Chapter 4: Normal Subgroups and Quotient Groups

Chapter 4

Normal Subgroups and Quotient Groups

4.1 Cosets
In this section, we partition a group into disjoint union of non-empty sets with the help of a
given subgroup such that each member of the partition contains the same number of elements
as the subgroup. After that, we prove that the order of a finite subgroup divides the order of
the finite group.

Definition 4.1: Let < 𝐺,∗> be a group and 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺. For each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 the sets

𝑎 ∗ 𝐻 = {𝑎 ∗ ℎ |ℎ ∈ 𝐻} and 𝐻 ∗ 𝑎 = {ℎ ∗ 𝑎 |ℎ ∈ 𝐻}

are called respectively a left coset of 𝑯 in 𝑮 and a right coset of 𝑯 in 𝑮.

Remark 4.1: If the group operation of a group 𝐺 is additively, then a left coset of 𝐻 in 𝐺 and
a right coset of 𝐻 in 𝐺 should be written, respectively, as

𝑎 + 𝐻 = {𝑎 + ℎ ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻 } and 𝐻 + 𝑎 = {ℎ + 𝑎 ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻}

In general, we have 𝑎 ∗ 𝐻 ≠ 𝐻 ∗ 𝑎.

Example 1: Let 𝐻 = {0̅, 2̅, 4̅} be a subgroup of a group < 𝑍6 , +6 >. Then find all left and right
cosets of 𝐻 in 𝑍6 .

Solution: 𝑍6 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅}.

Then, the left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝑍6 are:-

0̅ +6 𝐻 = {0̅+6 0̅, 0̅ +6 2̅, ̅0 +6 4̅} = {0̅, 2̅, 4̅}.

1̅ +6 𝐻 = {1̅+6 0̅, 1̅ +6 2̅, 1̅+6 4̅} = {1̅, 3̅, 5̅}.
2̅ +6 𝐻 = {2̅ +6 0̅, 2̅+6 2̅, 2̅+6 4̅} = {2̅, 4̅, 0̅}.
3̅ +6 𝐻 = {3̅+6 0̅, ̅3+6 2̅, ̅3+6 4̅} = {3̅, 5̅, 1̅}.
4̅ +6 𝐻 = {4̅+6 0̅, 4̅+6 2̅, 4̅+6 4̅} = {4̅, 0̅, 2̅, }.

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5̅ +6 𝐻 = {5̅+6 0̅, 5̅+6 2̅, 5̅+6 4̅} = {5̅, 1̅, 3̅}.

Clearly, 0̅ +6 𝐻 = 2̅ +6 𝐻 = 4̅ +6 𝐻 = 𝐻 and 1̅ +6 𝐻 = 3̅ +6 𝐻 = 5̅ +6 𝐻.

Thus there are two different left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝑍6 .

Then, the right cosets of 𝐻 in 𝑍6 are:-

𝐻 +6 0̅ = {0̅+6 0̅, 2̅ +6 0̅, ̅4+6 0̅} = {0̅, 2̅, 4̅}.

𝐻 +6 1̅ = {0̅+6 1̅, 2̅ +6 1̅, 4̅+6 1̅} = {1̅, 3̅, 5̅}.
𝐻 +6 2̅ = {0̅+6 2̅, 2̅ +6 2̅, 4̅+6 2̅} = {2̅, 4̅, 0̅}.
𝐻 +6 3̅ = {0̅+6 3̅, 2̅ +6 3̅, 4̅+6 3̅} = {3̅, 5̅, 1̅}.
𝐻 +6 4̅ = {0̅+6 4̅, 2̅ +6 4̅, 4̅+6 4̅} = {4̅, 0̅, 2̅, }.
𝐻 +6 5̅ = {0̅+6 5̅, 2̅ +6 5̅, 4̅+6 5̅} = {5̅, 1̅, 3̅}

Clearly, 𝐻+6 0̅ = 𝐻+6 2̅ = 𝐻+6 4̅ = 𝐻 and ̅

𝐻 +6 1̅ = 𝐻 + 6 3̅ = 𝐻 +6 5.

Thus there are two different right cosets of 𝐻 in 𝑍6 .

Example 2: Consider the group < 𝑍6 , +6 > and the subgroup 𝐻 = {0,3} of 𝑍6 . Determine all
right cosets of 𝐻 in 𝑍6 .

Solution: Exercise.

Example 3: Let 𝐻 = {1̅, 2̅, 4̅} be a subgroup of a group < 𝑍7 \{0}, •7 >. Then find all left
cosets of 𝐻 in 𝑍7 \{0}.

Solution: 𝑍7 \{0} = {1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅}.

Then, the left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝑍7 \{0} are:-

1̅ •7 𝐻 = {1̅ •7 1̅, 1̅ •7 2̅, 1̅ •7 4̅} = {1̅, 2̅, 4̅}.

