SESSIONAL COURSE BOOK FOR

BIOLOGY
IN NIGERIAN COLLEGES II

Edited by:
Wilfred Biska Lawrence
Francis C. Udeozo
Joshua Nehemiah Ndit

i
Copy right © (2019) Biology Department

Federal College of Education Pankshin

The Publishers of Sessional Course Book for Biology in Nigerian Colleges II reserves
all right. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means: electrical, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, stored in any retrieval
system of any nature without the written permission of the publishers. For permission contact
the HOD Biology Department, FCE Pankshin.

ISBN: 978-978-56995-6-2

Published and Printed by:

OBEDTOR PRESS (NIG). LTD.
Pankshin, Jos Plateau State
Phone No. 08039453140, 08062597216

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 DEDICATION
This book is dedicated to all Biology Students

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This Biology book is a product of highly experienced and committed lecturers from
diverse areas of Biology. We acknowledged the ever present God for making this work a
great success.
To all our dedicated and experienced colleagues who contributed immensely to the
completion of this educational material our gratitude knows no bounds
We must commend the Provost of Federal College of Education, Pankshin Dr. Amos
Bulus Cirfat (FSTAN) who is also a staff of Biology Department. The Dean School of
Sciences Dr. Ayuba P. Duguryil (FSTAN), Mr. Fulani Gershon Jelten, the Head of
Department, Biology for creating a very conducive environment for the completion of this
work. Mr. Adeniji Adekunle the former Head of Department Biology for the initiative.
The professional editing and useful suggestion of the following people cannot be
forgotten Dr. Zipporah Duguryil , Dr. Henry Katniyon and Mrs. Christiana Zumyil.
We remain grateful to all the Lecturers/ Non-academic staff of the department of
Biology, Federal College of Education, Pankshin and not forgetting our families for their
understanding.

Editorial Board
Lawrence, Wilfred Biology (Editor-in-Chief)
Joshua, Nehemiah Ndit
Francis, Udeozo C.

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 FORWARD
I feel highly honoured to be asked by my colleagues in Biology Department of the College to
write a forward on Course Book II covering diversity of Chordates, research
methods/Biometry, Population Education, Plant Pathology, Physiology and Animal
Histology. Embryology, Evolution and Biology Practical III and IV respectively. These
chapters are written by experienced, dedicated and hardworking staff of the department, most
of them had put in more than twenty (20) years of teaching at both secondary and tertiary
institutions in the country. I therefore, strongly recommend this course Book II to all Nigerian
Certificate in Education, NCE II Students in our Colleges of Education. The topics give a
sound introductory coverage to Biology Undergraduate Students as well as basic Post-
Secondary School Education, general knowledge. It can also be a good material for lovers of
knowledge generally.

Dr. Amos Bulus Cirfat, FSTAN, FCAI, JP

Provost, FCE Pankshin
Plateau State

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 Table of Contents

Copy Right ………………………………………………………………………………….. ii

Dedication.................................................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgement....................................................................................................................iv
Forward......................................................................................................................................v
CHAPTER ONE
Diversity of Chordates...............................................................................................................1
CHAPTER TWO
Research Methods & Biometry................................................................................................24
CHAPTER THREE
Population Education...............................................................................................................71
CHAPTER FOUR
Plant Pathology........................................................................................................................85
CHAPTER FIVE
Animal Histology...................................................................................................................137
CHAPTER SIX
Biology Practical III...............................................................................................................150
CHAPTER SEVEN
Plant Physiology.....................................................................................................................160
CHAPTER EIGHT
Vertebrate And Anatomy.......................................................................................................186
CHAPTER NINE
Evolution................................................................................................................................206
CHAPTER TEN...................................................................................................................224
Biology Practical IV...............................................................................................................224

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 CHAPTER ONE
DIVERSITY OF CHORDATES
By
Okenmor, A. Grace
INTRODUCTION
A chordate is any coelomate animal belonging to the phylum chordate (Greek:
meaning string) possessing a notochord, a hollow dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits , an
endostyle, and post anal tail for at least some period of its life cycle. The chordate together
with sister clade Ambulacraria, form the deuterostomes as in the embryo development stage,
the anus forms before the mouth.
Taxonomically the phylum includes the sub phyla vertebrata; which includes Fishes,
Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals and Protochordates such as Tunicata (which includes
Salps, Sea Squirts) Cephalochordate (comprising the lancelets) and Hemichordates. Members
of the chordate are bilaterally symmetric, deuterostome coelomates.

1.0 CHORDATES CHARACTERISTICS:

The chordate animals at some time in their life history exhibit the following
diagnostic features.
1. Notochord: This is an elastic solid rod lying below the nerve cord and above the
alimentary canal. It is made up of large vacuolated cells, and it serves as a primitive
internal skeleton in an early embryo. It is flexible so it permits movement of the body. It
may persist throughout life. Some animals like lamprey, some fishes, or it may be
partially replaced or completely replaced by a backbone also called vertebral column.
2. Dorsal Tubular Nerve Cord: There is a dorsal hollow fluid nerve chord, running from
one end to the other. Thus the dorsal nerve chord persist throughout life most chordates.
In vertebrates, the dorsal nerve chord differentiates into the brain (which coordinates all
life activities) and spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous
system (CNS).
3. Pharyngeal Slits/Gill Clefts: Gill clefts are paired openings leading from the pharynx
to the exterior. Gill clefts appeared during the development of every chordates but in
many aquatic forms they are lined with vascular lamella to form gills for respiration,
while in the terrestrial chordates which never breath with gills, the gills cleft are present
only during early development but disappears before adult life. Such gill clefts are
called Visceral clefts.
4. Post Anal Tail: Chordates during their embryonic development have a post anal tail
that extends beyond the anus
5. Endostyle: This is the ventral groove with glandular walls located in the pharynx, the
function of which is to secrete mucus to catch food, captures iodine and produce thyroid
hormones

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1.1 THE ORIGIN OF CHORDATES
Attempts to work out the evolutionary relationships of the chordates have produced
several hypothesis, one of such theory is the Garstang’s theory.
Garstang’s Theory: It proposes that the origin of Chordates took place about 570 million
years ago during the precambrian, from some deuterosomes. The larvae of these animals have
some similarities with a chordate body plan; bilateral symmetry, unidirectional digestive
tract, an adoral and circumoral ciliated band. Thus it is believed that a deuterostome larva,
perhaps the auricularia larva of echinoderm would have resulted in the evolutionary line of
chordates.
Molecular Theory: From molecular phylogenetics, the current consensus is that chordates
are monophyletic (arising from ancestral form called Calcichordata. The name meaning
string is attributed to William Bateson (1885) although the German Zoologist Ernst Hakel
(1880) used German vernacular to describe the chordates.

Fig.1.1: Phylogenetic Tree of Chordates

a=NOTOCHORD, b=HOLLOW DORSAL NERVE CORD, c=PHARYNGEAL SLIT, d=

POST ANAL TAIL.
Fig 1.2: A Generalized Chordate Embryo

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CLASSIFICATION OF CHORDATE
The phylum chordate is divided into five sub phylums namely: Hermichordates,
Urochordates, Cephalochordates, Agnatha and Vertebrata, although some zoologist are of the
opinion that the phylum should be divided into two groups namely protochordata or acraniata
(consisting of hermichordata, uro chordate cephalochordate) or craniata ie vertebrata also
called eurochordata.
The sub phylum vertebrata is divided into seven classes; jawless fish, cartilaginous
fish, bony fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.

Other Characteristic Features of Higher Chordates

1. Ventral Heart: In most chordates blood circulation id pumped and maintained by a
muscular heart, which is divided into chambers.
2. Presence of hepatic portal system which carries food from the alimentary canal to end
in the liver, via the hepatic portal vein.
3. Red blood: Most Chordates have red blood cells/corpuscles also called erythrocytes
having hemoglobin as a respiratory pigment.
4. Post anal tail
5. Cephalization: This is the concentration of nervous tissues and sense organs on or
towards the anterior region, forming the head. The head bears sense organs like the,
eyes, nose, ears, and mouth.
6. Internal organs: Most Chordates have internal organs like heart, liver, kidney, spleen.
They also possess endocrine glands which secretes hormones that regulate growth,
metabolism, and sexual maturity and also have an important role in homeostasis.
7. Endoskeleton: The vertebrate chordates possess endoskeleton which provides form,
shape and support to the body, protect vital organ of the vertebrates, and provide point
of attachment for muscles.

1.2 GROUP PROTOCHORDATE

Fig. 1.3: A Chart of Protochordate

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Hermochordata: Hermichordata are a small group of marine, solitary or colonial worm like,
entrocoelous animals, most of which live in tubes.

1.2.1: General Characteristics of Hermichordates

1. They are exclusively marine, having soft worm like body
2. Their body is divided into three parts namely; proboscis, collar and trunk
3. Their notochord occurs only in the anterior end of the body.
4. They have numerous paired gill slits
5. Colon is divided into three distinct portion corresponding to the regions i.e proboscis,
collar and trunk.
6. Their blood vascular system is single and simple.
7. Sexes are separate while development may be direct or indirect.

Balanoglossus
Balanoglossus are tongue like a corn worm animals having straight digestive tube with mouth
and anus at opposite ends. They are usually found in burrows.

HABIT AND HABITAT

They are burrow dwellers and they are distributed worldwide.

Fig 1.4: External Features of Balanoglossus

External Features of Balanoglossus

The body of balanoglosus is soft, elongated cylindrical, richly ciliated and covered with
mucus. Their body is divided into three region namely:
1. Proboscis/Protosome
2. Collar/Mesosome
3. Trunk/Metasome.

Regeneration: Balanoglossus have great power of regeneration i.e broken pieces of the
animal can regenerate or grow into new individual.

1.2.2 Subphylum; Urochordata (Turnicate)

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 The turnicates are marine filter feeding animals. The most prominent turnicates are
the sea squirts(class Ascidiacea) which shows affiliation to other chordate only in the juvenile
stage while the adult form is sessile some form colonies called Zooid. Turnicate is
traditionally divided into three classes namely;
1. Ascidiacea (e.g sea squirts e.g herdimania, salpa).
2. Thaliacea are free swimming filter feeders.
3. Appendicularia (larvacea, only group of turnicate to retain their chordate characteristics
in the adult stage).
Ascidiacea are the largest urochordates having their body covered by a thin, delicate
and gelatinous tunic composed of a complex cellulose ie glycoprotein called ‘’tunicin’’ and
made up of carbohydrate and protein. This complex turnic gave it its name ‘’ turnicata.
General Characteristics of Turnicates
1. They show variation in size and form
2. The body is un-segmented and has no tail.
3. The body is covered by a tested formed from tunicin which is rallied to cellulose, hence
the name Turnicata.
4. Body wall shows one layered epidermis and dermis
5. Coelem is absent
6. Larva as notochord In the tail which disappears during metamorphosis
7. Gills are present for respiration
8. Cilliary mode of feeding is common
9. Circulatory system is open
10. Asexual reproduction is by budding
11. They are hermaphrodites i.e sexes are united
12. Fertilization is external

I.2.3 Cephalochordata
Cephalochordata or lancelets, traditionally known as amphioxus, plural amphioxi) is a
subphylum of small fish like marine invertebrates of the phylum chordate. Cephalochordates
have notochord, a hollow dorsal nerve cord, and pharyngeal slit. They retain their notochord
throughout their lives, unlike turnicates and vertebrates that have notochord during their
embryonic stage. They derive their name cephalo meaning related to the head because their
notochord extend into the head.
General Characteristics of Cephalochordates
1. Body is fish-like, useful for burrowing and swimming
2. It has a head
3. It shows a tail
4. Appendages are absent
5. Dorsal caudal and ventral fins are present for swimming
6. Notochord extends from the anterior end to the posterior end
7. Enterocoelic coelem is present
8. Gills are present for respiration
9. Circulatory system is closed, muscular heart not well developed
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10. Brain is absent
11. Two pairs of cerebral and several pairs of spinal nerves are present.
12. Sexes are separate
13. Fertilization is external

1.3 SUB-PHYLUM: AGNATHA

Agnatha are the earliest known vertebrates and are characterized by the absence of
jaws. Agnatha is divided into two classes namely: Ostracodermi and cyclostomata(the only
living class)
General Characteristics of Agnatha
1. They are jawless
2. Teeth, paired appendages and exoskeleton are absent
3. Skull has a membranous root
4. Single median nasal opening
5. Vertebral column consist of a persistent notochord
6. Presence of large number of gills slit
Class I: Ostracodermi e.g cephalapis
1. They consist of jawless agnatha of fresh water habitat. Infact they are now extinct.
2. They had fish like bodies with heavy hard amour
3. They have heavy dermal plates in the skin
4. They had a slit-like mouth at the front of their head

Class II: Cyclostomata: It is divided into two orders namely; Petromyzon (e.g lamprey)
Order 2: Myxnodea (e.g hag fish)

General Characteristic of Cyclostomata

1. They have round mouth with buccal funnel as the name suggest
2. They are jawless
3. They possess notochord
4. They have cartilaginous skeleton
5. They have no gill arch for protection of gills, instead the brachial system is situated
externally to the gills
6. Paired fins are absent, instead it has a dorsal fin

Systematic Classification of Lamprey

Phylum- Chordate
Group- Vertebrata
Subphylum- Agnatha
Class- Cyclostomata
Order - Petromyzontiformes
Genus- Petromyzonta
Species- Lampreta fluviatile

HABIT AND HABITAT

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Lampreys are found both in fresh water and marine water attached as ectoparasite on fishes
and turtles or they are free living. They are true predators who swim very well

External Features
They have a cylindrical eel-like or snake-like soft body. The upper body surface is
dark in colour while the lower body surface is smooth and slimy. Lampreys do not have
scales on their body
Body division: The body is divided into head, trunk, and tail. There is a median dorsal fin
which is divided into two unequal parts by a notch.

