner’s Guide to Image
Shape Feature Extraction Techniques (CRC Press,
Taylor and Francis) and (3) Texture Feature Extraction
Techniques for Image Recognition (Springer). She has
served as a reviewer of Applied Soft Computing
(Elsevier), Biosystem Engineering (Elsevier), Pattern
Recognition Letters (Elsevier), Journal of Visual
Communication and Image Representation (Elsevier),
Signal Image and Video Processing (Springer) journal
and also served as Program Committee member of many
reputed conferences.

xi
xii About the Authors

Dr. Nilanjan Dey is an Assistant Professor in

Department of Information Technology at Techno
International New Town (Formerly known as Techno
India College of Technology), Kolkata, India. He is a
visiting fellow of the University of Reading, UK. He is a
Visiting Professor at Duy Tan University, Vietnam. He
was an honorary Visiting Scientist at Global Biomedical
Technologies Inc., CA, USA (2012-2015). He was
awarded his PhD. from Jadavpur University in 2015.
He is the Editor-in-Chief of International Journal of
Ambient Computing and Intelligence, IGI Global. He is
the Series Co-Editor of Springer Tracts in Nature-
Inspired Computing, Springer Nature, Series Co-Editor
of Advances in Ubiquitous Sensing Applications for
Healthcare, Elsevier, Series Editor of Computational
Intelligence in Engineering Problem Solving and
Intelligent Signal processing and data analysis, CRC.
He has authored/edited more than 75 books with
Springer, Elsevier, Wiley, CRC Press and published
more than 300 peer-reviewed research papers.
His main research interests include Medical Imaging,
Machine learning, Computer Aided Diagnosis, Data
Mining etc. He is the Indian Ambassador of
International Federation for Information Processing
(IFIP) – Young ICT Group.
Chapter 1
Introduction to Image Color Feature

Two main factors motivate the need for color in image processing. First, color is
a strong descriptor frequently simplifying the recognition and extraction of objects
from a picture. Second, people can distinguish thousands of tones of color and inten-
sity comparable to just about two dozen tones of gray [1–4]. Color is one of the
most significant characteristics that enable people to recognize images. Color is a
feature that relies on the reflection and processing of light to the eye in the brain.
Color is utilized on a daily basis to say the distinction between objects, locations,
and daytime. Comparing the image color content is obvious and therefore this is one
of the popular choices to perform image recovery tasks. Color function is a solid
descriptor which can often simplify the recognition and extraction of objects from a
particular image.
The exact method through which the human brain controls and understands color
sight is a complicated physiopsychological process. Nevertheless, the fundamental
attributes of light itself can easily be expressed on the basis of experimental and
theoretical findings. In 1666, Sir Isaac Newton noted that it spreads evenly into an
incessant color band from violet to red when white light is transmitted via a prism.
He also observed that no color ends sharply within this spectrum, but the transition
from one color to the next is always smooth. Figure 1.1 demonstrates this process.
Each color in the spectrum is a particular wavelength corresponding to a distinctive
color. It is possible to mix different combinations of these wavelengths to create other
colors too.
From the light reflected from the images, the colors experienced by the human
visual system and some other creatures are defined [5, 6]. As shown in Fig. 1.2, only
a tiny part of the entire electromagnetic spectrum is composed of visible light. Items
that reflect all wavelengths of the light spectrum will appear white, while objects that
favor the reflection of some wavelengths will appear to the observer as some color
shade. For example, artifacts in the range of 420–470 nm that reflect wavelengths
while consuming much of the others may appear as a blue color.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1
J. Chaki and N. Dey, Image Color Feature Extraction Techniques,
SpringerBriefs in Computational Intelligence,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5761-3_1
2 1 Introduction to Image Color Feature

Fig. 1.1 The color spectrum obtained by transmitting white light via a prism

Fig. 1.2 Wavelength making up visible light or spectrum

Special sensor cell structures, widely known as cones, are in charge of color
perception in human vision within the eye [7, 8]. Researchers have assessed, based
on observational evidence, that six to seven million cones residing in the human eye
can be segmented into three different groups of sensing approximately corresponding
to the colors blue, green, and red. About only 2% of these cones belong to the blue
group, 33% to the green group, and 65% to the red group. It is observed that these
cluster ratios do not reflect the specificity of color directly; in fact, the blue cones
are the most delicate, compensating for their deficiency of presence.
Figure 1.3 demonstrates the absorption of light by the red, green, and blue, cones
as a meaning of the eye’s wavelength and also the highest wavelengths for which they
are most delicate on a standardized range. Colors are regarded as varying proportions
of these primary colors because of these characteristics of the cone cells of the eye.
Moreover, due to the continued existence of the visual spectrum and the varying cone
1 Introduction to Image Color Feature 3

Fig. 1.3 Absorption of light by the human eye cones

sensitivity, no particular color may be classified as red, green, or blue. Mixtures of

such primaries dependent on defined wavelengths cannot be utilized to generate all
spectrum wavelengths; the ranges of blue, red, and green should be allowed to vary
in order to generate all colors.
A color model is a mathematical model that in certain regular and approved ways
facilitates color definition. The model, also recognized as color system or color space,
designates a subspace and a coordinate system within that system of coordinates
where every point conforms specifically to a single color [9]. Nowadays, most color
models are designed to utilize either in computer hardware (monitor, printer, etc.) or
in applications where the use of color is the main goal (i.e., graphic design). Presently
there are countless color models in realistic usage merely because color science is a
vast domain covering many applications.

1.1 Color Spaces or Color Models

A suitable technique for depicting the color signal is required to use color as a visual
stimulus in image processing, multimedia, statistics, and machine vision applications.
This need is addressed by the various color specification systems or color models
(color spaces or solids). Color spaces offer a good rational technique for specifying,
ordering, manipulating, and displaying the colors of the object taken into consid-
eration [10]. A well-selected depiction retains vital data and gives insight into the
required visual operation. The color model chosen should, therefore, be well adapted
to tackle the declaration and answer to the problem. Selecting the finest image repre-
sentation method includes understanding how to generate color patterns and what
information these signals require. Despite the fact that color spaces impose restric-
tions on color perception and depiction, they also assist people to fulfill significant
4 1 Introduction to Image Color Feature

tasks. In specific, color models can be utilized to specify colors, distinguish colors,
assess color similarity, and identify image categories for a variety of applications.
Color model literature can be discovered in the modern sciences such as engineering,
physics, computer science, artificial intelligence, sociology, and philosophy.
In the literature, four fundamental color model families can be defined as follows:
1. Colorimetric color models based on spectral reactance physical measurements
[11]. For such models, three primary colors are identified by their coordinates,
like the CIE chromaticity diagram. To obtain other colors, the primary colors are
mixed subtractively or additively.
2. Psychophysical color based on human color perception [12]. Such color spaces
are either focused on subjective observation standards and relative references
(e.g., Munsell color space) or are constructed through studies to meet human
color perception (e.g., hue, saturation, and lightness model).
3. Physiological color representations are focused on the three main cone types as
in the human retina [13]. The color space utilized in computer hardware by Red-
Green-Blue (RGB) is a renowned example of a color model that is physiologically
inspired.
4. Opponent color spaces or models relying on perception experimentations,
primarily using main opponent colors, like the color pairs Yellow-Blue and
Red-Green [14].

