Annual Research & Review in Biology

6(4): 245-252, 2015, Article no.ARRB.2015.082

ISSN: 2347-565X

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Evaluation of Bast Fibres of the Stem of

Carica papaya L. for Application as Reinforcing
Material in Green Composites
Andreas Kempe1*, Anne Göhre1, Thea Lautenschläger1, André Rudolf2,
Michaela Eder3 and Christoph Neinhuis1
1
Institut for Botany, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, 01217 Dresden, Germany.
²Institute of Plant and Wood Chemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, Pienner Str. 19,
01737 Tharandt, Germany.
³Department of Biomaterials, MPI of Colloids and Interfaces, Wissenschafts park Potsdam-Golm,
Am Mühlenberg 1, 14424 Potsdam, Germany.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration between all authors. Authors AK and CN wrote the paper
and concept of experiment. Author AG execution of mechanical tests and optical measurements.
Author TL determination of density, supervision. Author AR determination of lignin, cellulose and
hemicelluloses contents. Author ME determination of microfibril angle. All authors read and approved
the final manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/ARRB/2015/15407
Editor(s):
(1) George Perry, Dean and Professor of Biology, University of Texas at San Antonio, USA.
Reviewers:
(1) Fang Wang, Faculty of Materials and Energy, Southwest University, China.
(2) Anonymous, Nigeria.
(3) Anonymous, Malaysia.
Complete Peer review History: http://www.sciencedomain.org/review-history.php?iid=799&id=32&aid=7622

th
Received 24 November 2014
Original Research Article Accepted 18th December 2014
th
Published 5 January 2015

ABSTRACT

Aims: The production of green composites based on natural fibres is rising with regard to
increasing environmental problems and declining fossil raw materials. Bast fibres of papaya (Carica
papaya L.) accumulate on plantations at a large scale but remain an unused resource. The
characterisation of the bast allows a first evaluation of the potential of papaya-fibres for use in
composites.
Study Design: Material testing.
Place and Duration of Study: Institute for Botany, Technische Universität Dresden and

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];

 Kempe et al.; ARRB, 6(4): 245-252, 2015; Article no.ARRB.2015.082

Fraunhofer Institute for Nondestructive Testing Dresden (IZFP-D), 2011 and 2013.
Methodology: The anatomic structure of fibre cells and the microfibril angle of the cell walls were
determined as well as a chemical analysis to determine the proportion of cellulose, lignin and
hemicelluloses of the fibre cells. In addition, samples of fibres were subjected to static uniaxial
tension tests revealing Young's modulus, tensile strength and breaking strain at different plant ages
and of two origins.
Results: Fibres of a two-year-old plant exhibited a Young's modulus of 10.7 GPa, a tensile
strength of 101 MPa and a breaking strain of 1.2%, on average. Fibres from six-months-old plants,
grown under greenhouse conditions had a mean Young's modulus of 4.4 GPa, tensile strength of
49 MPa and a breaking strain of 1.4%. Having one of the lowest fibre densities with ca. 0.85 g/cm³,
papaya fibres exhibit noteworthy specific mechanical properties among all studied natural fibers.
Conclusion: These data allow us a first estimation for a potentail use in green composites as
reinforcing material.

Keywords: Carica papaya; bast fibres; Young's modulus; fibre characterization.

1. INTRODUCTION avoid damage to the fibre [1]. However, there is a

broad field of application for bio-composites, for
Composite materials are increasingly important example in the production of casing structures or
for the production of light and stiff constructions in automobile and packaging industries, as not
for various applications. However, apart from the for all components the mechanical properties of
favourable mechanical properties, composites advanced composites are needed [1].
have some shortcomings. Primarily, the recycling Precondition for the use of natural fibres in
of components turns out to be difficult and a composites is a deep knowledge of their
large amount of composites end up in dumps or mechanical properties. The characterisation of
incinerators. Even though the energy value of the fibres is the first step to evaluate their potential
material is used, there is still a contribution to for use in composites. Knowledge of Young's
CO2 emissions and environmental pollution [1]. modulus, strength and breaking strain allows the
Apart from that, the non-renewable resource selection of suitable matrix material in order to
mineral oil has to be used for some matrices and achieve appropriate material properties of the
fibres, such as polymer matrices or carbon fibres. composite. Mechanical properties of various
Therefore, alternatives are being highly looked natural fibres as flax, hemp, jute, sisal and more
after in view of dwindling resources and the are already investigated and comprehensively
increasing ecological awareness. summarised by Faruk et al. [2] and Muessig [3].