Fig 1.5: External Features of Lampreta Fluviatile

Life History
Lamprey migrate from the sea only once for spawning. Fertilization is external. The egg
hatches into ammocoete larva, after 3-4 weeks. The larva period last between 3-7 after which
it will undergo metamorphosis to form the young adult. Due to the striking resemblance of
ammocoete larval to amphioxus, ammocoete larva is often regarded as a connecting link
between Amphicoxus and cyclostomes.

Activity 1:
1. You are provided with (i) tomato (ii) tilapia fish (iii) agama lizard.
(a) Make a transverse section of the tomato
(b) Draw and label fully the lateral view of the Tilapia fish and the dorsal view of the
Agama lizard
(c) list four (4) precautions taken when drawing a biological diagram of a specimen.

2.1 CLASS: PISCES

Pisces (Latin word for fish) are cold blooded vertebrates that breath by the means of
gills and live in water. There are about 30,000-60,000 species found in seas, rivers, canals,
lakes, ponds, dams and almost everywhere there is water. The Greek called fishes ichthyes,
hence the scientific study of fishes is called ichthyology structure.
Structure: Fishes usually have a streamlined bodies, but some are elongated, snake like and
a few are dorso-ventrally flattened. They have paired and unpaired fins supported by soft and
spiny fin rays. Dorsal anal and Caudal tins are unpaired, while the pectoral, pelvic fins are
paired. Respiratory organs are chiefly gills. Fishes provide evolutionary base invasion of land
by Amphibians.

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Economic Importance of Fishes
1. Source of food providing protein, vitamins, fat and oil
2. Fish liver is an important source of oil which is very lucrative source of income
3. They are source of manure, called fish manure
4. They provide source of livelihood to fish farmers and fishermen
Characteristics of Fish
1. They are aquatic, found in either fresh water or marine, and they are cold blooded
2. Their skin are covered with scales, dermal denticles or bony plates
3. They have streamline body, some are elongated snake like, while few are flattened
dorso-ventrally
4. They have paired and unpaired fins supported by soft or spiny rays
5. Tail is muscular and it is used for population
6. Nostrils are paired but do not open into the pharynx except in lung fishes
7. Presence of cartilaginous or bony endoskeleton
8. They have gills as their major organ of respiration
9. The gills are borne on true gill-arches. The gills open outside through by gill slits and
covered by puerility. The gill slits are more than seven, but in most, five pairs are
present.
10. Lateral line system is well developed
11. Swim bladder or air sac is present
12. Only internal ear is present
13. Sexes are separate, development is indirect.
Classification
Although fishes are grouped into seven classes namely;
1. Pterichythys
2. Coccostei
3. Acanthodii
4. Elasonobranchi (chondrichythyes)
5. Holoceohali
6. Dipnoi
7. Telestomi
The first three classes are extinct hence they are collectively called placoderms. The
last four classes have living species which are divided into two broad groups namely;
Cartilaginous fishes (Chondrochythyes) and bony fishes (Osteichthyes) respectively.

1.1.1 Cartiliginous Fishes (Chondrichythes) and Bony Fishes (Osteichythyes).

Cartilaginous fishes have cartilage as their endoskeleton and possess the following
characteristics. Here the shark will be used as a typical example.

General Characteristics
1. Skin is covered by placid scales or naked
2. Endoskeleton is made up of cartilage often calcified
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3. 5-7 gills slits on each side
4. Operculum or gill cover absent
5. Cloaca is present
6. Male usually possess claspers
7. They are mostly marine
External Features which enables it to live successfully in Marine Environment
1. Well-developed teeth for feeding
2. Powerful fins for swimming
3. Streamlined body for easy movement
4. Claspers for copulation and reproduction

Fig 2.: External features of Shark (Carcheredon carcharias)

Classification of Bony Fish
Bony fishes evolved at the same time as sharks some 400 million years ago, but took
quite a different evolutionary road. Instead of gaining speed through as sharks did bony fish
adopted a heavy internal skeleton made completely of bone. Some examples of bony fishes
are tilapia, catfish, mackerel, mud fish, climbing perch (Anabes).
The class ostheichythes is divided into two sub class base on the nature of the fins.
Subclass: Actinopterygii (ray finned fishes)
Subclass: sacopterygii (fleshy finned fishes), which are ancestors of tetrapod.

Fig 2.2: External Features of Tilapia Fish

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CLASSIFICATION OF SOME BONY FISHES
TABLE 2.1
Mud fish Cat fish Tilapia Shark
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordate Chordata Chordate Chordate
Sub phylum Vertebrata Vertebrata Vertebrata Vertebrata
Superclass Osteichthyes Osteichthyes Osteichthyes Chondrichthyes
Sub class Actinoptergii Actinoptergii Actinoptergii Elasmobranchii
Order Osmeriformes Silurifomes Perciformes Lamniformes
Family Galaxiidae Claridea Cichidae Carcheredon
Genus Neochanna Clarias Tillapia Carcheredon
Species Diversus/ Clarias Tillapia zilli Carcheredon
Apodneochaanna Gariepinus Carcharias

IMPORTANT ADAPTATION OF BONY FISH

1. Presence of swim bladder for buoyancy even though their bones are heavier than
cartilaginous fishes
2. Lateral line system for detection of vibration in the water
3. Presence of gills which are covered by gill cover or operculum. The gills are used for
gaseous exchange , while the gill cover is to protect the gills from mechanical injury
and also tom pump water over their gills
3.0 CLASS: AMPHIBIANS
Amphibians are ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates of the class Amphibian (meaning animals
that can live partly in water and partly on land). Modern amphibians are all Lissamphibia,
evolving from sarcoptergian fish In the Devoniam period. The three modern orders are;
Anura (frog and toads), Urodelia (salamanders) and Apodsa (the Caecillian).
- ANURA/Salentia (meaning absence of tail) consisting of frogs and toads.
- Gymnophiona also called Apoda consisting of (caecillians) which resembles large
worms lacking limbs.
- Caudate also called urodela consisting of species like salamanders and newts. This
specie possess tails hence the name caudate.

General Characteristics of Living Amphibians

1. They are cold blooded vertebrates, otherwise called poikilothermic animals, whose
temperature varies with their environment.
2. Skin can be smooth or rough, but rich in glands which keep it moist
3. They possess a pair of lungs
4. Most of them have four legs with the exception of caecilians which have lost their legs
in course of adapting to burrowing existence. Therefore limbs are usually smaller than
the hind limb. Their foot is webbed which aid in swimming.
5. They have several respiratory structures. Therefore respiration can be either through
gills, lungs, skin, cutaneous respiration and pharyngeal region (bucolic cavity). They are
able to respire through their skin because their skin is rich with numerous blood vessels
and also most of oxygen.
6. Mouth is usually large with small teeth on upper and lower jaw.
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7. Two nostril are found in the head
8. Heart is divided into two auricle and one ventricle
9. Excretory system is a pair of mesonephritic kidney and urea is the main nitrogenous
waste
10. Sexes are separate. Fertilization can be external or internal. Eggs have gelatinous
covering usually laid in water. Development is through a larva stage called Tad pole
before metamorphosis into adult. This stage is often controlled by hormones.
Table 3.1: Classification of Living Amphibian
TOAD FROG
Kingdom Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordate Chordate
Sub-phylum Vertebrata Vertebrata
Class Amphibia Amphibia
Order Salienta (anura) Anura (salienta)
Family Bufanidae Bufanidae (ranadae)
Genus Bufo Bufo (rana)
Species Bufo regularis Bufo tigrina

3.1 FACTORS THAT AIDED THE SUCCESFUL INVASION OF LAND BY

AMPHIBIANS
1. Development of legs to support the body’s weight as well as to allow movement from
place to place
2. Development of the heart to deliver the greater amount of oxygen required by walking
muscles
3. Reproduction taking place in water is a method employed to prevent eggs from drying
up.
4. The development of a system to prevent the body itself from drying out while on land,
Adaptive Features of Toad that helps it to Adapt to its Environment
1. Rough warty skin used for gaseous exchange
2. Webbed hind limbs for swimming
3. Powerful muscles in the limbs for hopping
4. Absence of neck and tail, to facilitate easy movement on both land and water
5. The nictating membrane which helps to keep the eye ball moist and clean while on land
serves as a protective covering when in water.
6. The bulged eye gives the toad a keen and wide range of vision
7. The vomerine teeth and the teeth on the roof of the mouth help to hold the prey
8. The thick sticky tongue makes it an effective organ for catching preys e.g insects
9. The pigments in the skin enables the toad to change its colour to suit its background to
protect them from predators.
10. Presence of poisonous gland for protection against predators.

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 Fig 3.1 External Features of Toad
3.2 MODE OF LIFE
Toads normally live on land and often hibernate in small holes in the ground or under
vegetation during the dry season. They are nocturnal i.e most active at night. They are
protected against predators by their slippery skins, distasteful secretion and camouflaged
bodies.
Feeding
Adult toads are carnivorous, feeding on worms, cockroaches and flies e.t.c. They have
numerous small teeth in their jaws which prevent the prey from escaping, but they do not
chew it.
Breathing
a. Skin breathing: is used constantly, the skin is kept moist by secretion of the mucus; and
oxygen (from air or water) is dissolved in the moisture and diffuses through the wall into
the numerous blood capillaries. Carbon dioxide diffuses out from the blood into the
surroundings.
b. Buccal breathing: It is used constantly, the lining of the buccal cavity is moist and well
supplied with blood vessels. The rhythmical movement of the floor of the cavity causes
air to move in and out through the nostrils and gaseous exchange occurs. The glottis is
kept close.
c. Lung breathing: is used during and after active movement. The glottis is opened so air
can be forced into the lungs. The movement of air through the glottis makes flaps tissue
vibrate in the larynx. This produces a croaking noise which is louder in male. The
movement of the floor of the buccal cavity brings about air exchange and there are no ribs
or diaphragm

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Table 3.2 Differences Between frogs and Toads
S/ Frog Toad
N
1 They have long legs They have short legs
2 They have smooth skin covered with mucus They have dry rough thicker skin
3 They lay their eggs in clusters They lay their eggs in long strands
4 Do not possess poisonous warts Possess poisonous warts

Activity 3
a. Highlight the factors that aided the successful invasion of land by Amphibians.
b. Why are Toads and Frogs referred to as Anura
c. What is the major function of the slippery skin of salientia
d. List three various modes of respiration
e. In a tabular form list three structural differences between a toad and a frog
f. You are provided with (a) frog (b) toad (salamander) classify specimen a and b from
kingdom to species
g. What is the major difference between frog and salamanda
h. Draw 12cm by 14cm well labeled diagram of specimen a, and give four (4) reasons that
enabled you to identify specimen a as a frog
i. What is the mode of nutrition of the above specimens
j. What is the juvenile stage of the specimen a and b
k. Which of the above specimen is edible and the class of food it provides is known as
what?

4.0 CLASS: REPTILES

Reptiles re cold-blooded vertebrates in the class reptalia, comprising today’s turtles,
crocodilians, snakes, lizards e.t.c. Reptiles are the first truly terrestrial vertebrates. They are
widely distributed and are believed to be the direct descendant of amphibians. The class has
about 7000 species. For each of the five (5) key challenges of living on land, reptiles
improved on the innovation first seen in amphibians;
1. Legs were arranged to support the body’s weight more effectively, allowing reptiles
bodies to be bigger and to run.
2. Lungs and heart were altered to make them more efficient
3. The skin was covered with dry scales to minimize water loss
4. Eggs were encased in water tight covers known as amniotic egg
5. Dry skin lining. Amphibians have a moist skin and must remain in moist places to avoid
drying out. Unlike amphibians, reptiles have dry skins. A layer of scale of armor covers
their bodies preventing water loss. These develop as surface cells filled with keratin, the
same protein that forms human finger nails and bird feathers.

4.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF REPTILES

1. The body is variable in shape, compact in some elongated in others, the body is covered
with addition of bony dermal plate integument with few glands.
2. Skeleton well ossified, ribs with sternum forming a complete thoracic basket core with
one ossified condyle.
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3. Respiration is by lungs, they have no gills, cloaca is used for respiration in some
branchial artria in embryonic forms (except for snakes and turtles)
4. They possess three chambered heart
5. The limbs are paired with toes and are adapted for climbing, running and paddling.
6. Nervous system in the optic lobe on the dorsal side of the brain
7. They are exothermic
8. They possess 12 pairs of cranial nerves in addition to nerve terminals
9. Sexes are separate with internal fertilization
10. They have direct development from amniotic eggs which are covered with calcareous or
leathery shell.