Alternatively, color models can be split into three classifications in applications for
image processing, such as
1. Device-oriented color models that are correlated with devices including RGB,
CMY, and YIQ input; processing; and output [15]. In modern applications, such
spaces are of primary significance where color needs to be specified in a manner
that is consistent with the hardware devices utilized to provide, manipulate, or
obtain color image data.
2. User-oriented color models that are used as a link between hardware and human
operators for manipulating color information such as HCV, HSL, HSB, HSV,
CIE-LAB, MTM, and CIE-LUV [16]. These models enable the individual to
define color through perceptual characteristics and can be regarded as a new
imitation of human color perception.
3. Device-independent color models that were utilized to indicate color signals
regardless of device or application characteristics [17]. These models are
important in applications where color similarities are needed and percep-
tual information is transmitted through networks connecting various hardware
platforms.

As frequently utilized, image formats like GIFs, BMPs, and JPEGs always store
and display images in the RGB color model, an RGB color space-based image
retrieval scheme will not require color space conversion and will, therefore, be facil-
itated. Though, due to the deficiency of the RGB color space not being perceptually
uniform, the RGB color model may be converted into other models in color-based
1.1 Color Spaces or Color Models 5

image retrieval that enhances perceptual consistency. However, there is no proof to

demonstrate which color space will always produce the highest results for image
recovery.

1.1.1 The RGB Color Space

Each color appears in a subspace of the conventional Cartesian coordinate system as

a three-dimensional point within the RGB color space. Each axis signifies one of the
three color components (red (R), green (G), and blue (B)) that will portray all colors
in the model [18]. For simplicity, these values are sometimes standardized so that all
values of R, G, and B fall in the range [0,1]. Figure 1.4 visually portrays the RGB
subspace. The RGB color images are made up of three-channel images, also named
as components, for each prime color. These channels congregate into an additive way
to define the color at a specified pixel (by a mixture of red, green, and blue each pixel
is colored). This directly translates into how a color monitor displays color, which
is why it is sometimes the default color model utilized in most applications. One
significant limitation of the RGB color model is that it is not visually standardized,
which means that the computed range in the RGB model is not really proportional
to the variation in visual color.

Linear RGB Color Model

The linear R component is proportional to the physical power intensity, radiated
from an object around the visible spectrum’s 700 nm band [19]. Similarly, the
546:1 nm range refers to a normal G component and the 435:8 nm band refers to a
linear B component. As a consequence, the linear RGB space is device-independent
and utilized to obtain color consistency throughout various devices in several color

Fig. 1.4 Normalized RGB

coordinate color cube
6 1 Introduction to Image Color Feature

management systems. Utilizing the following matrix conversion (Eq. 1.1), the linear
RGB values in the range [0, 1] can be transformed into the subsequent CIE XYZ
values in the range [0, 1].
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
X 0.4125 0.3576 0.1804 R
⎣ Y ⎦ = ⎣ 0.2127 0.7152 0.0722 ⎦⎣ G ⎦ (1.1)
Z 0.0193 0.1192 0.9502 B

The conversion from CIE XYZ to RGB values in the range [0, 1] is demarcated
by using Eq. (1.2).
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
R 3.2405 −1.5372 −0.4985 X
⎣ G ⎦ = ⎣ −0.9693 1.8760 0.0416 ⎦⎣ Y ⎦ (1.2)
B 0.0556 −0.2040 1.0573 Z

On the other hand, tristimulus XYZ values can be attained from the linear RGB
values by using the subsequent matrix represented in Eq. (1.3).
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
X 0.490 0.310 0.200 R
⎣ Y ⎦ = ⎣ 0.117 0.812 0.011 ⎦⎣ G ⎦ (1.3)
Z 0.000 0.010 0.990 B

The linear RGB values are a physical depiction of a radiated object’s chromatic
light. Though, the human visual system’s perceptual reaction to emit R, G, and B
intensities is more complicated and non-linear. The linear RGB space is extremely
non-uniform perceptually and not appropriate for mathematical perceptual attribute
assessment. Therefore, it is very rare to utilize linear RGB values to depict an image.
On the other hand, in image processing applications such as filtering, non-linear,
R G B values are generally utilized.

Non-linear RGB Color Model

The video camera is exposed to the linear light emitted from the object when an
image is captured. Using gamma correction, the linear RGB intensity incident on the
video camera is converted into non-linear RGB measurements. The conversion from
linear RGB values to non-linear R G B values in the range [0, 1] is demarcated by
using Eq. (1.4).

 4.5R, if R ≤ 0.018
R = 1
1.099 R γ − 0.099, otherwise

4.5G, if G ≤ 0.018
G = 1
1.099 G − 0.099, otherwise
γ
1.1 Color Spaces or Color Models 7

 4.5B, if B ≤ 0.018
B = 1 (1.4)
1.099 B − 0.099, otherwise
γ

where γ is regarded as the camera’s or acquisition device’s gamma factor. Normally

the value of γ is 1/0.45 that is utilized in video cameras. In practical scanners and
cameras, the linear section near small intensities reduces the impact of the noise of the
sensor. Therefore, the digital image pixel values obtained from the object and placed
in a scanner or camera are the values of R G B , which are generally transformed to
the interval of 0 to 255. The three parts R , G , and B of a color image pixel with
one byte for each element are then needed to depict three bytes. It is these non-linear
values of R G B that are recorded in computers as image information records and
utilized in applications for machine vision application. Generally, the RGB symbol
utilized in machine vision literature relates to the values of R G B and thus attention
must be given in the conversion of color models and other appropriate computations.

1.1.2 The CMY and CMYK Color Space

Like the RGB color model, the CMY color model is a subspace of conventional
Cartesian three-dimensional space, considering the form of a cube unit. The funda-
mental secondary colors cyan, magenta, and yellow are represented by each axis
[20]. However, unlike RGB, CMY is a subtractive model of color, which means that
the source in RGB is pure black and the source in CMY is pure white. In other terms,
growing CMY coordinate values shift to darker shades where growing RGB coordi-
nate values shift to brighter colors (see Fig. 1.5). The transformation from RGB to
CMY can be done utilizing Eq. (1.5).

Fig. 1.5 Normalized CMY

coordinate color cube
8 1 Introduction to Image Color Feature
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
C 1 R
⎣ M ⎦ = ⎣1⎦ − ⎣G ⎦ (1.5)
Y 1 B

where all color values were assumed to be standardized to the interval [0,1]. Equa-
tion (1.5) reaffirms the CMY model’s subtractive character. Although black should
produce equivalent components of cyan, magenta, and yellow, it has been discovered
that this contributes to muddy outcomes in printing applications. The fourth element
of real black is introduced to produce the CMYK color space in printing applications.
The use of this CMYK model relates to four-color printing. Like the RGB model,
pixel ranges in the CMY color model do not conform to variations in perceptual
color.
The method to transform RGB color to CMYK is stated below.
The R, G, B values are divided by 255 to change the range [0, 255] to [0, 1] as
shown in Eq. (1.6).

 
R = R 255
 
G = G 255
 
B = B 255 (1.6)
 
The black key (K ) color is computed from the red R̂ , green Ĝ , and blue

B̂ colors as shown in Eq. (1.7).

  
K = 1 − max R, G, B (1.7)


The cyan color (C) is computed from the red R̂ and black (K ) colors as
represented in Eq. (1.8).


C = 1− R−K (1 − K ) (1.8)


The magenta color (M) is computed from the green Ĝ and black (K ) colors
as represented in Eq. (1.9).