Plant fibres offer some advantages over So far fibre properties of Papaya, another
synthetic materials. They provide carbon interesting resource of natural fibres, have not
neutrality when being burned, which is highly been studied yet. Papaya plants may reach an
relevant with regard to ecological problems. At age of 20 years and do usually not branch [4].
the same time, they are less abrasive to Characteristically, the secondary xylem remains
production machinery due to their flexibility and completely parenchymatous [5,6,7]. Despite the
perform as good acoustic and thermal isolators. lack of wood, individual plants grow up to nine
Plant fibres are usually of low density and the metres [5,7,8]; hence papaya is called a giant
costs of the fibres (on a volumetric basis) are low herb [4]. Lignified fibres occurring in the bark
[1,2]. Still, there are disadvantages, especially (secondary phloem) are the only reinforcing
the high variability of mechanical properties structures interacting with the turgor pressure [9].
depending on the conditions of growth (nutrition, The fibres form a complex lattice like mesh,
exposure to wind and sunlight) and the age of which again is filled with parenchyma (Fig. 1).
the plant [1,2]. Furthermore, the hydrophilic The small amount of fibres compared to the total
character of natural fibres may severely effect weight of the stem arouses interest as a model
the material properties. Due to swelling of fibres for light-weight applications and structures.
upon moisture uptake and a reduction of the Papaya plants were cultivated primarily due to
binding of fibre and matrix can be reduced, the palatable fruits. Main producers in 2012 have
stiffness may decrease or the overall geometry been India (5.16 million ton), Brazil (1.52 million
may be altered. Additionally a maximum ton) and Indonesia (0.91 million ton). The world's
processing temperature must not be exceeded to total yield in 2012 accounted for ca. 12.4 million

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no.

ton [10]. Papaya may therefore be an interesting ground. The fibre mesh was isolated by
source for fibres as by-product after the plants maceration in water. After one month of
have been harvested, such as pineapple, oil immersion non-lignified
lignified cells could easily be
palm and coir. Since the papaya fruit yield is at a removed from the fibre mesh. Subsequent
Subsequently the
maximum in the first three years, plants are fibre mesh was rinsed and cleaned with water
replaced mostly after 3 - 5 years. At that point and kept in water until testing. The mesh was cut
fibre material is available in a large scale that is in individual samples of ca. 3 cm in length and
usually discarded. Further processing of fibre 0.1 - 1.1 mm width using a scalpel and dried at
material in composites could be an additional room temperature before testing. Fibre properties
source of income for the producer. So far, the have been compared from plants of two different
only idea for an application was the suggestion to sources: 1. a commercial plantation in Nicaragua
use papaya fibres as biosorbent to remove heavy and 2. plants, grown in a greenhouse at the
metals from water [11,12]. botany institute of the TU Dresden. In Nicaragua,
samples were taken from a two year old papaya
plantation (Carica papaya L. ‘Red Red Lady’) in
November 2011. The plant had a height of two
metres and a diameter of ca. 10 cm. In Dresden
Carica papaya L. ‘Red Lady’ plants were grown
from seeds in the greenhouses of the institute in
April 2011. Samples for mechanical testing were
taken from two of these plants, aged six months
and with heights of ca. one metre and with a
diameter of about one centimetre. Samples of
another three plants were used for anatomical
(scale bar 10mm) investigations.