4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF REPTILES

Class reptile has been divided into four sub-classes;
1. Anaspida: having a living order Chelona which consist of about 250 species of turtles
most of which live in water.
2. Paraspida; most of which are extinct
3. Dipsida: where you find living orders such as crocodile (alligators and crocodile)
Sqamata (lizard), Serpenta (consisting of various snakes).
4. Synaspida: most of which are extinct
Table 4.1: Scientific Classifications of Some Reptiles
Lizard Tortoise Crocodile
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata
Subphylum Vertebrata Vertebrata Vertebrata
Class Reptilia Reptilia Reptilia
Order Squamata Chelonia Crocodylia
Family Agamidae Testudinidae Crocodylidae
Genus Agama Greohelone/testudo Crocodylus
Species Agama Graeca ibera Elephantipus
Agama Niloticus johnsoni

4.3 ADAPTIVE FEATURES OF AGAMA LIZARD

1. Presence of scales to prevent mechanical injury and for regulation of body temperature
2. They have the tendency to cut off some part of the tail to confuse their enemies, thus
giving the lizard chance to escape
3. It can adopt to arboreal life to ensure survival
4. Claws facilitate climbing of trees and walls
5. They possess lungs for gaseous exchange
6. Bulged eye for perfect vision.

14
Fig 4.1 External Features of Agama Lizard

4.4 FEEDING: Agama lizard lives near humans around houses old buildings and also in
dry forest and grass land. The lizard lives together in communities occupying certain areas of
ground called territories.
MODE OF LIFE
In one territory are between 6-12 lizards both males and females. One of the males brightly
coloured is referred to as the cock lizard, and he defends the territory against intruders. If a
brightly coloured lizard from an adjacent territory comes over the boundary, he is chased
away by the cock lizard.

Colour Changes
The emotional state of the lizard and the external temperature can cause quite rapid changes
of colour. For example, when being handled by humans or when fighting another lizard, the
cock’s body becomes pale and the head dark brown. At night and whenever a male or female
is kept in a cool dry place the whole body turns dark brown.
Breathing
Lizards breathe with their lungs. They have over a dozen pairs of ribs but no diaphragm. In
respiration, the ribs are lowered so that the body cavity increases in volume. The lungs
expand and air is drawn in through the nostrils. After gaseous exchange, the ribs are raised
and the lungs contract. The pressure increases and air is breathed out through the nostrils.
Body Temperature
Agama lizards are able to keep their body temperature fairly constant during the day by the
way in which they behave. When the body temperature falls below 37 degrees Celsius, the
lizard bask in the sun to absorb heat directly from the sun and from their surroundings, thus
raising their temperature to between 37 and 39 degree centigrade. This allows them to have
period of activity. They usually bask in the morning and afternoon. If they continued basking
in the middle of the day their temperature would become dangerously high, so they go into
the shade under stones or vegetation. At night they cannot absorb extra energy from the sun

15
and so their body temperature falls to that of the air. During this time, they sleep and only
become active when they can bask in the morning sun again to raise their temperature.
Life Cycle
A cock lizard is polygamous, he mates with all the mature females within the territory. The
other male lizard in that territory cannot attract a mate. A mature female arches her back and
lifts her tail whenever a cock lizard passes by. A more complicated performance precedes
mating which usually takes place in the raining season.
After mating the female digs a hole in the ground about 5cm deep, usually with her
forefeet. About 6 eggs are laid, and the hole is filled in with the soil so that it is difficult to
see. Neither parent takes any more concern over the young. The newly laid eggs are about
1cm and 0.6cm wide and have a white leathery shell. They contain yolk, but no albumen and
so the egg gradually swells as it absorbs its moisture from the soil.
The young lizard hatches out in less than 8 weeks by breaking through the leathery
shell with pointed egg tooth. The young lizard is about 11cm long and a small edition of its
Parents. Females become sexually mature at 14 months, but a male cannot attract a male until
it is a cock lizard which is usually at about 2 years.
Activity Four
1. Draw and label fully the side view of Agama lizard
2. What is the name given to a mature male Agama lizard. Also state the mode of
reproductive behavior of the male Agama lizard
3. What is the major difference between a tortoise and Agama lizard
4. In a tabular form, state the function of the following features found in Agama Lizard (i)
scales (ii) claws (ii) bulged eyes (iv) lungs.
5. Give the mode of nutrition; (i) lizard (ii) snake (iii) crocodile

5.0 CLASS: AVES (Birds)

Birds (Aves a Latin word) also known as avian dinosaur, are groups of enthorthermic
vertebrates characterized by feathers, toothless beak jaws, the laying of hard shelled eggs, a
high metabolic rate, a four chambered heart and a light weight but strong skeleton.
Characteristics of Birds
The diagnostic feature of birds is not that they fly because for some do not but that their body
is covered with feathers and this is the distinguishing mark of birds. Feathers are made
primarily of horny epidermal structures
1. Birds are only the vertebrates that move very fast in the air and this is enhanced by their
streamlined body
2. The wings of birds have a quite distinguishing skeleton with cavities
3. Well-developed nervous system with brain and 12 pairs of cranial nerves
4. Circulatory system consists of four chambered heart, nucleated red blood cells.
5. Internal fertilization, eggs with yolk and hard calcareous shells are laid.
6. They have separate sexes
7. Excretory system is by metanephric kidney

16
Feeding
They are mainly fruits and seeds eaters, have short thick beaks for picking while some are
herbivores and few are scarvengers e.g vultures, eagles, kites e.t.c. have some curved beaks
some of them feed on insects e.g wood peckers. Aquatic birds feed on aquatic invertebrates,
algae, protozoans e.t.c the duck have beaks with serrated edges. They sieve food particles
from water and mud.

5.1 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Male has a pair of oval testes a duct known as the vas deference passes back and open
into the cloaca. Often it is directed at its distal end to form a seminal vesicles, the sperm pass
to the vas deference and are stored in the seminal vesicles when copulation takes place they
are discharged into the cloaca of the female. There is no copulatory organ in most birds
however there is a curved penis in male ducks, geese and swans.
In the female reproductive system the right ovary usually disappears during
development so that only the left ovary persist in the adult. The ovum breaks out of the ovary
and enter into the oviduct. During their passage through the oviduct, albuminous substance
known as the white of the egg is secreted in the walls of the middle portion of the duct. The
chalaza is a twisted structure of the albumen and it looks as if it is suspending the yolk within
the less dense albumen as the egg pass down the oviduct. The shell is added by the posterior
part of the oviduct is short time before the deposition. Fertilization if occurs takes place in the
upper oviduct about 42 hours before the egg are laid. At the period of incubation which is
about 14 days the young have developed to such stage that they can break through the shell
and are hatched. They are at first covered with soft down feathers but soon acquired covering
contour feathers as they mature.

5.2 ADAPTATION OF BIRDS FOR FLIGHT

- Anatomical volant
a. They possess a streamlined body which reduces air resistance when in flight
b. They possess wings with large surface area which give the birds a lifting power in flight
c. The breast bone (sternum) is modify to form a keel for the attachment of large muscles
that operate the wings
d. They possess light and hollow bones which reduces the body weight
e. They have air sacs in their body which acts as air reservoir when the animal is flying. It
also contributes to the lightness of the body.
f. They possess a tail with feather which is modified for steering during flight and for
braking or stopping.
g. They possess an efficient respiratory system made up of lungs and numerous air sacs
which allow the circulation of air around the body
h. They are homoeothermic i.e warm blood animals which ensure faster metabolic activities.

5.3 ADAPTATION SHOWN BY FLIGHTLESS BIRDS

a. Their body is usually heavy
b. Their feathers have lost their barbules and there is no firm surface to beat the air
c. They have small wings compared with the remaining part of their body
d. The sternum muscles possess few blood vessels, hence the muscles lack adequate
oxygen for flight
17
e. They have small keel, therefore the flight muscles attached to it are poorly developed.

Fig 5.1 External Features of a Pigeon

Classification of Aves
The sub- class are
i. Archaeornithes: they are all extinct
ii. Neornithes e.e Ostrich
iii. Neognathae: this sub class include domestic fowls, pigeons, heron, pelican e.t.c. this
sub-class contain 22 orde

Table 5.1 Systematic Classification Of Chicken And Pigeon

Domestic Chicken Pigeon
Kingdom Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordate Chordate
Group Vertebrate Vertebrata
Sub-Phylum Gnathostomata Gnathostomata
Class Aves Aves
Order Telliformes Columbiformes
Family Gallidae Columbidae
Genus Gallius Columba
Species Gallus domestica Columba,guinea or Columba livia

Economic Importance of Birds

1. They serve as source of food
2. Feathers and muscles of certain birds are used in Ayurvedic and Unani medicines
3. Their multi coloured feathers are used to make fans, plumes on hats and to decorate
houses
4. They are useful pollinators of plant
5. Their feaces are organic manures or fertilizers
6. Carion eating birds (scavengers) like vultures, hawks, crows, eagles e.t.c. feed on dead
bodies and decaying organic substances which might cause diseases if left to decay
7. They are agricultural pest which can destroy grains in the field, fruits on trees etc.
18
8. They are vectors of diseases
9. Certain fish eating birds such as herons feed upon fishes thus causing great loss to fish
industry.
10. Source of communication
AMNIOTIC AND CLEIDIOC EGGS
A. Amniotic Eggs
Eggs that contains an amnion are referred to as amniotic egg. The amnion is a set of
fluid filled membrane containing a containing a fluid called amniotic fluid that acts as a
cushion to help protect the developing embryo from physical danger. The yolk sac is the
structure that provides nutrient to the developing embryo. Organism that produce amniotic
eggs are called Amniotes enabling them to reproduce on dry land free from the need to return
to water for reproduction as required by amphibians. From this point, the amniotes spread
along the globe eventually to become the dominant land vertebrates.
The egg consist of four membranes the yolk sac, the amnion, the allantois, and the
chorion. The outermost membrane is the chorion which allows oxygen to enter the egg. The
amnion encases the developing embryo, while the yolk sac provides food from the yolk to the
embryo via blood vessels connecting to the embryo gut. The allantois surrounds a cavity into
which waste product from the embryo are secreted.

Fig. 5.2 Features of Aminiotic Eggs

B. The Cledidoic Egg

The cleidoic egg (from greek Kleisns: closed) is the type of egg which reptiles lay.
Mammalian reproduction has evolved from laying cleidoic egg to live birth. The cleidoic egg
is sometimes called amniotic egg, because it has characteristics of amniotes. The eggs are laid
on land by reptiles and birds, enclosed in a protective shell which can be hard or flexilble(as
with some turtles and snake eggs).
EVOLUTION OF CLEIDOIC EGG
Evolution of the avian egg from the naked amniotic egg of amphibians, fishes and ancestral
reptiles probably was the outcome of adaptation to overcome intense predation by soil
invertebrates and microbes. The calcerous cell from inception afforded a measure of
19
protection to the egg against attack. The thickness amount of water contained by the egg at
oviposition reduces the degree of dependence of embryo upon external sources of water for
successful completion of development. The eggs contains all the food the embryo needs to
develop into hatching. Due to the fact that eggs are laid on land internal fertilization is
needed, there are changes in behavior leading to better and more flexible brain for example
crocodiles and birds look after and protect their young ones. Mammals not only protect their
young ones they provide milk for their young ones.

Activity Five
1. You are provided with the following: (a) pigeon (b) rat (c) monkey
a. Give reasons why specimen a is regarded as a bird. Also classify specimen a from
kingdom to specie
b. Give the five types of feathers found in specimen a
c. Give the function of the following (a) feather (b) Legs (c) eyes (d) wings found in
specimen a.
d. List six adaptation of a for flight
e. What is the major difference between specimen a and c.

6.0 CLASS MAMMMALS:

Mammals are vertebrates within the class Mammalia. They are warm blooded distinguished
from reptiles and birds by the possession of neocortex (a region of the brain), hair, three
middle ear bone and mammary gland
Characteristics of Mammals
1. They are homoeothermic
2. Skin is covered by hairs and acts as an insulator for the high uniform and constant
internal body temperature, sweat and sebaceous glands are present on the skin.
3. Females possess mammary glands (in monotremes modified into sweat gland which
produces milk)
4. External ears are present and well developed into flaps usually called pinnae. Middle
ear is characterized by the presence of three bones (ear ossicles).
5. Functionality teeth are differentiated into four types namely; incisors, canine, molars
and premolars. There are two successive dentition.
6. They have four chambered heart
7. Braincase is enlarge hence greatly increase intelligence
8. Head is on flexible neck
9. Body cavity is divided into upper thoracic and lower abdominal chamber by the means
of a muscular partition (diaphragm).
10. Development is usually internal an the young are born alive except for the monotremes
e.g Duck – billed platy pussies and anteater which lays egg which are incubated and
hatch outside the body of the mother. In both cases the young are nourished from the
milk of the mother.