M = 1−G−K (1 − K ) (1.9)


The yellow color (Y ) is computed from the blue B̂ and black (K ) colors as
shown in Eq. (1.10).
1.1 Color Spaces or Color Models 9


Y = 1− B−K (1 − K ) (1.10)

The way to transform CMYK color to RGB is stated below.

The R, G, B values are specified in the range [0, 255]. The red (R) color is
computed from the cyan (C) and black (K ) colors as shown in Eq. (1.11).

R = 255 × (1 − C) × (1 − K ) (1.11)

The green color (G) is computed from the magenta (M) and black (K ) colors as
represented in Eq. (1.12).

G = 255 × (1 − M) × (1 − K ) (1.12)

The blue color (B) is computed from the yellow (Y ) and black (K ) colors as
shown in Eq. (1.13).

B = 255 × (1 − Y ) × (1 − K ) (1.13)

1.1.3 The HSV and HSL Color Space

The color models of HSV (hue, saturation, and value) and HSL (hue, saturation, and
lightness) are very distinct from the earlier studied RGB and CMY/K color models
as in that both systems separate a point’s total intensity value from its chromaticity.
The HSV color model can be viewed as a downward pointing hexacone in three
dimensions [21]. The line that runs down the middle of the vertical axis of the cone
signifies the value of intensity V. Hue is portrayed as the angle relative to the red
axis residing perpendicular to the intensity axis on the plane. Saturation relates to
the perpendicular distance of a point from the axis of intensity. Figure 1.6 shows this
HSV color model’s hexacone representation.
The group of equations below (Eqs. 1.14 –1.18) can be utilized to convert a point
in the RGB coordinate system to the suitable value in the HSV space.
 
 −1
1
[(R − G) + (R − B)]
H = cos 2
(1.14)
(R − G)2 + (R − B)(G − B)

H = H  , if B ≤ G (1.15)

H = 360◦ − H  , if B > G (1.16)

10 1 Introduction to Image Color Feature

Fig. 1.6 Color hexagon for HSV depiction

max(R, G, B) − min(R, G, B)
S= (1.17)
max(R, G, B)
max(R, G, B)
V = (1.18)
255
Here the RGB value range is [0, 255].
The model of HSL color is very comparable to the HSV system. A double hexa-
cone is utilized to visualize the subspace in three dimensions, with two apexes at both
pure black and pure white instead of just one at pure black. The saturation element
in HSL [22] goes from a fully saturated color to the respective gray, while satura-
tion in HSV, with V at its maximum, passes from a frilly transparent color to black.
In addition, the color element in HSL always extends from black to white through
the selected hue. In HSV, the component of intensity goes only from black to the
selected hue. Because chromaticity is separated from the intensity in both HSV and
HSL color spaces, intensity-based images can be processed only, leaving the original
color data intact. This has resulted in the widespread utilization of HSL and HSV in
computer vision research.
The HSI machine vision literature does not show whether the non-linear or linear
RGB is being utilized in these transformations. Therefore, the non-linear (R G B ),
which is inherent in conventional machine vision, is utilized. But the ambiguity must
be observed. R G B (range [0, 1]) transformation to HSI (range [0, 1]) is extremely
non-linear and complex as shown in Eqs. (1.19–1.21).
⎡     ⎤
1
R − G  + R − B
H = cos−1 ⎣  2
1
⎦ (1.19)
(R  − G  )2 + (R  − B  )(G  − B  ) 2
1.1 Color Spaces or Color Models 11

3   
S =1− min R  , G  , B  (1.20)
(R   
+G +B)
1  
I = R + G + B (1.21)
3
   
where H = 360◦ − H if B  /I > G  /I . Hue is standardized to the range [0,1] by
H = H/360◦ . Hue (H ) is not demarcated when the saturation (S) is zero. Likewise,
saturation (S) is unspecified if the intensity (I ) is zero.
To convert the HSI values to the R G B in the range [0, 1], then the hue (H ) value
range [0, 1] first transformed back to the un-standardized in the range [0◦ , 360◦ ] by
H = 360◦ (H ). The R G conversion for (0◦ < H ≤ 120◦ ) is shown in equation set
(1.22).

B  = I (1 − S)
 
 S cos H
R = I 1+
cos(60◦ − H )
 
G = 3I − R  + B 

(1.22)

The G B conversion for (120◦ < H ≤ 240◦ ) is shown in equation set (1.23).

H = H − 120◦
R  = I (1 − S)
 
S cos H
G = I 1 +
cos(60◦ − H )
 
B  = 3I − R  + G  (1.23)

The B R conversion for (240◦ < H ≤ 360◦ ) is shown in equation set (1.24).

H = H − 240◦
G  = I (1 − S)
 
S cos H
B = I 1 +
cos(60◦ − H )
 
R  = 3I − G  + B  (1.24)

The vital benefits of the HSI color spaces over other color spaces are (1) good
compatibility with human perception, (2) chromatic values separation from achro-
matic values, and (3) the prospect of utilizing one color feature, i.e., hue, only for
segmentation purposes. Several image segmentation methods take benefit of this.
Segmentation is generally done in one color feature (hue) as an alternative of three,
permitting the utilization of much faster algorithms.
But, hue-oriented color models have some substantial limitations, like (1) singu-
larities in the conversion, e.g., approximate hue for achromatic points, (2) sensitivity
12 1 Introduction to Image Color Feature

to minor deviations of RGB values adjacent to singular points, and (3) mathematical
unpredictability when working on hue because of the feature’s angular nature.

1.1.4 The YIQ and YUV Color Space

The YIQ color system was created by and for the television industry as a result of
a need to compress digital imagery streaming with as little image deterioration as
needed [23]. The luminance value Y is divided from the chromaticity value I and Q,
just like the HSV and HSL models. This enables engineers to represent the luminance
value with more bits than the chromaticity attributes, as the human vision system is
much more susceptible to the modifications of the intensity. Equation 1.25 provides
an estimated linear transformation from a collection of RGB coordinates to the YIQ
space.
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
Y 0.30 0.50 0.11 R
⎣ I ⎦ = ⎣ 0.60 −0.28 −0.32 ⎦⎣ G ⎦ (1.25)
Q 0.21 −0.52 0.31 B

For television broadcasting along with the common compression procedures

MPEG and JPEG, a comparable color model YUV is also utilized [24]. Equation 1.26
provides the estimated linear transformation from RGB coordinates to YUV space.
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
Y 0.30 0.59 0.11 R
⎣ U ⎦ = ⎣ −0.15 −0.29 −0.44 ⎦⎣ G ⎦ (1.26)
V 0.62 −0.51 0.10 B

1.1.5 The CIE L*a*b* Color Space

The CIE L*a*b* color space or model was established to the perceptually uniform
and possesses a Euclidean metric. This implies that there would be a strong corre-
lation between Euclidean distance between two points (colors) and human visual
interpretation [25]. CIE L*a*b* is totally based on the CIE XYZ color space, in
which the components X, Y, and Z portray tristimulus that can convey any color that
the average human observer can perceive. These primary colors are unreal, which
means that the actual color stimuli cannot realize them. Because RGB is not an abso-
lute color space, it is impossible to accurately convert RGB coordinates into CIE
L*a*b* space and it cannot generate all humanly perceptible colors. Alternatively,
by using Eq. 1.27, RGB coordinates can be projected into the CIE XYZ color space.
1.1 Color Spaces or Color Models 13
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
X 0.41 0.36 0.18 R
⎣ Y ⎦ = ⎣ 0.24 0.72 0.07 ⎦⎣ G ⎦ (1.27)
Z 0.02 0.12 0.95 B

where R, G, and B are on the range [0, 1]. From the XYZ model, it is now probable
to project into CIE L*a*b* space using Eqs. (1.28–1.30).