2.2 Anatomy

Fibre dimensions were analysed using Scanning

Electron Microscopy (SEM). Fibre ibre cells were
measured based on cross sections of three
plants. Cell dimensions were calculated from the
pixel number corresponding to cell length and
width and a calibration image taken of a
standardised scale with 1 µm scaling, using
GIMP, an open-source image editing program.
Fig. 1. Detail of papaya stem's cross section Wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) has been
(A) and fibres after removal of parenchyma in used to measure average microfibril angles (MFA)
longitudinal
ngitudinal view (B) of the cell wall according to Lichtenegger et al.
[13].
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.3 Density, Contents of Cellulose,
Hemicellulose and Lignin
2.1 Materials
The density of fibres was determined according
In a botanical definition a single cell is termed as to DIN EN ISO 1183-1 using a precision balance
fibre when the length is much larger than the and a pycnometer with an accuracy of 0.01 g and
diameter. In fibre technology usually bundles of 0.05 ml respectively. Cellulose, hemicellulose,
individual fibre cells are processed. For and lignin content were determined according to
simplification, the term fibre is used here for Kuerschner [14], Poljak [15] and Klason [16].
bundles of cells that in fact are lamellae. Details of the extraction process are described
by Bremer [17].
We put emphasis on experimentally determining
papaya fibre's Young's modulus, tensile strength 2.4 Mechanical Tests
and breaking strain by static tension tests. Fibres
for mechanical analyses were taken from the All specimens were subjected to tension tests
base of plant between 0 and 10 cm above using a dynamic mechanical analyser (DMA TA

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instruments Q800) at the Fraunhofer Institute for amount of 3 g (greenhouse) and 6 g (plantation)
Non-destructive Testing Dresden (IZFP-D). fibres were used. The density of fibres differed
Experiments were recorded with an force between 0.84 (±0.09) g/cm³ (greenhouse) and up
sensitivity of 0.01 mN and a displacement to 0.86 (±0.07) g/cm³ (plantation) (see Table 1).
accuracy of 1 nm. The samples were strained at Furthermore, 10 g per plant was the minimum to
a rate of 1 N/min to reduce speed dependent determine the contents of cellulose,
influences. Since the fibres have a sheet like hemicellulose and lignin. Fibres from plantation
cross sectional area, the width was measured and greenhouse exhibited nearly identical
using a microscope at 25 - 50 fold magnification. contents of lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose:
The thickness was measured using a vernier 20.3%, 50.5% and 29.4% (greenhouse) as well
calliper. Stress-strain diagrams were compiled as 20.3% 52.8% and 29.1% (plantation).
using the program TA Universal Analysis 2000.
Tension stiffness and Young’s modulus were 3.3 Mechanical Properties
calculated from the slope of the initial linear part
of the stress-strain curve. Additionally ultimate In total 40 samples per source
tensile strength (maximum stress that a material (plantation/Nicaragua and greenhouse/Germany)
can withstand before breaking) and breaking were subjected to tension tests and were used
strains (maximum strain when failure occurs) for calculating Young's moduli, tensile strength
were determined. and breaking strain. On average, plants from the
greenhouse had thinner fibre bundles than those
2.5 Data Analysis from the plantation (0.08 (±0.03) mm² versus
0.10 (±0.05) mm²). The same applies to Young's
The obtained data were analysed by Mann moduli. While fibres from plantation plants
Whitney U-test comparing differences of reached ca. 10.7 (±3.7) GPa fibres from
morphological and mechanical results with greenhouse plants showed ca. 4.4 (±2.5) GPa.
regard to origin of the samples. P values less Tensile strength differed between 101 (±56) MPa
than 0.05 were considered significant. Spearman (plantation) and 49 (±35) MPa (greenhouse).
rank correlation was used to check any Breaking strain accounted for 1.4 (±0.5)%
correlation of morphological and mechanical (greenhouse) and 1.2 (±0.3)% (plantation). See
results, i.e. whether morphological differences Table 1.
cause mechanical differences.
Table 1. Material properties of papaya fibres
3. RESULTS
Plantation, Greenhouse,
3.1 Anatomy Nicaragua Gremany
Tensile strength 101 (56)* 49 (35)*
Fibre bundles contained between 15 and 130 [MPa]
Breaking strain [%] 1.2 (0.3)* 1.4 (0.5)*
individual fibre cells. The cells are polygonal in
Microfibril angle 8 - 10 9 - 20
cross section and had a maximum diameter of up
[deg]
to 30 µm and a mean length of 1.1 (±0.2) mm.
Cross-sectional 0.103 (0.06)* 0.075 (0.04)*
Two cell-wall layers enclosed the lumen; the thin area [mm²]
primary and the secondary cell wall, with a total Density [g/cm³] 0.86 (0.07) 0.84 (0.09)
thickness of ca. 2.1 (±0.4) µm. Cross-sectional Values are means and standard deviations are bracketed.
areas of the fibres differed significantly between * denote significant differences (P=.05) between results
0.103 (±0.06) mm² for samples from the from plantation and greenhouse
plantation and 0.075 (±0.04) mm² for those from
the greenhouse. The microfibril angle (MFA) of 4. DISCUSSION
the secondary cell wall of plantation and
greenhouse samples accounted for 8° - 10° and The obtained results serve as a first
9° - 20° respectively. See Table 1. characterisation of the mechanical properties of
papaya phloem fibres. A comparison of papaya
3.2 Density, Contents of Cellulose, fibres with those of other plant derived fibres
Hemicellulose and Lignin shows, that Young's moduli of fibre samples from
plantations (almost 11 GPa) are in the range of
The samples originated from the same plants abacá (12 GPa), curauá (11.8 GPa) or bamboo
that were used for mechanical tests. A total (11 - 17 GPa) [2]. These values are distinctly
lower than synthetic fibres or flax (27.6 - 54 GPa)