20
 Fig. 5.1 The External Features of Guinea Pig
Classification
The modern mammals have been divided into three subclasses with respect to their way of
reproduction;
1. Protheria (monotremes): urine is a fecal matter, egg leaves the body through a single
common opening called the cloaca hence the name monotromes animals.
2. Mathateria (masupails)
3. Eutheria (placenta animals)

Characteristics of Sub-Class Protheria

- They possess both mammalian and reptilian character
- The milk is produced by modified sweat gland
- The female lay large yolky eggs
- Absence of true scapular spine and the presence of interclavicles and infused clavicle ribs
- The rectum and urogenital system open into the dormal opening called claoca as in
reptiles
- Absent of pinnae
- Persistence of various reptilian character in the skull
- The brain case is small which reflect their low mentality
- Have four chambered heart, with an incomplete high atrium ventricular valves but a
single aortic arch of the left as in other mammals
- The pillion region has the most singly developed part of the cerebral hemisphere as in
more advanced mammals
- Males bear living spores on their ankles which are groove for passage of poisonous
glandular secretion
This subclass is divided into two families:
a. Tachglosidae
b. Ornithoorynchidae

Characteristics of Sub-Class Metathera

21
- Egg is yolky and covered by albumen different from that of monotremes and has
membrane but not shell.
- The presence of pounche in which the young are generally matured
- The gestation period is short hence young are born as immature which immediately find
their way into their mothers punche and attach to the teat of the mammary gland and
continually receive milk from the mother
- The brain lacks a corpus collosum
- Simple convulsion of the cerebral hemisphere
- The brain case is small
- Nasal bone of the skull are large and expand
- Posterior zygomatic arches are complete with jugal bone extending backward below the
zygomatic process of the squamosal bone as far as the glenoid fossa.
- There is replacement of milk teeth with permanent teeth.

Characteristic of Sub-Class Eutheria

- The egg vary with little or no yolk
- There is a placenta
- The young are born at an advantage stage of development (miniature adult)
- Cloaca absent: separate reproduction opening and rectum opening
- The l ear is protected by an external ear, the bulbar pinnae
- Movable ribs which are restricted to the thoracic region
- Expanded brain case reflecting the advance mental ability
- Absence of epipubic bones
- Presence of cervical vertebrae

Systematic Classification of Bat (Flying Mammal), Rat, and Rabbit

Bat Rat Rabbit

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordate Chordate Choradate
Group Vertebrate Vertebrate Vertebrate
Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia
Order Chiroptera Rodentia Lagomorpha
Family Hipposideidae Muridae Kagomorpha
Genus Hipposiderideres Rattus Oryctologus
Species Hipposideres Ratus Oryclotologus

Adaptation of Rabbit to their Environment

- They are fast runners and always remain alert
- They have protective coloration and burrowing mode of life
- They have keen sense organ of smell, sight and hearing
- They possess a wide range of vision
- They can easily live in different environmental condition
- They possess 12 pairs or ribs which facilitate respiration during fast running

22
- They have high rate of reproduction
- The mother care for the young ones
- They possess whiskers which allows them to feel their ways
- They have moveable pinna which allows the detection of sound from different
direction.
- Their short limbs which ends with sharp claws is well adapted for scratching away the
earth and the hind limbs for throwing the earth back in other to form burrow.

References
Abdala, F. and Gianninci. N.P. (2000). Gomphodont Cynodont from the chordates
formation : the analysis of an ontogenetic sequence. Journal of vertebrate
palentology. 20:501-506
Anderson J., Reisz.R., Scott. D., Frobisch N. and Sumida. S.(2008). A stem batrachian from
the early Permian of Texas and the origin of frogs and salamander. Nature :433.
(7194): 515-518
Canadian shark research lab. (2007). Skates and Rays of Atlantic Canada reproduction lab.
Accessed September .12, 2011.
Durand, J.F.(2004). The origin of snakes. journal of Africa geoscience, 5(4): 187-188
Holland, .N.D. (2005). Chordates. curriculum Biology, 15(22): R911-R914 doi:10. 1016
Marshal, .G. and Jennifer. A. (2008). Weird Animals genomes and the evolution of the
vertebrates. Sex and sex chromosomes. Annual review of genetics, 42:568-586
Ruppert, E. (2005). Key character uniting hermichordates and chordates: homologies or
homoplasies? Canada journal of zoology. 83: 8-23
Starr. C. Taggart R., Evers. C. (2002). Biology: the unity and diversity of life. Engage
learning. pp, 429. ISBN 978- 111425692
Wilson. S. (2012). Australian lizards A natural History. (siro publishing), pp.65-74. ISBN
978-0-643-10642-0

23
 CHAPTER TWO

RESEARCH METHODS & BIOMETRY

By

Blangzak B. Adamu
INTRODUCTION
Research method and biometry is an important tool in the sciences particularly
biological sciences, because of the variable nature of their experimental materials. Constant
references should always be made to it in planning of experiments and the final analysis of
results.
It is obligated on all students at the end of their course of study to give complete
detailed account of all experiences and thinking involved in the method of research so as to
carry the reader with him or her from identification and definition of the problem,
formulation of hypothesis, collation of data and evidences, analysis and interpretation of idea,
testing of hypothesis and drawing out conclusions.

THE CONCEPT RESEARCH AND BIOMETRY

What is Research?
This is the process of arriving at dependable solution to a problem through planned
and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. It is a technique of advancing
knowledge for promoting progress and for enabling man to relate more effectively to his
environment to accomplish his purpose and to resolve m conflicts. It is meant to discover
relationships that exist among phenomena. Research goes beyond mere findings. It is not a
routine. We can say 100 that research refers to application of scientific approach or method to
the study of a problem. It is such a planned search for undiscovered information or materials
to fill identified gaps of knowledge (Akanbi 2000). He also maintained that it is usually an
investigation motivated because a problem is identified and prediction and/or control can be
found to it. It could be a problem to establish the validity of some hypothesis which may lead
to some theories emerging.
It can also be looked at as process of seeking answers to hypothetical question during
scientific method of enquiry to produce valid information. It is viewed as a systematic and
objective search for new knowledge of the subject of the study and application of knowledge
to the solution of a novel problem.
Biometry is seen as the purposeful affiliation of statistical method to verify and
interpret biological problem or an active pursuit of biological knowledge by quantitative
method (using mathematical logic to the design analysis and interpretation of biology
experiment).

Two Broad Classes of Research

The two broad classes of research includes:
24
- Qualitative research
- Quantitative research

Definition of qualitative research

This is the type of research aimed at gathering information for an in-depth understanding of
human behavior. It investigates:
 Why something happened
 What happened
 How it happened
 Where it happened
Characteristics of qualitative research
 It use natural sources to get data.
 The research attempt to describe and interpret setting as they are.
 The research acts as human instrument of data collection
 It uses inductive data analysis.
 Qualitative research reports are descriptive
 It is also concern with opinions, experiences, and feelings of individuals.
 It has an interpretative character aimed at discovering the meaning of events.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Cohen (2001) defined quantitative research as a research that employs empirical
methods and empirical statements. It is the systematic scientific investigation of quantitative
properties and phenomena and their relationship. The objectives of quantitative research are
to develop and employ mathematical model, theories and/or hypothesis pertaining to natural
phenomena.
Characteristics of Quantitative Research
 Scientific in approach:- using logically empirical methods, strategies, structures and
procedures.
 Systematic approach: using logically sequence steps.
 Orderly in approach: step by step investigation from the initial step to the final step.
 Reliability on approach: step using similar subjections and conditions to replicate the
study.
 Hypothesizing and theorizing in approach: using hypothesis and rigorous satisfied
method in the analysis of data.
Characteristics of Scientific Educational Research
 It aims at solving problems:- it most start with a puzzle in the mind of the researcher
in other words, there must be a problem the researcher wants to solve a phenomena of
interest, he wants to satisfy all the efforts to be put in conducting the research
 Research is circular: it has a point to begin and a point to end like every process. It
requires meaningful statement of hypothesis.
 It is systematic or procedural: it is a structured process and must therefore, follow laid
down rules and regulations for its conduct; it must be done in an objective manner
where various steps are religiously followed.
25
 Research is empirical: it involves careful collections of data relating to particular
study. Here data re essential tools for any research procures. It is the collection and
analysis of data that identify research as an empirical process. All statements must be
backed up by facts and figures.
 Research as replicable: this means that that procedure adopted in any research work is
documented to enable other researcher’s repeat earlier studies in order to establish their
correctness.
 Research is precise: this means the terms and instrument used in investigation contain
sufficient details to cover exact meaning.
 Research is a painstaking and an expensive activity: it demands a lot of courage and
perseverance from the researcher it is expensive because it demands a lot of time,
money, energy and resources in its execution.
 Research is deductive: it attempts to relate from reality to an abstract or conceptual
state in order to understands the relationship between wants and the attempts to predict
how those relationship operate in order of context.
 Research is inductive: this is when a researcher applies analytic procedure to the date
her/she has collected; he reduces the confusion in individual events.
SCIENTIFIC PROCESS IN RESEARCH
A scientific approach to research means the systematic procedure that follows a plan or guide
that is supposed to give ample room for the reader or another researcher to run through the
steps without difficulties. In other words, the researcher process in structural procedure that
any researcher must follow in order to arrive at dependable solution to identified problem.
These stages include:
- Situation analyzing
- Identification of the problem on ground
- Definition of the problem on ground
- Formulation of intelligent questions or the statement or hypothesis developments of
researcher design
- Collection of data or information gathering of the data collected
- Organization, analyzing and interpretation
- Draw Conclusion or reference
Research Problem
It is an array of problems that usually confront an individual, groups, organizations.
Ogbanna et al (2004) was of the opinion that a problem is a felt difficulty, a puzzle, vague
feelings or a quest in the researcher’s mind to complete a blank or fill a gap in the
researcher’s experience.
Awontunde and Ugodulunwa (2004) observed that problems refers to an unanswered
question. Questions in education which requires answers. It can also be seen as an unsatisfied
state of affairs or an unmet need that demands a solution.
Sources for Identifying Problems
1. Literature (text books, journals, magazines etc)
2. Theory (made of generalization and constructs)

26
3. Persona l experience gained by observing existing practices in classrooms, school
communication, workshops etc.
4. Consulting with lecturer’s project supervisors and project colleagues.
Features of a Good Research Problem
A good research problem must be one that can be subjected to investigation or
experimentation to provide an answer to it. Which include:
1. It must ask about a relationship between two or more variables
2. It should be sated clearly and in unambiguous terms, preferably in question for
3. It should be possible to collect and analyze data to answer the question.
CHOOSING THE RESEACH TOPIC
The following suggestions might guide the student in selecting a topic:
1. Choose a topic you know something about: a goo problem stem from a clear
understanding of the theoretical, empirical aspect of the subject derived from personal
experience and through review of the literature. On the contrary, lack of familiarity with
the subject is almost sure to result in poor choice.
2. Choose the topic in which you have an open mind: a wise choice of a problem is
creativity and the other personality factors and that make for originality, flexibility,
initiative, ingenuity and foresight. These attribute must operate within the framework of
what is already known and , generally familiarity with the given field is conducive to
original thinking.
3. The topic must be of interest to the researcher: interest develops familiarity and is
expected that a student will do better on a topic that he/she is familiar with than the one
that has no original thinking.
4. The topic must be researcher: some topics are philosophic in nature; they can be
talked about, but not the point of giving empirical evidence e.g. a topic on the existence
of heaven can be discussed but when you want to explain the number of seats, it will be
difficult for you to support it with facts and figures.
5. Research must be feasible it make sure data are available.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
Researches can be group based on different criteria such as purpose of research
techniques of data collection and also the time dimension.
PURPOSE BASED TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Basic research: This type of research is earned out not to provide solution to immediate
problems but a broad based knowledge which can support eventual solution of a wide
variety of related problems. The findings of such studies can also be used to generate
new theories. It is interested in the building of theories which will lead to the
advancement of knowledge in the particular field. For instance areas like curriculum
development, testing the effectiveness of a new drug, census account etc.
2. Applied researcher: Examines theory and seek a lot of empirical information to
determine whether the theories are applicable or we can simply say that it is the type of
research that is aimed at testing the workability or usefulness of ideas and the ones in

27
 real life situation. It test the effectiveness of education methods, programmes and
decision making.
3. Action research: This type of research is aimed at solving specific educational
problem. It is designed by practitioners to find a solution to a specific-job-related
problem in order to improve on it. This type is usually used by classroom teachers or
school administrators to solve immediate problem, e.g. a lecturer or teacher may want
to know why students from a particular town suffer from unique problem like sleeping
in the class. Or a student is usually keeping himself and not mixing freely with the
students or find it difficult to understand a particular topic in subject. If the teacher sets
out to find the causes of the problem mentioned above, he/she is carrying out action
research.
4. Evaluation researcher: it is the type of research that is carried out to ascertain the
success or failure of a particular programme. It can be seen as the systematic process of
assessing and determining the extent to which the programme have been achieve. It is
special purpose is to evaluate the impact of social interventions such as new teaching
methods, innovations or the evaluation of the implementation of the “extended
programme on immunization, 6:3:3:4 system of education”.
Methods of setting based types of research:
1. Historical research: this is when researcher make critical investigation of events,
developments and experiences of the past, the careful weighting of evidence of the
validity of sources of information on the past and the interpretation of the weighted
evidence. It is usually research that is concerned with “what is. The past and the present
which dig into the past, compare it with the present and use the knowledge to predict
the futures. It does that by collecting data, evaluates its validity, and interpreted the
collected data. Historical research is important because it put any issue/idea under
proper context. It is sometimes called “historiography”.
2. Survey research: this is the process of selecting a few people as a sample to represent a
large group or population normally with regard to opinion, attitude and interest. Survey
research is used for descriptive, explanatory purposes. Individuals used as respondents
or informants. It is very popular method of collecting original data for describing a
population too large to observe directly where generalization can be made in the
population as careful probability provides group that is a representative of the
population. Techniques/sources of data will include questionnaire, interview, telephone
interview computer assorted telephone interview. If a survey involves subjects of
different categories which are observed over a short time is called cross-section, but
when it involves only one subject over a long time is called longitudinal survey.
3. Case study: this is a systematic study of the life of an individual, a community or an
institution. It aims at having a thorough knowledge of the full development and
maturation of the individual or groups. It can also be seen as a design concerned with
the “INDEPTH” examination of a limited as part of a problem. E.g. a careful
investigation into the life style of a particular student on the days or group of students.
4. Correlative research: this is the research that tries to find a relationship between two
or more variables. E.g. the relationship between students’ attitudes to studies and their
performance in practical biology in FCE Pankshin.