1/
Y 3
L ∗ = 116 − 16 (1.28)
YT
⎡ ⎤
1/ 1/
X 3 Y 3
a ∗ = 500⎣ − ⎦ (1.29)
XT YT
⎡ ⎤
1/ 1/
Y 3 Z 3
b∗ = 200⎣ − ⎦ (1.30)
YT ZT

The values XT, YT, and ZT signify the tristimulus values of a reference white point.
The back transformation to the XYZ model from the L*a*b* model is completed
by first calculating the luminance Y, and subsequently the calculation of X and Z is
represented in Eqs. (1.31–1.33).

L ∗ + 16 3
Y = YT (1.31)
116
⎛ ⎞3
1/
a∗ Y 3
X =⎝ + ⎠ XT (1.32)
500 YT
⎛ ⎞3
1/
b∗ Y 3
Z = ⎝− + ⎠ ZT (1.33)
200 YT

1.1.6 The Munsell Color Space

The color space of Munsell reflects the previous effort to engage the perception of
color into a color model. The area of Munsell is described as an artists’ comparative
reference [26]. Its overall shape is that of a three-dimensional cylindrical depiction of
the perceived lightness, hue, and saturation. Furthermore, opposite to the HSI or HSV
color models that are represented by the hue, saturation, and lightness of the color
14 1 Introduction to Image Color Feature

Fig. 1.7 The Munsell color space

solids, the Munsell model utilizes the color atlas method where the characteristics
of perception are utilized for sampling.
The basic concept behind the color model of Munsell is that of equivalent visual
spacing between each of the three characteristics. Hue is scaled to a color that is
unique to define. A circular band split into ten parts to represent it. The sections are
defined as red, yellow-red, yellow, green-yellow, green, blue-green, blue, purple-blue,
purple, and red-purple.
If finer distinctions of hue are needed, each part can be further split into ten
subsections. A chromatic hue is defined as one or two neighboring hues resembling
it. Value in the color model of Munsell relates to the lightness or darkness of a
color and is split into 11 parts counted from zero (black) to ten (white). The chroma
describes the strength of the color. It is evaluated in consecutive steps beginning from
one with low chroma values in weak colors. The highest chroma available relies on
the utilization of the hue and the value. As shown in Fig. 1.7, the strong vertical axis
of the Munsell color is the line of V observations from black to white. Hue shifts
perpendicular to the vertical line along each circle. At last, on the V axis, chroma
begins at zero and shifts along each circle’s radius.
The space of Munsell consists of a collection of 1200 color chips each designated
as a unique component of hue, value, and chroma. These chips are combined to create
a three-dimensional structure that forms a warped sphere. The fundamental Munsell
colors book has different editions, with various appearances (matte or glossy), various
sample sizes, and various number of samples. The set of glossy finish collection shows
color point chips organized on 40 charts of constant hue. The chips are organized
in rows and columns on every constant-hue chart. The colors move from light at
the top of each chart to very dark at the bottom by steps designed to be perceptually
equal. They also move from achromatic colors like white and gray at the chart’s inner
edge to chromatic colors at the chart’s outer end by steps that are also meant to be
1.1 Color Spaces or Color Models 15

perceptually equal. All graphs together form the color atlas, which is the Munsell
system’s solid color.
Even though the Munsell color book can be utilized to identify or label colors,
it is not utilized in practice directly for applications for machine vision. Generally,
stored image data is transformed to the Munsell coordinates, quite often in RGB
format, either using closed formulas or lookup tables preceding to the actual applica-
tion. Using the following mathematical algorithm, the transformation from the RGB
components to the Munsell hue (M H ), value (MV ) correlating to the luminance, and
chroma (MC ) correlating to the saturation can be attained.

x = 0.620R + 0.178G + 0.204B

y = 0.299R + 0.587G + 0.144B
z = 0.056G + 0.942B (1.34)

A non-linear conversion is applied to the in-between values as shown in equation

set (1.35).

a = f (x) − f (y)
b = 0.4( f (z) − f (y)) (1.35)

1
where f (w) = 11.6w / 3 − 1.6. Then the new variables are converted to equation set
(1.36).

c = ( p + q cos(θ ))a
d = (r + s sin(θ ))b (1.36)
 
where θ = tan−1 a b , p = 8.880, q = 0.966, r = 8.025, and s = 2.558. At last,
(M H ), (MV ), and (MC ) are computed using Eqs. (1.37–1.39).
c
M H = arctan (1.37)
d

MV = f (y) (1.38)
 
MC = c2 + d 2 (1.39)

Then again, the transformation from RGB, or other color models, to the Munsell
color model can be attained by lookup tables.
16 1 Introduction to Image Color Feature

1.1.7 The Opponent Color Space

This color space or model group is a collection of physiologically driven color models
influenced by the human visual system’s nature [27]. The human vision system
can be defined in terms of opponent hues, blue and yellow on the one hand and
red and green on the other hand, that suspend each other when overlaid, as per
the color vision principle. The RGB signals are converted to three channels, two
opponent color channels (RG, YB) and one achromatic channel (I) are obtained
using Eqs. (1.40–1.42).

RG = R − G (1.40)

Y B = 2B − R − G (1.41)

I = R+G+B (1.42)

At the same time, systematic tests of region segmentation can derive a number
of efficient color characteristics. The image that has the profound valleys on its
histogram and has the greatest discriminating power to distinguish the image groups
in a specified region does not need to be the R, G, and B color characteristics according
to the segmentation method. As a characteristic is supposed to have great discrimi-
nating power if it has a large variance, the utilization of the Karhunen-Loeve (KL)
conversion has obtained color characteristics with great discriminating strength. The
calculation of the fresh color characteristics for the region pixels is performed by
the KL transformation of R, G, and B signals at each phase of segmenting a region.
Three color features can be determined that establish an efficient group of features
for segmenting color images as represented in equation set (1.43).

R+G+B
I1 =
3
I2 = R − G
2G − R − B
I3 = (1.43)
2
Color space hue could be coded in an opponent color in a circular format ranging
from blue, green, yellow, red, and black to white. Saturation is described as distance
in color classifications from the hue circle making hue and saturation specifiable.
Thus, when opponent representation is often considered as a linear transformation of
RGB space, opponent representation is much more appropriate for perceived image
modeling than RGB is. Figure 1.8 shows the opponent color stage by the human
visual system.
1.1 Color Spaces or Color Models 17

Fig. 1.8 The opponent color stage of human visual system

1.1.8 Hue-Max-Min-Difference Color Space

The color space of the Hue-Max-Min-Difference (HMMD) is identical to a space of

perceptually uniform color. The double cone shape of this color space is shown in
Fig. 1.9.
The elements are known as “Max,” “Min” and “Diff,” which are calculations
between RGB and HMMD as per the transform shown in Eq. 1.44.

Max = max(R, G, B)
Min = min(R, G, B)
Diff = Max − Min (1.44)

Although in the HMMD color space the four components are defined, one more
component can be described as Sum as defined using Eq. (1.45).