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and hemp (17 - 70 GPa) fibres [2,18,19,20]. The to the lack of external loads such as wind in a
tensile strength of papaya fibres (101 MPa) is greenhouse and the absence of fruits, the
rather low in comparison to other plant fibres. difference in mechanical properties is hardly
Similar low values of tensile strength could be surprising. However, the variation appears most
found for bamboo (140 - 450 MPa) and coir (131 likely with increasing age. The greenhouse plants
- 250 MPa) [2,21,22,23]. One reason for low had an age of six months, whereas the
breaking stresses can be short fibre cell lengths. Nicaraguan plants were about 2 years old. One
Both bamboo and coir have fibre cell lengths of important criterion is the microfibril angle (MFA),
2.9 mm and 0.8 mm respectively [24,25], which is known to change with the age of a plant
compared to papaya fibre cells with ca 1.1 mm. – for trees. Higher MFAs lead to lower Young's
Indeed, fibre cells with greater lengths; for moduli and larger breaking strains whereas lower
example flax ca. 20 mm and hemp ca 23 mm [26] MFAs have the opposite effect [29]. Fibres of
show higher breaking stresses [27,28]. Also young individuals which need to be flexible often
values of breaking strain (1.2%) are lower than have larger MFAs [30]. Older plants need to be
other natural fibres. The nearest value is 1.6% stiffer to upright their organs and therefore
for hemp, jute and kenaf, respectively [2]. The possess fibre cells with smaller MFAs [30]. Our
Young's modulus of fibres from greenhouse observations indicate that MFA of C. papaya
plants (ca 4.4 GPa) is comparable to coir (4 - 6 adapts likewise, since Young's moduli increase
GPa) and oil palm fibres (3.2 GPa) [2,22]. with age of plants.
Tensile strength (49 MPa) is well below all other
fibres while the breaking strain (1.4%) again Lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose contents
corresponds to hemp, jute and kenaf [2]. were almost identical when comparing the fibre
origin. A high variability of mechanical properties
Even though it seems that papaya fibres can thus be a result of irregular cell geometry
represent a comparatively weak material, we and fibre cross-sectional area [31]. Natural fibres
found that the density of papaya fibres is low with have a lumen, which is usually not subtracted
about 0.85 g/cm³. High Young's modulus in fibres from the cross-sectional area of the fibre. Fibre
is connected to a much higher density as shown diameter and lumen size are linked, so that the
for hemp and jute 1.3 - 1.5 g/cm³ (Table 2). higher the fibre cross-sectional area, the higher
Considering now the specific Young's modulus of the discrepancy in the calculation of Young's
these fibres we notice that papaya fibres range in modulus and tensile strength. As a consequence
the same sphere of lowest given values of the calculated Young's modulus and tensile
specific modulus of high-modulus fibres. strength is lower than the actual value would be.
Because of this particular low density papaya That is demonstrated by the fact that Young's
fibres could be of interest for applications in modulus and cross-sectional area as well as
green composites. Calculating a specific tensile tensile strength and cross-sectional area
strength, papaya fibres remain still below correlate significantly in our results (Table 3).
average (Table 2).
We investigated the potential of papaya fibres for
Comparing fibres with regard to the origin of our use in green composites, fibre boards, etc. only
investigated plants shows that each of the from the view of mechanical properties of the
mechanical properties, Young's modulus, tensile fibres. Other attributes such as processing,
strength and elongation at break, varies response to moisture, thermal or insulating
significantly. The plants, however, grew under properties might be subject of further
completely different environmental conditions investigations. The compatibility of fibre and
regarding wind load, solar radiation, and day matrix material concerning the elastic and
length or soil quality and volume. Especially due fracture behaviour is crucial for a composite.