28
5. Experimental research: it involves an improvement over the ex-post factors in two
areas; independent (treated) manipulation and control in other words, this type of study
is concern with the careful control or manipulation of certain variables by manipulation.
The investigator(s) determine which group or subject will receive the administration of
the treatment. This group is referred to as experimental group while the other that did
not receive that treatment as control group. During the course of experiment, every
effort is made by the investigator to remove the influence of any other variable that
might affect the performance of the independent variable that is controlled to remove
the influence of any other variable that might affect the performance of the independent
variable that is controlled.
6. Ex-post factor: it is kind of experimental study in which certain measures are taken to
measure and observe the independent and dependent variables to establish some forms
of cause effect relationship and so forth. The only difference with the experimental
research is that the independent variables is not manipulated because it is already fixed
by nature (e.g. boys and girls) in such a way the researcher has very little to do to
introduce manipulation or control measures. Data are collected after the event under
investigation has already taken place hence the name “ex-post-fact”.
7. Descriptive research: this type of research seeks to describe and interpret existing
phenomena, finding out existing conditions and relationships, opinion that ate held,
processes that are going on effect and evidence of trends that are developing. It is
known as non-experimental research. For instance, the attitudes of parent towards the
education of girl which is the north. It involves the collection of data for the purpose of
answering question and verifying hypothesis concerning the status of population being
investigated.
POPULATION AND SAMPLING POPULATION
In any study usually the target population must be identified. In some studies the
target population, may be enormous or even infinite. If you want to study perception of
causes of students’ unrest in Nigeria, the researcher must try to discover or consider whether
unrest covers secondary and tertiary levels. If that be the case, your population will
incorporate all students’ in secondary, universities, polytechnic, colleges of education,
monotechnics. Hence all post primary all post primary institutions in the country. The
population of any investigation can be determined by the scope of the study. For instance, if
we are looking at example earlier mentioned. A case of biology department in college of
education Gindiri, the target population will just be all students of biology department for the
time under consideration. Thus your scope and limitation of the study will affect the
population of the study.
The population of study must always be specified because it affects the scope of
generalization of results and influences sample to be used. If however the target population
can be covered, then it should be used and there will not be any need for sampling but census.
Sample: from the above, it is clear that our investigator may not be able to use his target
population completely for his research. Here comes in the use of sample. A sample is usually
a fractional part of a population. The sample should be ideally a representative or replica of
the population. It is possible to obtain a sample and use it for a study. Indeed sample cost less
in terms of time, and financial resources. Yet, its use can lead to greater efficiency and

29
sometimes greater accuracy than using the target population. In a survey research, a carefully
selected sample (random sample) will give accurate information about the population census.
Properly drawn samples provides information appropriate for describing the
population of elements composing the same frame. A sample frame simply put is the list for
quasi-list of elements from which a probability sample is selected.
Attention should be given when sampling to avoid possible but very crucial. To be
able to generalize about the population frame, the researcher should utilize random sampling
that allows every member of the population to have equal chance of been selected. It is only
and only when the date emanating from the research is based on representative sample that
finding can be generalized for the population. Any researcher should avoid as much as
possible the easy way of selecting his sample.
Tabulated Differences Between Census and Sample.

S/ CENSUS SAMPLE
N
1 Complete enumerate Fractional enumeration
2 Cost is more Cost is less
3 Requires more man power Requires less man power
4 Taken longer time to obtain Taken limited time to obtain
result result
5 As the number is more, errors Errors are less and minimized
are likely to be more
6 Detailed information are Overall information is made
made available available
7 Completeness and accuracy is Completeness and accuracy
questionable achieved.

TYPES OF SAMPLING
In the process of dividing the types of sampling to be wed for any research, the
researcher should be away of the existence of several options open to his. For research, target
sample are more often wed than the population. Below are some commonly wed sampling
techniques;
1. Stratified sample: this is the process of random sampling that involves the
classification of the population in strata or uniform sub groups and random sample is
drawn independently from the sub group. Here we consider heterogeneity and
homogeneity with regard to population characteristics that are to be studied. Due
representation and precision of estimate of characteristic are present in this type of
sampling.
2. Systematic or skip sampling: one alternative to random sampling is systematic
sampling. It is the type of sampling that researcher list out those to sampled. It involves
taking on item as a sample randomly from a large population at regular intervals and
sample ratio. Take for example if the list to be used from a telephone directory is
100,000 and the sample to be used is 10,000, then the selection will be every tenth
elements from the list of the 100,000 elements, starting from the first element in the list
in order to obtain the pick the 10 th element from the list to the end of the list in order to
30
 obtain the required 10,000 sample required. Another example is that if you are sampling
from primary school you may take as your sample every 5 th pupil that comes through
the door or when you are sampling from a poultry farm and every third (3 rd) chisk wing
out of the cage is taken and include in the sample. This method is always good for a
population that is homogenous. It is also easier with more precision.
3. Cluster or multistage sampling: it is called multistage because the choice is done in
stages. It involves “choosing sample” through a methodological arrangement. The
target population can be arranged into clusters or sub-units in the basis of the extent to
which the perceived variables of the research can be found in the entire population. This
cluster sampling can be used when it is impossible or impracticed to compile and
exhaustive list of elements exposing the target population. Under this situation, the
population may here be group into sub-population. E.g. national population commission
used multigrade cluster sampling for its survey. In each city for instance, residence can
be grouped under low, medium and high density. Based on available information, for
the survey, weight may be attached to each group and relevant number samples to be
used determined by the respective weight.
Finally, research sample is then randomly selected from the clusters of interest to the
researchers.
Assignment: write short note on the following:
a. Quota sampling
b. Purposeful or judgment sampling
c. Accidental sampling
TOOLS OR INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION IN RESEARCH
There are many methods of gathering data. This choice of particular method depends
on the problem at hand, cost involve in the convenience. These includes:
A. Observation method: it is a purposeful and careful watch at an individual behavior,
object situation or event or events in order to obtain information. In this method, the
researcher watches with keen interest the behavior or proceedings of events by himself.
There are two types of observation;
a. Participation observation: in this type, the researcher acts as if he/she is a member of
the group he is investigating by participating in their activities. Hence the observer is
part of the setting in which the observation is taking place e.g. a personnel of drugs law
participating in the group smoking of cocaine to get information on the activities of
those involved.
b. Non-participation: here the researcher observes the behavior of the group without
taking part in their activities.
Advantages of observation
- First/hand information is obtained
- It is an objective method of gathering data
- A lot of information can be gathered
Disadvantages
- It is expensive
31
- It is time consuming and requires much effort
- It is difficult if not possible to observe certain dangerous activities like arm robbery
- Presents of an observer can affect the behavior of the respondent. Fie may up an
artificially goo behavior to give a good expression of himself.
- It is difficult to interpret behavior. The researcher may interpret the behavior observed
wrongly or draw wrong conclusion from it.
B. Interview: this is used in practical situation to obtain information from the respondent
by asking relevant questions.
i. Structured or standardized interview; these questions are wordy are fixed. There is no
much liberty in asking questions.
ii. Unstructured or un-standardized interview; it is more flexible and give more liberty to
the respondent in answering the question.
Advantages;
 A lot of information can be gathered.
 It is flexible and adaptable to individual situation
 Answers given can lead to follow up questions, on the case of unstructured interview.
Disadvantages;
 It is time consuming and requires a lop of effort
 It is expensive
 Respondents may be unwilling or reluctant to give information on certain personal
matters.
QUESTIONNAIRES
This is an instrument that has questions or items to which the respondents are
expected to answer. The questionnaire is designed in such a way that the questions given to
the respondents which should fill and return them.
Types of Questionnaire
It includes fill in the blank, free writing on a subject, multiple questions and yes or no
questions.
It ensures honesty if anonymous
It gives greater uniformity of responses
It is easy to analyze if close ended
It yields a lot of data
Disadvantages
Low return of questionnaires
Questions are fixed and rigid in no room for classification
It cannot be used by illiterates
Open ended questions are difficult to analyze
It costly to develop, produce and distribute.

32
Test: this is a process of obtaining data be administering to individuals or group on
achievement ability, performance or other trants. Different types of test can be used by the
researcher for collecting data. This includes intelligence tests, achievement test, aptitude test
etc.

RESEARCHER AND THE CONCEPT STATISTICS

This section of the note is just gloss over some statistics, because statistics becomes
an important tool to the researcher. However, many problems in biology include the;
Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
Descriptive statistics deals with collection, classification, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of data in a convenient and communicable form. A researcher uses descriptive
statistics when he is interested in merely describing the characteristics of the group study.
Example include pie chart, histogram, bar-chart, mean, mode, median, variances, standard
deviation, range, percentile etc.
Inferential statistics can be seen as those methods that make possible the estimation of
characteristics of a population based on a sample results that is making decision concerning a
population based on the outcome from its sample. It is the technique used for making
conclusions about some population. One of the important inferential procedure is estimation.
A statistical estimate is based on empirical evidence according to asset of well-established
procedure.
In descriptive statistics, no systematic attempt has yet been made to reach conclusion
with scientific validity. While inferential statistics is the process of generalizing the sample
results to the population. In inferential statistics, sample statistics is used to draw conclusions
about the true population parameters. While descriptive statistics considers the population as
a whole to draw conclusion about a specific characteristics, the inferential statistics considers
a sample of the population from which results is obtained on a specific characteristics and
generalizing it on the population.
Descriptive statistics is inefficient due to the following facts.
 If the size of the population is very large, it will quite impossible to draw any reliable
conclusion.
 With a large population size, it may be costly to analyze the entire population.
 Time factor: where population under study are widely distributed over an expense land
mass.
 Accessibility: the entire population may not be easily accessible (reached)

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
This section deals with the summarizing or organizing of observed measurements
which include the arranging, tabulating, graphical presentation, measure of central tending
and measure of dispersion.
Organization or Summarization of Measurements
Measurement or counting gives the researcher raw data which in most cases they are
always difficult to understand or comprehend because they are usually unorganized and
therefore it renders the information meaningless.

33
 The researcher therefore has to put the data in some order through classification and
tabulation as to reduce its volume and heterogeneity. Researchers have various forms of
summarizing data for easier analysis an interpretation.
Arraying: this is the first step to be taken after collecting the raw data. It involves the
rearrangement of the data either in an ascending or descending order because ordered
arrangement enables one to determine quickly the values of the smallest and highest
measurement as well as other facts or information about the data e.g. in the study of the
opinion of school of science teachers and the factors that affect their teaching effectiveness in
college of health, Pankshin. The following scores of 40 teachers were obtained. Array the
information.
1. 4, 3, 4, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4
4, 4, 4, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 3
3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 1, 2, 2, 4, 4
4, 4, 4, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 3
Arrayed information
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2
2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4
4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4

2. The following data was obtained by a researcher testing 65 students in research method
and biometry
33 29 26 41 36 36 26 41 37 19 37 28 44
37 30 31 29 41 28 23 44 29 46 51 49 55
29 37 36 34 26 30 28 23 25 47 50 48 65
38 39 26 41 34 25 40 30 24 50 48 47 56
33 38 37 37 30 41 30 41 24 51 49 50 60
Arrayed information
19 23 23 24 24 25 25 26 26 26 28 28 28
29 29 29 29 29 29 30 30 30 30 30 31 33
34 34 36 36 36 37 37 37 37 37 37 38 38
39 40 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 44 46 47 47
48 48 48 49 50 50 50 51 51 55 56 60 65

From the arrayed information, one can easily figure the lowest score and the highest score,
the most frequent figure or score.
However, an ordered array may not be enough or adequate in offering all the
information that is needed from the data obtained. Therefore, further summary maybe
required and one way is by tabulating them according to frequencies. Hence,
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
It involves organizing mass or large observations into some sample meaningful forms.
It is always accomplished by taking the data into table that will show the discrete (categories)
of the number of observations. It shows the number of times each score occurs.
34
 To construct on frequency table, wee first of all arrange the information from the
highest to the lowest or verse versa in the first column. In the 2 nd column, we indicate the
occurrence of the scores by tailing or making strokes against each score. For easy counting,
the tallies are made in boundless of five (5) hence four strokes vertically within and the 5 th
one crosses horizontally. In the third column, add up the number of tallies against each score
and write in the value as the frequency.
In frequency table, it can either be ungrouped or grouped depending on the magnitude
of the data collected. When values are not grouped into classes, we trend individual values
and the frequency as can be seen below:
45 47 47 48 48 49 49 53 59 59
59 59 60 61 61 61 61 62 62 62
62 62 62 63 63 63 63 64 64 64
65 65 66 68 68 69 72 72 74 74