Fig. 1.9 HMMD double

cone color space
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with Unrelated Content
Tree, covered with glittering balls and bells and chains, with
beautiful stars and candles of every hue.
But, would you believe it, though it was by far the gayest, prettiest
sight that Patty or Anne Marie or Ailie had ever looked upon, after
the first glance the three little girls did not look at the Tree at all.
They were looking at something under the Tree, at something so
delightful, so exactly what they wanted to see, that they simply
could not look at anything else.
For each little girl was looking at Polly Perkins sitting under the Tree.
But instead of one Polly Perkins there were three!
Yes, actually three Polly Perkinses, looking exactly alike, with gentle
brown eyes and pretty pink cheeks and glossy brown curls. And each
Polly Perkins wore a sweet, sweet smile. There were the three pink
dresses, the three pair of neat brown slippers, too.
It was simply too good to be true. But it was true. Oh, yes, indeed, it
was.
Down on the floor before one Polly Perkins went Patty King, down
went Anne Marie Durant before another, and last of all down went
Ailie McNabb before the third Polly Perkins sitting under the Tree.
Then Grandmother stepped forward and placed a dolly in each of
the little girls’ arms.
‘This is your dolly, Anne Marie,’ said Grandmother, her face as bright
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‘Merci, Madame, merci,’ said Anne Marie, so excited that, for the
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Ailie slipped a little hand into Grandmother’s and smiled up into her
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The prettiest one of all.’
Holding their dollies the little girls could now turn their attention to
the Tree.
It really seemed as if all the bright, sparkling, glittering objects in
the world had been brought together and hung upon this Tree for
Grandmother King’s Christmas Party.
Chains and balls, flowers and fruit, icicles and snowballs, all in gold
and silver, rose and blue, scarlet and green, swung and bloomed on
the thick, sweet, green boughs. There were gay cornucopias filled to
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any real star in the sky on this Eve of Christmas Day.
Then came ice-cream—for Grandmother said it wouldn’t be a real
party without ice-cream—and Anne Marie’s Christmas cakes, oh, so
good! And candy, as much as you could eat. And last of all, you
might choose whatever you would, to keep, from off the Christmas
Tree.
Patty chose the two little babies asleep in the cradle, Anne Marie
chose a silver-and-white fairy dancer, and Ailie’s choice was the
bright little red-and-green parrot swinging in his cage.
‘He will keep Granny company when I go out to shop,’ explained
Ailie.
 ‘WHAT WILL SANTA CLAUS SAY TO-NIGHT WHEN HE
SEES THREE POLLY PERKINSES?’ ASKED PATTY
Papa Durant came to take Anne Marie home, and bowed and smiled
and rubbed his hands together when he heard the praises of his
Christmas cakes, and saw Polly Perkins Durant held in happy Anne
Marie’s arms.
Thomas, the hall boy, who had brought wee Ailie McNabb to the
party, was to take her home again.
But just at the last moment, Patty asked a question that made every
one at the Party stand still and think.
‘What will Santa Claus say to-night when he sees three Polly
Perkinses?’ asked Patty.
And that was a question no one could answer, not even
Grandmother King.
 CHAPTER IX
ANNE MARIE AND THE CHRISTMAS ANGEL