2̅ •7 𝐻 = {2̅ •7 1̅, 2̅ •7 2̅ , 2̅ •7 4̅} = {2̅, 4̅, 1̅}.
3̅ •7 𝐻 = {3̅ •7 1̅, 3̅ •7 2̅, 3̅ •7 4̅} = {3̅, 6̅, 5̅}.
4̅ •7 𝐻 = {4̅ •7 1̅, 4̅ •7 2̅, 4̅ •7 4̅} = {4̅, 1̅, 2̅, }.
5̅ •7 𝐻 = {5̅ •7 1̅, 5̅ •7 2̅, 5̅ •7 4̅} = {5̅, 3̅, 6̅}.
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6̅ •7 𝐻 = {6̅ •7 1̅, 6̅ •7 2̅, 6̅ •7 4̅} = {6̅, 5̅, 3̅}.

Clearly, 1̅ •7 𝐻 = 2̅ •7 𝐻 = 4̅ •7 𝐻 = 𝐻 and 3̅ •7 𝐻 = 5̅ •7 𝐻 = 6̅ •7 𝐻.

Thus there are two different left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝑍7 \{0}.

4.1.1 Properties of Cosets

Proposition 4.1: Let < 𝐺,∗> be a group, let 𝐻 ≤ 𝐺 and let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. Then

1. 𝑎 ∈ 𝑎 ∗ 𝐻;
2. 𝑎 ∗ 𝐻 = 𝐻 = 𝐻 ∗ 𝑎 if and only if 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻;
3. 𝑎 ∗ 𝐻 ≠ 𝐻 and 𝑎 ∗ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐻 = ∅ if and only if 𝑎 ∉ 𝐻;
4. |𝑎 ∗ 𝐻 | = |𝐻 ∗ 𝑎| = |𝐻 |;
5. 𝑏 ∗ 𝐻 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝐻 if and only if 𝑏 ∈ 𝑎 ∗ 𝐻;
6. 𝑏 ∗ 𝐻 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝐻 if and only if 𝑏 −1 ∗ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻;
|𝐺|
7. The number of different left (or right) cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 is equal to |𝐻| ;

8. 𝑏 ∗ 𝐻 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝐻 or (𝑏 ∗ 𝐻 ) ∩ (𝑎 ∗ 𝐻 ) = ∅. ∎

Theorem 4.2: If 𝐻 is any subgroup of a group 𝐺, then the union of all the distinct left (or right)
cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 is equal to 𝐺, i.e.

⋃ 𝑎 ∗ 𝐻 = ⋃ 𝐻 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝐺. ∎
∀𝑎∈𝐺 ∀𝑎∈𝐺

Definition 4.2: Let 𝐻 be a subgroup of a group 𝐺. The index of 𝐻 in 𝐺, denoted by (𝐺: 𝐻)

(or [𝐺: 𝐻]), is the cardinality of the distinct left (or right) cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺.

|𝐺 |
[𝐺: 𝐻 ] = .
|𝐻 |

Therefore, in Example 1, the index of 𝐻 = {0̅, 2̅, 4̅} in 𝑍7 \{0} is two.

|𝑍7 \{0}| 6
That is, [𝑍7 \{0}: 𝐻 ] = = = 2.
|𝐻| 3

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Theorem 4.3 (Lagrange’s Theorem) The order of any subgroup 𝐻 of a finite group < 𝐺,∗>
is divides the order of the group 𝐺.

|𝐺 | = |𝐻 | • [𝐺: 𝐻 ].

Proof: Let |𝐺 | = 𝑚, and |𝐻 | = 𝑘.

Let 𝑎1 𝐻, 𝑎2 𝐻, … , 𝑎𝑟 𝐻 be the all distinct left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺.

Then from Theorem 4.2, we have

⟹ 𝑎1 ∗ 𝐻 ⋃ 𝑎2 ∗ 𝐻 ∪ … ∪ 𝑎𝑟 ∗ 𝐻 = 𝐺 and {𝑎1 ∗ 𝐻 ∩ 𝑎2 ∗ 𝐻 ∩ … ∩ 𝑎𝑟 ∗ 𝐻 = 𝜑}.

⟹ |𝑎1 ∗ 𝐻 ⋃ 𝑎2 ∗ 𝐻 ∪ … ∪ 𝑎𝑟 ∗ 𝐻 | = |𝐺 |

⟹ |𝑎1 ∗ 𝐻 | + |𝑎2 ∗ 𝐻 | + ⋯ + |𝑎𝑟 ∗ 𝐻 | = |𝐺 |

Since by proposition 4.1 |𝑎 ∗ 𝐻 | = |𝐻 |, then we get

⟹⏟
𝑘 + 𝑘 + ⋯ + 𝑘 = 𝑚.
𝑟−𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠

⟹ 𝑘𝑟 = 𝑚.

⟹ 𝑘 divies 𝑚 and 𝑟 divides 𝑚.

⟹ 𝑂(𝐻 ) divies 𝑂(𝐺 ) and Index of 𝐻 divides 𝑂(𝐺). ∎

Example: If 𝐻 = {2ℤ} be a subgroup of a group < ℤ, +>, then find all left cosets of 𝐻 in ℤ.