SCORE TALLY FREQUENCY

45 I 1
47 II 2
48 II 2
49 II 2
53 I 1
59 IIII 4
60 I 1
61 IIII 4
62 IIII I 6
63 IIII 4
64 III 3
65 II 2
66 I 1
68 II 2
69 I 1
72 II 2
74 II 2

Considering another example

42 52 42 45 42 43 51 43
42 42 42 43 43 42 41 41
45 42 43 42 55 56 52 40
41 54 40 40 40 56 54 52

SCORE TALLY FREQUENCY

56 II 2
55 I 1
54 II 2
52 III 3
51 I 1
45 II 2
43 IIII I 6
35
42 IIIIIIII 9
41 III 3
40 IIII 4
However, when the range of the scores is large as earlier mentioned and we classified
it an ungrouped data table, it becomes different to handle them. Therefore, in such cases, we
reduce the number of classes by arranging the data in an grouped form. In grouping the data,
we first select a class interval bearing in mind that there can be less than 5 intervals and not
more than 15 or we take arbitrarily defied class of the variable. Consider the results obtained
testing 70 students.
78 68 55 50 52 51 51 55 55 60
65 60 62 68 72 73 73 75 68 60
65 58 55 65 55 65 53 53 54 54
63 64 60 62 72 73 75 52 53 55
65 65 65 55 55 65 65 55 53 53
55 60 60 62 62 62 65 55 58 58
59 59 52 53 51 51 56 58 65 65

Using a class of 03, the frequency table or a grouped data can be obtained as shown below:
SCORE TALLY CLASS MDPT CLASS LIMIT
50-52 IIII 49.5-52.5 51 05
53-55 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 52.5-55.5 54 19
56-58 IIII 55.5-58.5 57 05
59-61 IIII III 58.5-61.5 60 08
62-64 IIII I 61.5-64.5 63 06
65-67 IIIIIIII II 64.5-67.5 66 12
68-70 III 67.5-70.5 69 03
71-73 IIII 70.5-73.5 72 05
74-76 II 73.5-76.5 75 02
77-79 I 76.5-79.5 78 01
Total = 70
In the grouped data as seen above, we provide additional information relating to what
we called true class limits or exact limits as well as the class mark or midpoint. Out true
lower class boundary (limit) is usually half a unit (i.e. 0.5) less than the lowest class, while
the true upper limits is usually half a unit (i.e. 0.5) greater than the highest score in the
interval.
The class mark midpoint is the score at the middle of the interval. This score is
usually taken to be representation of the interval. To determine the class mark or midpoint,
we divide the sum of the two limits by two.
CUMMULATIVE FREQUENCY TABLE
This is usually derived from the frequency distribution table by summing up the observed
frequencies. It is usually important to researchers to enable them obtain information
regarding the frequencies or relative frequency of the values within two or more contiguous
observation or groups.

36
X F CF CF
15 1 1 63
20 4 5 62
25 13 18 58
30 10 28 45
35 12 40 35
40 9 49 23
45 7 56 14
50 5 61 7
55 2 63 2
Or
X F CF CF
67 2 2 43
68 4 6 41
69 5 11 37
70 3 14 32
71 5 19 29
72 6 25 24
73 3 28 18
74 6 34 15
75 8 42 9
76 1 43 1

PRESENTATION OF DATA USING GRAPH

Graphs are used in presenting frequency distributions so that the scope of the
distribution is easily seen. These include pie-chart, bar chart, histogram etc.
THE PIE-CHART
This is a graph that arranges events in a circle form. It is a circle divided by radial
lines into sections so that the area of each section is proportional to the size of the figure
represented. Example, the data below shows a result of students obtained by Joshua N.N. of
Biology Department of the ATBU Bauchi
BOT 401 402 404 413 415 as
BOT 401=56, 402= 60, 403 = 54, 404 = 52, 413 =58, 415=50
Solution

Total score: 56+60+54+52+58+50 = 330

56 360
Therefore, BOT 401= × = 61.10
330 1

37
 60 360
BOT 402 = × = 65.50
330 1
54 360
BOT 404 = × = 58.90
330 1
52 360
BOT 404 = × = 56.70
330 1
58 360
BOT 413 = × = 63.30
330 1
50 360
BOT 415 = × = 54.50
330 1

61.10 63.30
BOT 401 BOT
413

58.9 0
65.50
BOT 403
BOT 402

56.7 0
54.50
BOT
404 BOT 415

The data below shows the amount spent by Mrs. Ladi Bakrim in Pankshin Monday market
Garri N 10.00, N 12, beans N 15, Meat N15 and others #18 present the above information on
a pie-chart.

BARCHART:
It contains bar that stand exclusively from one another. These bars do not touch
themselves. This indicates that scales of measurement are not continuous.
They are rectangle called bars within the co-ordinate axes.
Example; the marks scored by students in various subjects as show below can be
summarized into a bar-chart.
Subjects: ZOO 304, ZOO 302, ZOO 301, BOT 300

Scores: 50 40 45 70

38
39
HISTOGRAM
This is bar graph distribution in which the are join to one another. It is constructed by plotting
the frequency against the class boundaries of corresponding class intervals example:

SCORE TALLY F MDPT CLASS LIMIT

50-52 IIII 05 51 49.5-52.1
53-55 IIIIIIIIIIII IIII 19 54 52.5-55.5
56-58 IIII 05 57 55.5-58.5
59-61 IIII III 08 60 58.5-61.5
62-64 IIII I 06 63 61.5-64.5
65-67 IIIIIIII II 12 66 64.5-67.5
68-70 III 03 69 67.5-70.5
71-73 IIII 05 72 70.5-73.5
74-76 II 02 75 73.5-76.5
77-79 I 01 78 76.5-79.5

40
 Midpoint

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY OR LOCATION

Measure of central tendency refers to those measures that indicates where the score of
a distribution are centered. They indicate the typical scores.
They are used to summarize data and give some bases for comparison of a condition
in one group with the same type of condition in another group. There are many indicators of
central tendency. However, three that are commonly used in sciences are mode, median and
arithmetic mean.

THE MODE
It can be defined as the valuable of a variable which occur most frequency or the most
common number in a set. e.g. 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 5, 5, 3, 6, 9, 11.
From the raw scores listed above, the most commonly occurring number is 5.
In the case of a group frequency distribution, the mode is not a particularly useful
measure of tendency, but there are ways to estimate the mode. For example: a grouped
frequency table of 150 patients of general hospital, Pankshin during a year is been condensed
as shown below:

Visit Frequency
0-4 32
5-9 71
10-14 20
15-19 14
20-24 10
25-29 3
150

41
 For the distribution above, the model class is between 5-9 corresponding to the
highest frequency of 71.
In the case of group data the mode can be calculated using the following formula:
Mode= L+¿) × C

Where: 1 = lower limit of median class

f 2= frequency difference to proceeding class median class
f 1 = frequency difference to succeeding class of median class
C = class interval
Let us calculate the mode of the group of scores below:

Scores F
20 - 30 3
30 - 40 18
40 - 50 26
50 - 60 17
60 - 70 6
L - 40

F2 = 26-18 = 8

F1 = 26-17 = 9

C = 10

Mode = = L+¿) × C

8
= 40 + ×10
9+9

= 40+ 4.7059

= 44.7059

MEDIAN
By definition, the median is the middle value of an ordered set of data. To determine a
median in a set, it is necessary to re-arrange the data in an ascending order of magnitude. For
example, re-ordered data relating to the data mentioned in model class. Example above. 3, 3,
5, 5, 6, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11
The median (midle) value is 6 as the set contain an odd number of observation. In a
situation where there are even numbers of observations, the median is evaluated by taking
half the sum of the sum of the two central values e.g. 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 8, 9, 10.
The middle values is 5+6 =11 divide by 2 = 11/2 =5.5
In a grouped data e.g. the weight of 40 students of MMS mangu were measured.
42
 Weight Frequency
45-49 5
50-54 7
55-59 9
60-64 7
65-69 10
70-74 12

The median class is 55-59 where there are nine (9) students within the median class.
In the case of median for group data, we use the formula:
n
2
Median = L + ( F ) ×C
f
Let us consider the median of the grouped data of the following example
Age group (years) No. of person
20-30 3
30-40 18
40-50 26
50-60 17
60-70 6

 Here the median class is middle row with 40 being lower or median class.
 Total observation are 70
 Cumulative frequency proceeding median class is 3 + 18 = 21
 Frequency of the median class = 26
 Class interval = 10

( )
n
−F
M=L+ 2
XC
f

( )
70
−21
M = 40 + 2
X 10
26

35−21
40 + X 10
26

40 + 0.53846 x 10

40 + 5.3846

= 45.3846
43
THE MEAN
It is defined as the sum of all observation divide by the total number of observations. To
calculate the arithmetic mean from ungrouped data for instance marks 43, 19, 76, 20, 91, 52,
61, 63, 30
The simple formula to be use is
∑x
X=
n

Hence 43 + 1 – 9+76+20+91+52+35-4-61+63+30 = 490

Therefore, X = 490/10 = 49
From a grouped data e.g. to find the average speed of the vehicles involved spot check

Speed MPH F X FX
56-58 4 57 228
59-61 12 60 720
62-64 28 63 1764
55-67 58 66 3828
68-70 44 69 3036
71-73 18 72 1296
74-76 10 75 750
174 11,622

∑ x 11622
Therefore, X = = =66.79
∑f 174

MEASURES OF DISPERSION OR VARIABILITY

Measures of variability or dispersion are used to indicate how much the scores of a
given distribution vary around any measure of central tendency. They are sometimes called
the measure of spread width or scatter.
Measures of dispersion work in conjunction with the measures of central tendency.
The various types of measures of dispersion include; range, quartile deviation, mean
deviation, standard deviation and variance.
The range is the difference between the highest value (maximum) and the lowest
(minimum) value in a set. Given the set B(40, 51, 10, 92, 72, 20, 23, 99). The range of this set
is 99-10 = 89
In classified frequency data, the range is considered to be the highest class value
(limit) minus the lowest class value limit. Hence R = HL – LL

44
Relative Rang: it is use to compare two data
RR = Xmax – Xminu/Xmax + Xminu
Given the set of scores of two groups of students in BIO 311 and BIO 321
BIO 311 = 50, 82,64,84,70

BIO 312 = 60,40,92,91,82

Therefore, the RR of BIO 311 = 84-50/84+50 = 34/134 = 0.253

The RR of BIO 312 = 91-40/91+40 = 51/131 = 0.389

MEAN DEVIATION
In this measure of dispersion, a new concept is introduced which is called (deviation).
Deviation refers to the amount by which each obtained scores differs from the mean of the
distribution in which the score belongs. It is obtained by subtracting the mean from each
score (x-x) = d
Mean
∑x
X=
n

X
1 1-3
2 2-3
3 3-3
4 4-3
5 5-3

It can be observed that the deviation can be positive, negative or zero. Mean deviation
is calculated from the absolute values of the deviation. Using the early example

∑ x 15
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 = = =3
n 5

∑ X− X ∑ X −X
MD = =−2 ,−1 , 0 ,1 , 2 , 6/5 = 1.2 (ignoring the minus signs)
n n

VARIANCE
Variance is obtained through squaring each deviation obtained, thus getting the total of the
positive and find its mean. Sometimes the variance is called mean of sum of squared
∑ x 15
deviation e.g. group A – 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. X =3 X= = X=3
n 5
X −X =−2 ,−1 , 0 ,1 , 2=∑ ( x−x )=0
45
 ¿ - X¿2 = -2, -1, 0, 1, 4, ∑ ¿¿ = 10

10
Variance S2 =∑ ¿¿ ¿ = = 10
5

Group B 5,9, 8, 7, 16 Y = 9

(Y -Y) = -4, 0, -1, -2, 7 ∑ (Y −Y )=0

(Y –Y¿2 = 16, 0, 1, 4, 49 ∑ ¿¿

70
Variance S1 = ∑ ¿¿ ¿ = = 14
5

There is another method of calculating the variance. This is the raw score method where the
researcher use raw scores instead of deviation. It is obtained using the following formula
variance S2 ∑ X 2=¿ ¿ ¿

Example: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ∑ X = 15

X = 1,4,9,16,25, ∑ X = 55
2 2

S = ∑ x −¿ ¿ ¿ S = 55−¿ ¿ ¿
2 2 2

(225) 45
55− 475
= 5 5
5 5

55−45
=
5

2 10
S = =2
5

70
= 14
5

Or 5,9,8,7,16

X = 5,9,8,7,16 ∑ x =45

X = 25,81,64,49,256 ∑ x = 475
2 2

Therefore variance =475−¿ ¿ ¿

46
 405 70
= 475 - = = 14
5 5

Standard deviation(s)

This is a continuetum of variance. it is the most reliable measure of dispersion. It is

also very important for the computation of most inferential statistics. It is computed by taking
the square root of the variance.
It does not matter whether the variance was obtained from the deviation or raw score
method. Standard deviation X = S X = √ s 2 x

Sx = √ ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ (deviation method)
Or
S X = √ ∑ x 2−¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ (raw score method I)
Internal statistics: WHEN TO BE USED
There are reasons why, if complete data obtained, it would be undesirable to collect it, it is
sometimes impossible to identify and collect all the population under consideration, hence
inferential statistics become necessary. For instance, the individual students in plateau central
zone in school cannot be reached, since it is impossible to identity and contact all the students
in the schools in plateau central zone, then a random sample of the student’s population can
be selected at each of the sampled schools.
The selected students are asked several questions, and on the basis of their responses,
inferences are made about the entire population.
In the case f a large data, it will be impossible to make any reliable conclusion from
descriptive statistics alone. However well presented, therefore, the only satisfactory
procedure is to analyze the data by mean of statistical and error in inherent on the estimate, it
is usual to express all statistical estimates so that the likely error in the estimate is
immediately evident. The more information that is available for making a decision, the better
that decision is likely to be available for making a decision, the better that decision is likely to
be.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Introduction
In our life style, we make many assertions which are usually subject to verification or
make assumptions. Our assertion or assumptions are not established facts or solution to our
problems. Statistically, we refer to these assertions or assumptions as hypothesis which can
also be called intelligent guess that is subject to statistical test. For instance, a researcher may
postulate a hypothesis that biology students taught with demonstration method will perform
better than those taught with lecture method or there is significant difference in performance
of students taught biology with demonstration method and that of lecture method. Another
example is that primary one entrants exposed to primary readiness activities before primary
one instruction will perform better in primary one achievement test than those who are not.