What did Santa Claus say when he saw the three Polly Perkinses?
That is something you and I will never know, unless some day one
of the Polly Perkinses opens her lips and tells.
For, of course, no one saw Santa Claus that Christmas Eve. Neither
Patty, nor Ailie, nor Anne Marie, nor any one of the hundreds and
hundreds of little boys and girls who meant to lie awake that night
and steal a glimpse of Santa Claus, or at least hear the patter of his
reindeer’s hoofs or catch the faintest tinkle of their bells.
But Anne Marie did see the Christmas Angel.
To be sure, there was one moment the next day when she thought it
might have been all a dream. But that moment was very short,
indeed. And finally Anne Marie made up her mind that not only had
she seen the Christmas Angel, but that the Angel had bent over her
bed and had smilingly given her a gentle Christmas kiss.
When Anne Marie, holding fast to Papa Durant’s hand, walked home
from the Party, although the walk was a short one, she managed to
tell him everything that had happened, from the moment she had
presented her Christmas cakes to Grandmother King until Papa
Durant himself had come to take her home.
She scarcely glanced up at the deep-blue starry sky. She scarcely
noticed the happy people, laden with bundles, who hurried to and
fro in the gay and frosty street.
Once home, she could scarcely eat her supper, so eager was she to
tell Grand’mère all about the Christmas Party and to display the new
Polly Perkins Durant in all her beauty of fresh pink frock and gray
cloak and hood.
‘This cape is worthy of Paris,’ pronounced Grand’mère, after carefully
examining not only the cape, but the pale blue lining as well. And
this, from Grand’mère was praise indeed, as Anne Marie well knew.
It seemed very hard that Anne Marie could not tell Maman all about
her happy afternoon, nor even show to her Polly Perkins Durant.
But Christmas Eve was a busy night in the Bakery, and Maman
would sit late in her little golden cage, not leaving it until Anne Marie
had long been abed and asleep. Of course, their friends and patrons
must have their Christmas cakes and pastries, their Christmas buns
and rolls. Anne Marie would not have had it otherwise.
‘But I would like to slip downstairs just for a moment to show my
Polly to Maman,’ coaxed Anne Marie, leaning across her bowl of
bread and milk to pat Grand’mère upon the cheek.
Although Grand’mère smiled at Anne Marie, she shook her head.
‘That would not please Maman,’ was Grand’mère’s answer, and Anne
Marie knew it was true. ‘You may show her your Polly to-morrow
morning when you wish her “Joyeux Noel.” Maman left a message
for you, Anne Marie. She said that you might go into her bedroom
and look at her ball dress that is lying on the bed, but that you must
not touch it. Wait, Anne Marie, wait for me.’
For already Anne Marie had slipped from her chair, and with Polly in
her arms was hurrying down the hall toward Maman’s bedroom.
‘You did not know it, Polly,’ said Anne Marie as she went, ‘but to-
night Papa and Maman go to the ball. And of all the lovely ladies
who will be there to-night, in pink and blue dresses, in scarlet and
white, Maman will be the loveliest of them all. Papa has told me this,
but I already knew it myself before he told me. And now we are to
see her dress, her new ball dress that she has never worn.’
The new ball dress lay spread out upon the bed. It was white, soft
and filmy white, and trimmed with delicate silver lace.
Not for anything in the world would Anne Marie have so much as laid
a finger upon it. It was far, far too beautiful for any little girl to
touch.
Beside the dress lay the softly gleaming silver slippers that Maman
was to wear. And there, too, oh, how lovely! was the wreath of tiny
silver flowers that would rest like a crown on Maman’s dark curling
hair.
‘Oh!’ breathed Anne Marie in delight. ‘Oh, Grand’mère!’
Grand’mère nodded, smiling all the while, and in silence she and
Anne Marie stood looking at the bed.
‘I know,’ said Anne Marie suddenly, ‘I know whom Maman will be
like. She will be like my little fairy dancer, only, of course, much more
beautiful. Come, Grand’mère! Come and see my fairy dancer. She,
too, is all silver and white. See her dance, Grand’mère! See her
whirl! I can do that too.’
And, holding Polly’s hands, Anne Marie whirled and twirled like her
little fairy dancer until both she and Polly fell in a heap to the floor.
‘It is now time for bed,’ said Grand’mère, ‘and there is much for you
to do to-night before you go to sleep.’
In less time than you might think, Anne Marie was washed and
brushed and in her nightgown, almost ready for bed.
Almost ready for bed, but not quite. For it was Christmas Eve,
remember, and although Anne Marie was not going to hang up her
stocking, she was going to leave her shoe beside the hearth.
And would the little Noel fill a shoe as surely as Kris Kringle would
stuff a stocking with toys and goodies of every kind?
Certainly he would.
He had done it over and over for Papa and Maman when they were
little children in far-away France. He had done it for Grand’mère in
that long-ago time when she was a little girl like Anne Marie. Indeed,
without doubt, he would do it that very night for those little children
in France and elsewhere who believed in him and who left one of
their shoes beside the hearth for him to fill.
So Anne Marie made ready to place her shoe beside the hearth.
‘Shall I take one of my best shoes, Grand’mère?’ asked Anne Marie,
‘my shiny shoes with the gray tops? Or would you take one of my
everyday brown shoes, do you think?’
‘The best shoe, perhaps,’ answered Grand’mère, ‘though little Noel is
not one to scorn a shabby shoe.’
‘Then I will take my everyday shoe,’ decided Anne Marie, after a
moment’s thought. ‘It is not kind on Christmas Eve to take the best
shoe because it is the prettiest. Sometimes the shiny shoes pinch
me, and the brown ones never do. Then, too, the brown shoe is the
larger,’ added Anne Marie.
Down beside the hearth went the brown shoe to wait for little Noel,
and Anne Marie made ready to light her Christmas candle.
‘This is for the little Noel,’ Anne Marie told Polly softly, as Grand’mère
in the window pinned the curtains safely back and raised the shade.
‘He will come to earth to-night, and in the dark and cold my candle
in the window may be the very light he needs to guide him on his
way.’
The candle lighted and Anne Marie tucked in bed, Grand’mère put
out all other lights and crept away.
Beside the bed on a chair sat Polly Perkins, holding the little fairy
dancer in her lap.
Of course, Anne Marie meant not to go to sleep. She meant to stay
awake and at least hear the little Noel moving about, even though
she were not able to have a peep at him. Perhaps, too, Maman
would come in to say good-night before she went to the ball.
The candle burned steadily, sending out a clear yellow light.
‘Dear little Christ Child, dear little Noel,’ thought Anne Marie drowsily.
‘Will he see my candle, I wonder, to-night? Will he come down the
long, long way from heaven, the long, long way—’
And while thinking these long, long thoughts, Anne Marie fell asleep.
Just why Anne Marie woke in the middle of the night she never
knew. There was not a sound, not even the ticking of the clock to be
heard.
The candle was still burning. Its soft yellow light made a bright glow
in one corner of the dark room, and there, before Anne Marie,
directly in the light stood—the Christmas Angel!
How could Anne Marie be mistaken?
The Angel was in white, as Angels always are, and she glistened
from head to foot as if powdered with star-dust or light-o’-the-moon.
She stood quite still, with a sweet smile on her face, but as Anne
Marie watched, slowly and as light as a feather the Angel moved
toward her bed.
Anne Marie held her breath. She was not in the least afraid. Over
her bed bent the Angel, and Anne Marie felt a kiss, the gentlest,
softest kiss you may imagine, placed upon her forehead.
It was all so beautiful! so lovely! Anne Marie wished that the Angel
might stay with her forever. Not for any reason would she stir and
perhaps startle the Angel away.
She closed her eyes for an instant only, but when she opened them
again the room was dark. The Christmas Candle had burned out and
the Christmas Angel had vanished.
When Anne Marie next awoke, the room was filled with daylight. It
was a gray light, to be sure, for already a few flakes were drifting
down from the cloudy sky and the day promised to be a snowy one.
But at least morning had come, and it took Anne Marie only a
moment to dart to the hearth and find her shoe well-filled, to carry it
in to Maman and Papa’s bedside, to wish them a ‘Joyeux Noel’ With
many kisses, and then to climb upon the bed to see what was in her
shoe.
An orange, candy, a gay little purse filled with golden pennies, a box
of colored pencils, a silver thimble, for Anne Marie dearly loved to
sew.
It was remarkable how many presents the little Noel had managed
to put into one small shoe.
And down in the very toe, where Anne Marie might never have
thought of looking—only, of course, she did—was a box, and in the
box a ring, a real gold ring, set with three stones of a most lovely
shade of blue.
‘Turquoise, they are called,’ said Papa Durant.
The ring fitted Anne Marie exactly. How had the little Noel known the
size of her finger so well?
But Anne Marie spent little time in thinking of that. She had
something so tell—the Visit of the Christmas Angel.
As she told her story, Papa Durant nodded and nodded again.
‘True, true,’ murmured he when Anne Marie had finished. ‘It was
truly an Angel that you saw last night.’
But Maman only laughed softly and said, ‘But was it not all a
Christmas dream, Anne Marie?’
Anne Marie shook her head doubtfully. For a moment she did not
know quite what to say or think. Perhaps it was a dream. But no,
Anne Marie felt almost certain that a real shining Angel had stood
beside her bed last night.
‘Why not ask your Polly Perkins?’ suggested Papa. ‘She sat beside
your bed, did she not? and so must have seen all that went on
during the night.’
This was quite true, and Anne Marie ran for Polly Perkins.
Maman was delighted with Polly and her cape. She listened with
interest to Anne Marie’s account of Grandmother King’s Party.
But she only laughed again and again when Anne Marie said
solemnly to her dolly,
‘Polly Perkins, did I see the Christmas Angel last night?’
Of course Polly didn’t answer out loud, but, as Anne Marie said, she
looked as if she meant to say ‘yes.’
So then Anne Marie made up her mind.
‘I did see the Christmas Angel,’ said Anne Marie.
And smiling at Anne Marie and Maman, Papa Durant nodded,
‘Yes, Anne Marie, I, too, think that you did.’
 CHAPTER X
WHAT SANTA CLAUS BROUGHT TO AILIE
McNABB