Table 2. Comparison of hemp, jute and papaya fibers

Hemp Jute Papaya

Tensile strength [GPa] 0.7 [22] - 1.7 [28] 0.4 - 0.8 [22] 0.05 - 0.1
Specific gravity 1.5 [22] 1.3 - 1.5 [22] 0.85
Specific Youngs modulus [GPa] 11 - 47 10 - 37 5.2 - 12.6
Specific tensile strength [GPa] 0.4 - 1.2 0.3 - 0.5 0.1 - 0.2
References are given in parentheses

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Table 3. Spearman rank correlation of young's modulus E, tensile strength TS and fibre cross-
sectional area A

Comparison Origin Spearman rank correlation Significance

-15
E–A Greenhouse, Germany -0.86 3 * 10
TS – A Greenhouse, Germany -0.76 0.0006
-10
E–A Plantation, Nicaragua -0.80 3 * 10
TS – A Plantation, Nicaragua -0.57 0.01
Degrees of freedom: Germany 14, Nicaragua 17

In case of tension loads of the composite, the are 3.6, 0.4, and 0.2 million tons, respectively, in
ratio of breaking strain of the fibres to that of the 2011 [10].
matrix is recommended to be 1:3 at least. Since
tension forces are taken up mainly by fibres, the 5. CONCLUSION
respective Young's moduli should be larger than
those of the matrix. For a first estimation A high variability existed in the investigated
considering fibres derived from plantation plants, material properties Young's modulus, tensile
Young's modulus of the matrix should be smaller strength and breaking strain. Plant age, growth
than 11 GPa and breaking strain should be larger conditions and the mode of fibre extraction most
than 3.6%. For example vinyl ester resin likely account for that. Compared to mechanical
(Young's modulus = 3.4 MPa, breaking strain = properties of other natural fibres Young's
3.5 - 7.0%) or epoxy resin (Young's modulus = modulus, tensile strength and breaking strain are
2.8 - 3.6 MPa, breaking strain = 6 - 8%) would average. Otherwise papaya fibres exhibit
represent suitable matrix materials [32]. noteworthy specific Young's modulus due to low
fibre density. Fibre material accumulates in a
Characteristic values such as Young's modulus, huge amount on plantations, which could be an
tensile strength and breaking strain exhibit a high easy accessible and cheap source for further
variability of materials properties. However, utilisation. Based on investigation of material
biological materials characteristically show a properties papaya fibres provide a new
broad variation in acquired properties with regard opportunity of application in the field of green
to location-dependent conditions, such as composites. For this purpose pursuing research
temperature, wind exposure or nutrient supply, is necessary dealing with fabrication and testing
as well as age of used plants. It should be the of first composite prototypes made of papaya
aim of further research to verify the impact of fibres.
these factors. Plantations are renewed every 3 -
5 years for economic reasons, so that age of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
plants already is limited. Reasonable applications
for these composites might be components We acknowledge the DFG priority program
subject to low mechanical stresses, e.g. interior SPP1420 for funding. We thank Dr.-Ing. Mike
parts in automotive industries (panels in car Roellig, Dipl.-Ing. Georg Lautenschlaeger and
doors) or in package industries (housings). The the Fraunhofer Institute for Nondestructive
use of entire fibre mats as design elements Testing Dresden (IZFP-D) for experimental
emphasizing its peculiar fibre arrangement (see facilities and helpful discussions.
Fig. 1B) is conceivable, too. Since papaya plants
were cultivated for fruits fibre material COMPETING INTERESTS
accumulates in a huge amount on plantations,
which is still unused. A rather conservative Authors have declared that no competing
estimate reveals 1.2 million tons of fibre material interests exist.
in 3 - 5 years. A current area of commercial
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