47
 When hypothesis are stated in testable forms, they are known as statistical hypothesis
which are statements about one or more population.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
We have two types of hypothesis which are called “NULL and ALTERNATIVE”. The
general rule guiding the existence of these types of hypothesis is that in research, the
acceptance of one means the rejection of the other.
The Null Hypothesis
It is assertion that is symbolized by HO which indicates no differences or relationship. It is
usually a statement that there is no difference or relationship between two populations or
between two parameters of two populations or between the true value of some parameters and
the hypothesized value. For example: going by the first example stated earlier.
HO = the mean score of students taught biology with demonstration method is not
significantly different from the mean score of students taught with lecture method.
Which is symbolized by Ho : μo = μi
Or
Ho: the mean reading achievement test score of primary one entrants exposed to
school readiness activities before instruction will not have significant differences with those
who were not exposed to the activities symbolized by Ho : μi = μ2
The Alternative Hypothesis
As earlier stated, if the null hypothesis is rejected, the next line of action is to uphold
the alternative hypothesis, hence, it is a hypothesis of significant difference or relationship
between two populations or between two parameters of two populations.
Alternative hypothesis is usually directional or non – directional in nature. It is
directional if it indicates the direction of difference or relationship. For example: the mean
score of students taught biology with demonstration method is significantly greater than that
of those taught with lecture method. Hence, HI: μo> μ1 or the mean reading achievement test
score of primary one entrants exposed to school readiness activities will significantly be
greater than those who were not exposed to the activities Hi: μi > μ2. It is non -≪ directional if
there is no indication of the direction of the differences or relationship two populations. Lets
still use the example above to illustrate non-directional alternative hypothesis.
HI: there is a significant difference between the mean score of students taught biology
by demonstration method and the mean score of students taught by lecture method. HI: μD ≠
μi. Or HI: the mean reading achievement test score of primary one entrant exposed to school

48
readiness activities before instruction will differ from that of those who were not exposed to
the activities symbolized by Hi: μi >≠ µ 2.
TESTING OF NULL AND ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
It is usually seen as a special way of taking decision in the process of research work.
The testing usually gives the null hypothesis stated the benefit of the doubt. The null
hypothesis will only be rejected and the alternative accepted if the sample data suggest
beyond all reasonable doubt that the null hypothesis is false or vice versa. In conclusion, we
can see hypothesis testing as the procedure for choosing between hypotheses. To do the under
listed steps must be considered;
1. Statement of the hypothesis, either as null or alternative
2. Selection of the level of significance (α)
3. Selection of relevant test statistics and compilation of its value from sample data.
4. Determination of rejection and acceptance regions (is critical region).
5. Statistical (decision).
6. Conclusion
SELECTION OF SIGNIFICANT LEVEL
Anytime a researcher on testing null hypothesis, he/she is essentially giving it a
chance to be rejected. On the basis of analysis of data collected by the researcher, a null
hypothesis is either rejected or not rejected. In doing this the researcher is running a risk of
rejecting the null hypothesis. Researchers always specify the level at which they to run this
risk. This risk level which is normally stated in terms of probability level of significance is
therefore the probability value that would enable the researcher to either reject or not reject a
null hypothesis. It can also be regarded as the amount of error involved in a given statistical
decision about the null hypothesis. These therefore mean that whenever a researcher select a
particular level of significance he/she knows precisely the amount of error risk involved in
his/her decision.
Level of significance as symbolized by a (alpha) which is the probability value that
forms the boundary between rejection or non-rejection of null hypothesis, in educational and
psychological research, it is conventional to use 0.05 and 0.01 levels of significance; when
we set our significant level (a) at 0.01, we are saying hypotheses that the probability of
making error in our decision to reject or not to reject a null hypothesis is 1% when we set it at
0.05, we are saying the probability of making error in our decision is 5%. Critical regions are
normally located at the tails or extremes of sampling distributions. At times, the whole
rejection region is located at one end of the distribution. The location of the critical regions at
one tail and two tails of distribution are presented below.

49
50
 Whether the region is located at one or both parts of a distribution is the nature of the
hypothesis a researcher formulates to guide his/her study. An alternative hypothesis that does
not indicates the direction of the difference like HI; μ 1 ≠ μ 2 is known as two tail or two
sided alternative hypothesis because it usually leads to rejection region that is divided
between two tails or ends of a distribution of the test statistics.
The acceptance region is usually the complement of the rejection region. A null
hypothesis normally rejected if the observed value of the test statistics is equal to one of the
values composing the rejection region. The value of test critical values of the test statistics.
The values are usually presented in tables for different statistical tests.

STATISTICAL DECISION
In testing null hypothesis, a researcher is to compare the computed value of test
statistics with then critical values presented in tables to enable him/her retain or reject the
hypothesis. Before that, the researcher sets his level of significance and also determines his
degree of freedom which refers to the numbers of independent observations or values in a
sample that are free to vary when calculating a sample statistics. E.g. to calculate standard
deviation or variance we require df – n – 1, take for instance, sample 70 cases will have the
degree of freedom (df) = 70 – 1 = 69. This means that 69 of the observations are free to vary.
Different test statistics have different ways of determining their degree of freedom.
With the knowledge of the degree of freedom and level of significance, the researcher
can now find the critical value of a particular test statistics that is required for either rejecting
or retaining the null hypothesis. If the calculated test statistics is less than the critical value of
the test – statistics, the null hypothesis should be accepted. On the other hand, if the
calculated statistics is equal or greater than the critical or table value of the test – statistics,
the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is acceptance of our null
hypothesis means that the computed test statistics does not fall in the criteria reject.

DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
After making the critical decision about whether or not to reject a null hypothesis, the
next thing to be done is to draw conclusion. The conclusion is normally stated in term of the
parameter or population with which the test is concern. For instance, when we reject HO: ul =
51
u2, we conclude that means of the two population are significantly difference. When we
reject null hypothesis, we conclude that there may be no difference between the population
means from which two sample are drawn. The difference between the samples is therefore
not significant.

THE STATISTICAL TESTS

Statistical tests are grouped into two; namely parametric and non-parametric tests. The
parametric test differs from the non – parametric tests in the sense that the parametric test
makes certain assumption about the nature of the population from where the sample is drawn.
Among these assumptions are that the population distribution of the variable should be
normal and that the data should at least be interval in nature. Parametric tests can therefore be
referred to as statistical procedures which makes references about the population parameters
such as the mean. In contrast the non – parametric are statistical procedures which inferences
are not made about the population parameters.
There are different types of parametric and non – parametric tests and the one to be
applied in any particular research activity depend on the design. Common parametric tests
include; Z – test, T – Test and F – Test.
Non – parametric tests do not depend on knowledge of the population distribution or
its parameters. Its procedure is useful when the hypothesis to be tested does not involve a
population parameters, when the data consists of frequency counts or tanks and when the
assumption necessary for valid application of a parametric procedure and not met. It is
important to note that parametric tests are better than their non – parametric counter parts
when the conditions on the population are met. = 1.185 or 1.19
Determine the critical region: this is always obtained by examining the alternative hypothesis.
HI and using a. since the alternative hypothesis is non – directional (P≠ 20),

52
Using the table of standard normal distribution, look up the Z – value corresponding with
0.025 Z = 1.96.
Decision: our observed Z = 1.19. since 1.19 <1.96, it is not in the critical. Hence we fail to
reject the Ho.
Conclusion: we then conclude that there is sufficient evidence to support the principal’s
claim that 20% of the parents favoured the sponsoring of female in schools. Assignment:
(a) Suppose, physics teacher suspected that the proportion of students in his class who
failed physics in the senior secondary certificate examination within 3 years is less
than 50. A researcher obtained a random sample of 100 ex – students of the school.
The sample showed that 35 of them failed physics within 3 years. Tests whether the
teachers’ suspicion can be justified at 5% level of significance.
(b) Discuss Z – test for difference between two proportions with good examples.
The students - T – Test
The t- test statistics was developed by William Gosset an employee of Guinness
Brewery Dublin. He was involved in statistical analysis based on small samples obtain edin
the brewing process Gosset published his work under the pen name of student. The formula
x−u
he developed for testing hypothesis concerning the population mean p is given as; t = s
√ n−1
The probability of the distribution of t is known as students’ t distributions which have the
following properties.
 There is infinite number of distribution each of which has n – 1 degree of freedom
 At – distribution resemble the standard normal distribution in shape. However, more
spread out than the standard distribution normal curve because if its large standard
deviation.
The t – test for independent samples
The t – test for independent or unrelated samples is applied when we want to
determine whether any difference between two different samples on a given dependent
variable. For instances project student of FCE Pankshin may be interested in finding whether
a significant difference exists between two sets of students that were taught BIOSTA in two
different years.
Another researcher may be interested in examining the mean score of two groups of
who were taught biology with lecture method and demonstration method. After
administration of the two treatments, the formula for computing the t – test for who
independent samples is defined as

53
 X 1−X 2
t=
√
2 2
S 1 S2
+
n1 n1

where the X = mean, S2 = variance n = sample size

Let us consider a situation where two groups of students A & B were tested in practical
chemistry and the following data were obtained:

Group A Group B

X = 72.20 X = 64.53
2 2
S = 48.72 S = 23.91
n = 50 n = 50

The researcher may be interested in finding out where a significant difference exists between
the mean score of the two groups at a = 0.05 hence, statement of hypothesis.

HO: μA = μB

HI: μA ≠ μB

X 1−X 2
t=
√
2 2
S 1 S2
+
n1 n1

72.20−64.53
t=
√ 48.72 23.91
50
+
50

7.67

V0.09744 + 0.47827.67
1.2052
t = 6.36

Critical region at 0.05 two tailed test with df = n1 + n2 - 2 = 50 + 50 – 2 = 98. T table value is
1.980
Decision: since our calculated t – values is 6.36 is greater than the critical value of 1.980, we
reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.
Another formula, for the compilation of the t – test is as seen below called pooled variance
formula.
54
 X 1− X 2

√
2 2
t= ( n1 −1 ) S + ( n2−1 ) S 2 1 1
1
[ + ¿]
N 1 +N 2−2
n1 n1

Where

X 1 = Mean of sample 1

X 2 = Mean of sample 2
2
S1 = Variance of sample 1
2
S2 = Variance of sample 2

n1 = number cases in sample 1

n2 = number cases in sample 2

Sample A Sample B

X 1 = 12 X 2 = 13
2 2
S1 = 15.44 S2 = 16.60

n1 =12 n2 = 13

12−13
t=
√ ( 12−1 ) 15.44+ (13−1 ) 16.60 1 1
12+13−2
⌈ + ⌉
12 12

−1
t=
√( 11 X 15.44 ) +¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
−1
t=
√ ( 169.84+199.20 )
23
⌈ 0.16 ⌉

−1
t=
√¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

−1
t=
√2.567

55
 −1
t=
1.602

t = -0.624

For two tailed at 0.05 level for 23 degree of freedom a critical t – value of ± 2.069 is obtained
from the table.
Decision: since out calculated t = - 0.624 is not the critical region and smaller than the table t
– value, we therefore accept our null hypothesis of no significant difference. We can also
determine the significant difference between means of two non – independent or related
samples: for instance, when two random samples have been matched on more or more
characteristic like IQ, achievement. When a pretest is given to a random sample and the
individuals making up the sample is exposed to a treatment and thereafter retested to
determine the influence of the treatment is significantly different. We can use the appropriate
t – test formula as obtained below;

∑d
t=
√ n ∑ d −¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
2

where;
d = difference between each paired observation
= sum of the difference between the paired observations
= the square of the difference between each paired observation
n = total number of paired observation
n – 1 = number of degree of freedom
let us consider the example below;
Suppose two groups of integrated science were match on the basis of IQ’s and demonstration
method of leaching group, while the control group was taught using discussion method. Test
the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the mean score of the group a =
0.01 level significant. Consider the scores obtained below;
Experimental group (X) 29 63 46 37 58 80 43
Control group (C) 19 23 30 17 50 25 10

56
STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS
HO: μ 1 = μ 2

HI: μ 1 ≠ μ 2
2
Student X (Expr GP) C (control GP) d = (X – C) d

1 29 19 10 100
2 63 23 40 1600
3 46 30 16 256
4 37 17 20 200
5 58 50 8 64
6 80 25 55 3025
7 43 10 33 1049
∑ d = 182 ∑ d = 6534
2

Substituting

∑d
√ n ∑ d −¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
2

182
t=
√
2
7 x 6534−18 2
7−1

182
t=
√ 45738−33124
6

182
t=
√ 12614
6

182
t=
45.85

t = 3.969 or 3.97

df = 7 – 1 = 6

Decision: since our calculated t – e.97 is greater than critical t = 3.707 we reject the null
hypothesis

57
Conclusion: we should therefore conclude that there is a significant difference between the
means of the scores of the two groups.
Assignment: suppose Mr. Wilfred Bistu gave two tests. One is Bio 202 and the other is bio
201 to random sample of 10 students and wanted to determine whether there is difference in
the mean score of his sample in the two tests. Test the null hypothesis a = 0.05 that there is no
significant difference in the students mean. Assuming he obtained the scores below.