‘Granny,’ said Ailie, ‘do you think Santa Claus will come here to-
night?’
‘Aye,’ answered Granny, ‘he might.’
‘Will you see him?’ asked Ailie.
‘Not I,’ answered Granny, ‘not a peep.’
‘Will I see him if I stay awake?’ asked Ailie after a moment’s thought.
‘Not if you are canny,’ was Granny’s reply. ‘Santa Claus leaves
nothing for bairns who lie awake on Christmas Eve.’
‘Oh,’ said Ailie, ‘oh, doesn’t he?—Shall I hang up my stocking?’ was
Ailie’s next question.
‘You might,’ was Granny’s reply.
So Ailie hung her stocking, a well-mended stocking, too, from a
convenient nail by the mantel-shelf, and with her head on one side
watched it for a moment as it dangled empty there.
Then she turned to Granny who, well wrapped in her old plaid shawl,
sat rocking to and fro.
‘I hope Santa Claus will bring you something, too,’ said Ailie.
‘I have had my Christmas already,’ replied Granny, ‘a good new
friend round the corner and a cure for my cough.’
‘But perhaps Santa Claus will bring you something more,’ said Ailie
hopefully, as she climbed into bed with Polly in her arms.
‘Snuggle doun,’ said Ailie to Polly, ‘while I tell you a secret. I told it to
the other Polly and now I will tell it to you. This is what I would like
rare fine, though I’m not thinking that Santa Claus will bring it to me
to-night. I would like a mither, a pretty mither, who would wear a
dress made of silk like the one Patty’s mither wore at the Party to-
day. And I would like a father who would put his hand in his pocket
and pull me out a penny just as if it were nothing at all. And I would
like four little brothers and four little sisters to play with me. I would
wash them and dress them and take them all out for a walk. But if I
never had a one of them, Polly, I would not cry, because I have you,
and so long as I have you I will never be lonely again.’
Hand in hand lay Ailie and Polly on the bed. But presently in her
sleep Ailie turned over and burrowed down under the bedclothes
until you couldn’t see so much as the tip of her nose nor one of the
sandy ringlets that clustered all over the top of her round little head.
So far under the bed-covers went she that no doubt that is why Ailie
heard not a sound all the night long.
But Polly, lying beside her on the bed, did not close her pretty brown
eyes the whole night through. So Polly must have seen Santa Claus,
for certainly Ailie’s stocking was filled when she woke in the
morning, and who, may I ask, filled the stocking unless Santa Claus
himself had been there?
Polly, too, through the window, must have watched the moon sail
slowly past in the Christmas sky. She must have seen the stars
twinkle and burn and then grow pale as little by little the light grew
stronger and at last morning came. No doubt Polly saw the great
gray snow-clouds spread and spread until the whole sky was
covered over and the first frosty flakes came softly fluttering down.
Last of all, Polly must have heard the clatter of feet on the stairs, a
clatter that came nearer and nearer to Ailie’s little room at the very
tiptop of the tall, tall building until at last the clatter stopped just
outside Ailie’s own door.
Now Granny was already awake and dressed when the noise came
up the stair.
‘Who can it be so early in the day?’ said Granny to herself.
But when she opened the door and saw who it was standing there
on the little landing, she flung both arms about Aunt Elspeth’s neck
—for it was Aunt Elspeth herself whom Granny saw standing there—
and joyfully brought her into the little room. And behind Aunt
Elspeth came Uncle Rob, carrying a big bag in one hand, and with a
white bundle carefully held in his other arm.
Oh, how glad Granny was to see Aunt Elspeth and Uncle Rob, come
all the way from Scotland over the sea, and, oh, how glad they both
were to see Granny, too!
Then Aunt Elspeth made Granny sit down in the rocking-chair and
very gently she took the white bundle from Uncle Rob’s arms.
She laid it in Granny’s lap, she unpinned a soft white blanket, and
there looking up into Granny’s face lay a little rosy baby with blue
eyes and a sandy curl or two that might have belonged to Ailie
McNabb herself.
‘This is Thomas,’ said Aunt Elspeth proudly,—‘my Thomas. But we
call him Tammus for short.’
‘He is the image of our Ailie,’ said Granny, hugging wee Tammus and
rocking him to and fro and never once taking her eyes off his round
rosy little face.
‘Ailie?’ cried Aunt Elspeth. ‘Where is Ailie?’
There she was, fast asleep, rolled into a ball in the middle of the
bed.
Aunt Elspeth took off all wee Tammus’s outside wrappings, and then
with a smile she tucked him under the covers, right down beside
Ailie in the bed.
Now Tammus was wide awake and he didn’t mean to lie still a
moment longer. His fat little legs waved to and fro, his short arms
struck out right and left, and with a mighty thump Tammus turned
himself over and began to crawl up on his Cousin Ailie’s head.
So Ailie woke. And when she saw a real live pink-and-white baby
crawling and tumbling about in the bed, at first Ailie didn’t know
what to think, and then in a moment she understood just what had
happened.
‘Santa Claus brought him,’ said Ailie. ‘Santa Claus brought him to
me.’
Then Ailie saw Aunt Elspeth and Uncle Rob, and she opened her
eyes wider than ever before.
‘Is it a mither for me?’ asked Ailie in her surprise. ‘A mither and a
father too?’
‘No, Ailie,’ said Granny with a shake of the head, but smiling as Ailie
had not seen her smile in many a long day, ‘but it is almost as good.
It is Aunt Elspeth and Uncle Rob come from Scotland to take care of
you and me.’
When Aunt Elspeth picked up Ailie and hugged her close, Ailie put
both arms about Aunt Elspeth’s neck and felt that this was the very
best present that Santa Claus had ever brought to a little girl.
Then Ailie asked a question that first surprised Aunt Elspeth and
then that made her laugh.
‘Have you a silk dress?’ asked Ailie in Aunt Elspeth’s ear.
‘Yes,’ whispered back Aunt Elspeth, ‘a bright blue silk. Will you like it,
do you think?’
‘Aye,’ answered Ailie, patting Aunt Elspeth’s back in her delight, ‘and
when you put it on you will be prettier than Patty’s mither, for your
cheeks are rosier than hers.
‘I did want four little brothers and four little sisters,’ went on Ailie,
after a bit, ‘but Tammus will do just as well as all of them, I think.’
‘He will be much easier to take care of,’ agreed Aunt Elspeth. ‘And
then you know Uncle Rob is going to buy a farm, and you and
Granny are coming to live with us there. We will have hens and
chickens and ducks, and a pig, and a cow, and horses, too. You will
have plenty of friends to play with there. You will never miss the four
little brothers and four little sisters, I ween.’
‘Aye, Aunt Elspeth,’ said Ailie happily, ‘’twill be rare fine for Granny
and Tammus and me.’
Uncle Rob proved to be so kind and friendly that Ailie, sitting upon
his lap, went so far as to confide to him ‘her secret,’ her secret wish
for a mother and a father and brothers and sisters, too, and how she
now thought that he and Aunt Elspeth and Tammus would take their
places and answer just as well.
And when, later in the day, Uncle Rob did actually put his hand in his
pocket and pull out a penny for Ailie, ‘just as if it were nothing at all,’
you couldn’t have found a happier little girl in New York City than
Ailie McNabb.
‘It is a grand Christmas Day, Polly,’ said Ailie as she and Polly Perkins
settled down in a corner for a quiet little talk. ‘Santa Claus brought
me everything. A stocking full of goodies, oranges and nuts and
candies, too. And he brought me Aunt Elspeth and Tammus and
Uncle Rob.
‘But I will always love you most, Polly, never fear, because I knew
you first of all. Aye, I will always love you rare fine, Polly Perkins,’
said little Ailie McNabb.
 CHAPTER XI
THE VERY BEST CHRISTMAS OF ALL

Christmas morning, early and dark and gray!