Solution: ℤ = {… , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … . . }, and

2ℤ = {… , −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4,6, … . . } = {0, ∓2, ∓4, ∓6, … }

Then, the left cosets of 2ℤ in ℤ are:-

𝑎 + 𝐻 = {𝑎 + ℎ: ℎ ∈ 𝐻}.
0 + 2ℤ = ∓2 + 2ℤ = ∓4 + 2ℤ = ⋯ = 2ℤ = 𝐻. {By Proposition 4.1 (2)}
1 + 2ℤ = {… , −5, −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, 7, … } = {∓1, ∓3, ∓5, ∓7, … }
3 + 2ℤ = {… , −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, … } = {∓1, ∓3, ∓5, ∓7, … }

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−3 + 2ℤ = {… , −9, −7, −5, −3, −1,1, 3, … } = {∓1, ∓3, ∓5, ∓7, … }

⟹ ∓1 + 2ℤ = ∓3 + 2ℤ = ∓5 + 2ℤ = ⋯
⟹ The number of different left cosets of 2ℤ in ℤ are only two 0 + 𝐻 and 1 + 𝐻.

Note: Let ℤ be a subgroup of a group ℝ. Then index [ℝ: ℤ] is infinite.

4.2 Normal Subgroups

In this section, we study those subgroups 𝐻 of a group 𝐺 such that g𝐻 = 𝐻g ; ∀g ∈ 𝐺. Such

subgroups play a role in determining the structure of a group as well as the nature of
homomorphism with domain 𝐺.

Definition 4.3: (Normal Subgroup) Let 𝐻 be a subgroup of a group < 𝐺,∗>. Then 𝐻 is said
to be a normal subgroup of 𝐺 (or that 𝐻 is normal in 𝐺) if

𝐻 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝐻; ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.

I.e. 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝐻 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝐻.

Notation: We will often notation 𝐻 ⊴ 𝐺 to indicate 𝐻 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺. Moreover

𝐻 ≠ G, then we write 𝐻 ⊲ 𝐺.

Example: Let 𝐺 be a group with identity 𝑒. Then it is obvious that both {e} and 𝐺 are normal
subgroups of 𝐺and called trivial normal subgroups of 𝐺.

Definition 4.4: (Simple Group) A group < 𝐺,∗> is said to be a simple group, if it has only
the trivial normal subgroups.

For Examples:

1. The subgroup 𝐻 = {0̅, 2̅, 4̅} of a group < 𝑍6 , +6 > is a normal subgroup becouse

𝑎+6 𝐻 = 𝐻+6 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑍6 .

⟹ 𝑍6 is not a simple group.

2. The subgroup 𝐻 = {3ℤ} of a group < ℤ, +> is a normal subgroup becouse

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𝑎 + 𝐻 = 𝐻 + 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ ℤ.

⟹ ℤ is not a simple group.

3. In general < 𝑍𝑝 , +𝑝 > is a simple group if and only 𝑝 is a prime number.

Theorem 4.4: An abelian group 𝐺 is a simple group if and only if 𝐺 ≅ 𝑍𝑝 for some prime 𝑝. ∎

Theorem 4.5: Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.

Proof: Let 𝐺 be an abelian group and 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺. We have to prove that 𝐻 is a

normal subgroup of 𝐺. Let 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 and ℎ ∈ 𝐻. Then the left coset of 𝐻 in 𝐺 is the set

𝑔𝐻 = {𝑔ℎ: ℎ ∈ 𝐻 }.

Since 𝐺 be an abelian group, then 𝑔ℎ = ℎ𝑔. Therefore,

𝑔𝐻 = {𝑔ℎ: ℎ ∈ 𝐻 } = {ℎ𝑔: ℎ ∈ 𝐻 } = 𝐻𝑔.

This implies that 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔; ∀𝑔 ∈ 𝐺

⟹ 𝐻 ⊴ 𝐺. ∎

Theorem 4.6: Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺 with index 2. Then 𝐻 is a normal
subgroup of 𝐺.

Proof: Since [𝐺: 𝐻 ] = 2, then 𝐻 has only two different left (right) cosets.

Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 ⟹ either 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∉ 𝐻.

If 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻 ⟹ 𝑥𝐻 = 𝐻𝑥 = 𝐻 ⟹ 𝐻 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺.

if 𝑥 ∉ 𝐻 ⟹ 𝑥𝐻 ≠ 𝐻 and 𝐻𝑥 ≠ 𝐻. Since the index of 𝐻 is two,

𝐺 = 𝐻 ∪ 𝐻𝑥 𝐻 ∩ 𝐻𝑥 = 𝜑 and

𝐺 = 𝐻 ∪ 𝑥𝐻; 𝐻 ∩ 𝑥𝐻 = 𝜑.

We must have 𝑥𝐻 = 𝐻𝑥; ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐺.

⟹ 𝐻 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺. ∎

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