Patty woke, she sat up in bed, she listened.
Not a sound!
Father and Mother and Grandmother must still be fast asleep.
Had Santa Claus come last night?
There was one sure way of telling. Was her stocking filled?
So Patty slipped out of bed and stole into the living-room.
There stood the Tree, fragrant and green, looking taller and more
beautiful than ever in the dull morning light.
Under the Tree, propped comfortably against the low branches, sat
Polly Perkins King. Her face wore a wise little smile as if she knew all
that had happened last night, but would never, never tell.
‘Merry Christmas, Polly,’ whispered Patty as she crept into the room.
‘Oh, look at my stocking, look!’
Yes, the stocking that last night had hung from the mantelpiece, so
thin and limp, had now become delightfully plump and thick, with
strange little bumps and knobs all over it, and with packages actually
peeping over the edge of the top, it was so full.
‘Oh!’ said Patty again, her eyes fixed on the stocking, ‘oh, Polly, look!’
Up on a chair climbed Patty and with nimble fingers unfastened the
stocking and lifted it down.
Then into Mother’s room she ran to wake Mother and Father and
Grandmother, too, across the hall, and to be the very first one to
wish them all a Merry Christmas Day.
You would never guess all the presents that had been crowded into
Patty’s stocking.
Of course there were apples and oranges and candies and nuts.
There was a little watch to be worn on Patty’s wrist.
‘Not a really truly watch,’ explained Patty, ‘but just as good as a
really truly one.’
There was a pair of soft gray gloves all lined with fur.
‘As soft as a kitten and as warm as a bear,’ declared Patty, trying
them on at once. ‘Maybe Santa Claus wears this kind his very own
self.’
‘Maybe he does,’ answered Father. ‘Open that long box, Patty. It says
on the card, “Merry Christmas from Thomas.” Perhaps Santa Claus
came in through the hall last night, for Thomas must have asked him
to put this in your stocking for him.’
Thomas was the hall boy, you remember, and a good friend to Patty,
too.
So Patty untied Thomas’s box. It held a large silk handkerchief, blue-
and-red on one side and red-and-blue on the other.
It was bright, it was gay, and Patty was delighted.
‘But I shan’t use it for a handkerchief,’ said she. ‘It is too good. I
shall use it for a—for a shawl,’ said Patty, putting it about her
shoulders and making herself look like a little Mother Bunch.
‘You might wear it for a muffler under your coat,’ suggested Father,
‘like my black-and-white muffler, you know.’
‘I will,’ said Patty, ‘I will wear it this very day.’
For Patty was going on a journey this Christmas Day. She was going
to Four Corners with Father and Mother and Grandmother to eat her
Christmas dinner at the Farm with Aunt Mary and Uncle Charles.
So Patty made haste to empty her stocking.
She found a string of beautiful pink coral beads in the toe. There
was a small paint-box, and a book full of pictures all ready for Patty
to paint. There was a ball of gay red worsted and two knitting-
needles. Grandmother must have known something about that, for
she had long ago promised to teach Patty to knit.
But the present in her stocking that Patty liked best of all was a wee
pair of brown mittens so tiny that no little girl, not even a baby girl,
could possibly have squeezed her fingers into them.
Then whom were the mittens for?
Patty knew in a minute.
‘They are for Polly!’ cried Patty. ‘They are for Polly Perkins. She shall
wear them to-day to show Aunt Mary and Uncle Charles.’
Yes, Polly Perkins was going with Patty to the Farm. Mother had said
she might because it was Christmas Day.
Soon they were ready for the journey. Polly Perkins looked well,
dressed in her new brown cape and hood, trimmed with beaver fur,
and her brown mittens that were a perfect fit. Patty, too, wore her
new fur-lined gloves, and her string of pink coral beads, while about
her neck as a muffler was Thomas’s gay silk handkerchief, the blue-
and-red side out.
But just before Patty left the house, she began to run around,
looking here and there and asking every one,
‘Where are my mice? Where are my five mice? Oh, Mother! Oh,
Grandmother! Please help me find my mice!’
What did Patty mean? Why should a little girl want to find five mice?
And just as she was starting on a journey, too!
Well, wait and see.
The mice were found, tucked away in a paper bag, and were placed
in Father’s overcoat pocket for safe-keeping.
And then they were off.
The snow was falling, a flake here and a flake there, when they
started. But as the train sped farther and farther along into the
country, the ground grew white and the window-panes of the train
were dotted thick with flying snow. Soon each little bush and tree
was clothed in a warm white cloak, while every fencepost and pole
wore a round white hood or a tall pointed cap that gave to some of
them the sauciest air in the world.
It was a real snowstorm, and Patty couldn’t help thinking that
nothing could have been planned that would have given her greater
pleasure.
She thought the country beautiful in its covering of spotless white.
She was delighted when Uncle Charles met them at the Four Corners
Station with the old two-seater and the farm team of horses, instead
of the automobile. As the horses pulled and plunged through the
snow, Patty and Polly peeped over the edge of the carriage robe,
their eyes very bright and their noses very red, but with their fingers
as warm as toast in their new Christmas gloves, and both of them
enjoying every moment of their ride.
The old red farmhouse looked pretty and homelike in its heavy
trimming of soft white snow. And there in the doorway stood Aunt
Mary, so anxious to see her visitors that she couldn’t wait indoors
another moment.
Presents, and another beautiful Christmas Tree, and every one
laughing and talking and wishing ‘Merry Christmas’ all at once. That
is what happened at first, with Patty in the midst of it, hopping
about, and sitting on people’s laps, and then slipping away to walk
around the Christmas Tree again and again.
But presently Patty remembered something.
‘Where are the kitties, Aunt Mary?’ asked Patty, ‘the four new little
kitties you wrote Mother to tell me about?’
‘Out in the barn,’ said Aunt Mary. ‘Would you like to see them? Uncle
Charles will take you out there if you do.’
‘I have brought each of them a Christmas present, and one for their
mother, too,’ said Patty with a happy face. ‘They are mice, little mice
made of catnip, and I would like to give them to the kitties now.’
‘You might see whether your present for Patty is dry yet,’ called Aunt
Mary after Uncle Charles, as, well wrapped up, he and Patty and the
mice set out for the barn.
‘Another present for me? Do let me see it, Uncle Charles,’ begged
Patty, all excitement.
So up the narrow barn stairs to the loft went Patty and Uncle Charles
and the mice. And there in one corner of the loft stood a cradle, an
old-fashioned wooden cradle, made by Uncle Charles for Polly
Perkins as soon as Grandmother’s letter telling of the three Polly
Perkinses had reached the Farm. It was painted a lovely shade of
blue, and though the paint was still a little moist, Uncle Charles
believed it would be quite dry by night so that the cradle might be
safely carried home.
‘Aunt Mary has made the pillows and sheets and blankets for it,’ said
Uncle Charles, setting the cradle aswing. ‘This is the kind of a bed
your great-grandmother was put to sleep in, Patty King.’
Then down the stairs went happy Patty and Uncle Charles to see the
four new kitties and their mother.
The big gray mother cat was sleepy and plump, but she had the
most interesting and lively family of kittens that Patty had ever seen.
One was gray, one was black-and-white, one was all white with pale
blue eyes, and the last and smallest and liveliest one of all was
orange-yellow and white, ‘a tortoise-shell kitten,’ Uncle Charles said
it was called.
How the kittens did like their catnip mice! Even their sleepy old
mother tossed and boxed her mouse about, and presently ran up
and down the length of the barn as lively as any of her lively brood
of kittens, who leaped and tumbled and raced about to their hearts’
content and to Patty’s great entertainment.
‘I think they are so excited because this is the first Christmas present
they have ever had,’ said Patty to Uncle Charles, as after a peep at
the horses and the cows they made their way through the snow
back to the house.
Then out came the little pillows and mattress and sheets and
blankets for Polly Perkins’s new cradle. And when they had been
admired and shown to every one, and to Polly Perkins, too, it was
dinner-time.
So it was not until after dinner and late in the afternoon that Patty
was able to sit down in peace and quiet with Polly and talk over this
most delightful Christmas Day.
‘Of course, Polly,’ said Patty, ‘this is the first Christmas you have ever
had. You must feel like the kittens, so excited you don’t know what
to do. Now I have had five Christmases. Five of them—just think!
But I will tell you something, Polly Perkins. This Christmas is the very
best Christmas of all.’
THE END
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:
Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been
standardized.
Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRETTY POLLY
PERKINS ***

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