STANDARD ERROR
Inferences drawn from population are based on the behavior of simple studies. The
chance of having a sample identical to the population is totally absent. For example if you
randomly select different sample from population and you compute the means for each
sample, the mean for each groups of sample will be different each other. These group means.
The group means. This difference occurring in the sample mean which is normally expected
is known as sample error. One forced to ask whether the difference found between the group
means are true differences or those caused by sampling error. A characteristics of sampling
error is that they are normally distributed, and that these error may be different from the
population mean. That is it will be very close to the population mean, either higher or lower
than the population mean.
As normally found on any normally distribute set of score, the totality of the sample
means or the distribution of sample means has its own mean, as well as its own standard
deviation. The standard deviation of the sample mean, which is also the standard deviation of
the sampling error, is referred to as standard error of the mean.
For example; six 200 level student of biology department conducted different studies
on the growth and yield of irish potato treated with organic and inorganic fertilizer at
different time. Each student will normally draw a simple from the same population of potato
yield. The mean of each study may not be identical or either will the sample mean for all the
studies identical to the population mean. As with any normal distribution of information, the
simple means has its own standard deviation, the standard deviation of the simple means is
referred to as the” standard error” of the means.
The standard error is usually represented by the symbol SEX. It is possible to estimate
the means by dividing the standard deviation by the square root of our sample size. In
situation where the mean or standard deviation of the population is not known, we simple
estimate the standard error by dividing the standard deviation of the same by the square root
of the sample size minus = 50 n-1
The smaller the standard error of mean the better; this indicate less sample error: in
essence when the size of the sample increases, the standard error of the mean decreases. This
is one of the reason why researchers advocate for a good representation of the population by
the study sample. A larger sample is more likely to present a population than a small sample.
There is the tendency of making more errors when using smaller samples then using larger
samples. The resultant effect of using larger samples is that if the sample is large, the
members of the population would be properly spread out, catering for various interest. the
sample mean will also properly spread out.

Types of Error

58
There are two types of error run in significant testing. In every study a researcher is always
faced with the problem of making an error when judging the tenability of the null hypothesis.
In any study, the researcher will reject or accept the null hypothesis based on test of
significance.
Gary (1981) was of the view that researcher never known for sure where he or she is
right or wrong, and that there are actually four possibilities in interpreting the results of
hypothesis tested, which he further identified them as:
If the null hypothesis is true, and the researcher agrees that it is true (does not reject
it)the researcher makes the correction decision. Similarly, if the null hypothesis is false and
the researcher reject it, (says there is a significance difference ), the researcher also makes a
correct decision. But what if the null hypothesis is true, there really is no significance
difference, and the researcher reject, it and says there is a difference? The researcher makes
an incorrect decision. Similarly if the null hypothesis is false, there really is a significance
difference between the means, but the researcher concludes that the null hypothesis is true
and does not reject it, the researcher makes an incorrect decision.
It is wrong decision made by the researcher the we refers to as a type 1 error to type
error. If the researcher reject all null hypothesis that is really true, he or she makes type1
error. For example, if there is no difference between the mean of a population from which the
sample were drawn, and he makes a mistake by calling his difference a significant one
instead of a sampling error, the mistake is referred to as a TYPE 1error.type 1 error is
committed if the null hypothesis is rejected when actually it is true. This is predicting failure
when success would have resulted. We have noted that there are different significant levels.
To avoid the type 1 error, the researcher would be more caution by setting hypothesis
demanding that his ’t* value for example be significance at the 0.01or even 0.001 level. This
will enable, him avoid labeling as significant a difference that is only a sampling error.
If the researcher fails to reject a null hypothesis that is false, the researcher makes a
type11 error. Decision to reject to accept the null hypothesis is based on probability. The
probability of the hypothesis being correct is referred to as the significance level or
probability level, of the test of significance.

ANALIYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)

The t- test we earlier describe is restricted to test of the significance between only two
groups. There are occasions we would like to find out if there are significant difference
between three or more groups or even more. the problem becomes more difficult to solve
when we have three to four groups because we cannot solve the problem by running a t-test
on two group at a time.
A sample or one way analysis of variance is used to determine whether a significance
difference occurs between two or more means at given probability level.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is nothing more then a clear statistical difference
between means of three or more groups. It is important to note that analysis of variance may
be used to test the significance of mean difference between more than two groups
simultaneously. The t- test is normally employed in testing mean difference between two
groups. Supposing a researcher is working with four groups and wants to find out whether the
mean performance of any three of his four groups is significantly different.

59
 The analysis of variance model is primary interested in finding differences. However,
such conclusion drawn about mean are made possible through the process of analyzing the
variance. The concept underlying ANOVA is that the total variance is attributed to variance.
Between groups, often caused by the treatment and variance within the group that is error
variance.
Supposing we are asked to calculate the ANOVA of a terminal achievement test for
subject taught by using different instructional method thus

Method a method B method C

7 4 2
10 6 2
10 7 3
11 9 7
12 9 6
The first to be done is to put the data in columns and calculate X 2

A B C
2 2
X X X X X X2
7 49 4 16 2 4
10 100 6 36 2 4
10 100 7 49 3 9
11 121 9 81 7 49
12 144 9 81 6 36
Total 50 516 35 263 20 102
The next step is to obtain the total sum of squared (sst)

= SS = ∑ X - ¿ ¿
2

∑ X = 516 + 263 + 102 = 879

2

∑ x = 50 + 35 + 20 = 105
N = 15

Total SS = ∑ X - ¿ ¿
2

Substituting the values in the equation

2
(105)
Total SS = 879 -
15
11025
= 879 -
15
= 879 – 735

60
 S S1= 144
After obtaining the SS1 we can then calculates the sum of squares between: hence, variance
between groups caused by the treatment of independent variable.
2¿
Between SS =∑ ¿¿ ¿ - ∑ X ¿ n
2
(50)
1 group ¿ ¿ =
st
5
2
(35)
2nd group =
5
2
rd (20)
3 group =
5
2 5 2
(50) (35) (20)
¿¿ = + +
5 5 5
= 500 + 245 + 80 = 825
( 50+35+20 )2
¿¿ =
15
2
(105)
= 735
15
Therefore, ∑ ¿¿ ¿ - ¿ ¿
= 825 – 735 = 90
We now calculate within the SS
SSW = ∑ X 2 - ¿ ¿
2
(50) 2500
Group A = 514 - = 514 -
n 5
= 514 – 500 = 14
2
(35)
Group B = 263 - = 263 – 245 = 18
5
2
(20)
Group c = 102 - = 102 – 80 = 22
5
SSW = ∑ of A+B+C = 14 + 18 + 22 =54
To calculate the degree of freedom for the whole group df = 15 – 1 = 14
SSB = number of groups minus 1 = 3 – 1 = 2
61
SSW df = number of groups taken away from number of subject = 15 – 3 = 12 we can now
obtain the mean square
To compute between mean squares, we divide the SSB by the degree of freedom (df); our
SSB = 90
SSB df = 2
90
Therefore the mean square of SSB = = 45
2
For SSW = 54
SSW df= 15 – 3 = 12
54
Mean squares from SSW = 4.5
12
Having obtained the mean squares for SSB and SSW, we are to test the set null hypothesis of
no significant difference. It is done by computing and interpreting the F ratio. In the fraction,
the within mean square is placed on the denominator.
between group mean square(MSB)
F=
within groupmean square ( MSW )

45.0
= = 10
4.5

Using our F table, we find that with two degree of freedom for the numerator and twelve
degree of freedom for the dominator mean square. The F ratio is 6.93 at the 0.01 probability
level.
Interpretation and decision making: a result, when testing the hypothesis that there is no
significant difference between the mean performance of the three achievement group scores,
the F ratio shows 10 while the table F ratio is 6.93 at the 0.01 probability level which means
that the calculated F ratio is greater than the table F ratio. It therefore provides the ground that
we reject the null hypothesis.
Example 2
Suppose s student undertook a project work on performance yield of tomato fruits treated
with three sets of fertilizer A, B and C, the results obtained are as shown in the table below
A B C
6 10 8
5 6 7
4 3 8
6 2 6
2 4 5
4 5 3
5 4 4
62
 8 3 6
7 6 7
8 3
2
n=9 n = 10 n = 11

The total yield treated with three set of fertilizer is 30

In this case, one – way analysis of variance is needed for examining the effect of the three
types of fertilizer.

Step 1: we complete the sum of square (∑ X 2) and the sum of yields (∑ X ) for each group.
The ∑ X = ∑ X 2 for each groups are presented.

A B C
2 2 2
X X X X X X
6 36 10 100 8 64
5 25 6 36 7 49
4 16 3 9 8 64
6 36 2 4 6 36
2 4 4 16 5 25
4 16 5 25 3 9
5 25 4 16 4 16
8 64 3 9 6 36
7 49 6 36 7 49
8 64 3 9
2 4
N= 9 ∑ X 2= n =10 ∑ X 2 =315 n = 11 ∑ X2
∑ X = 47 271 ∑ X = 51 ∑ X =59 =361

Step 2: we can compute the total sum of squares

S S1 = ∑ X 2 – ¿ ¿

S S1 = (271 + 315 + 361) – ¿ ¿

24649
= 947 -
30

= 947 – 821.633

S S1 = 125.367

Step 3: we compute between groups sum of squares using the formula

63
 SSB = ∑ ∑
2
X
– ∑ ¿¿ ¿
ng
2 2 2 2
47 51 59 157
SSB = - - -
9 10 11 30

2209 2601 3481 24648

= + + -
9 10 11 30

= (245.444 + 260.1 + 316.454) – 25.55

SSB = 0.365

Step 4: we can now compute within groups of sum squares using the formula

Group A
2
47
SSW = ∑ X 2 – ¿ ¿ = 271 - = 25.55
9
2
51
Group B = 315 - = 54.9
10
2
59
Group C = 361 - = 44.545
11

SSW = 25.55 + 54.9 + 44.545

= 125.367

The shortest possible way of obtaining the SSW is to subtract SSB from SS1

SSW =SS1 – SSB

= 125.367 – 0.365

= 125.002

= 125

Step 5: Usually we obtain three degrees of freedom

1. Total df = n – 1
2. Between df = number of groups minus 1 = 3 – 1 = 2

64
 3. Within group df = total observation minus number of groups = 30 – 3 = 27
Therefore,

S S1 df = 30 – 1 = 29

SSB df = 3 – 1 = 2

SSW df = 30 – 3 = 27

Step 6: computing of mean squares called variance estimate for between groups and within
groups

0.365
SSB¿ =0.18
2

125
SSW¿ =4.629∨4.63 a
27

MSB
Step 7: We compute for the ratio which is F¿
MSW

0.18
F¿ =0.039∨0.0388
4.63

We can now compare our calculated F. value against the F critical value to see if it is
significant or not
In reading our F-table, we will discover that the various degree for between groups are in the
horizontal rows across the top of the table, and the degree of freedom for within groups are
shown vertically down the left side of the table. We can now enter the df (between)= 2 and
zdf(within)=27 at 0.05. in the table, critical value of F at 0.05 level of signification 3.34.
In comparison, we can see that the calculated F- value of 0.039 is less than the critical
value of 3.35 for df of 2,27 at 0.05 level which shows that calculated F value is within the
acceptance regions. Hence we accept the null hypothesis of no significant differences.
Assignment; read the two- factor classification analysis of variances.

THE CHI-SQUARE (X2)

It is non – parametric test of significance which is usually symbolize by X”. This type
of test is always employed to test difference between an actual sample an another
hypothetical sample of previous established distribution.
The chi-square test is used to compare critically observe proportions in study with
proportion expected. These observation proportion are usually in frequency counts. That is
the X2 tells whether the frequency obtained or observed are different from the frequencies
you might expect base on chance variations alone. In other word it enable us to decide
whether there is relationship or deviation between occurrences. We can do that by comparing
the obtained frequencies, there by determining the probability of their being difference or not.

65
In getting the significance value, chi- square table is used. It is worth knowing that as the chi-
square value increases, the difference between the observed and expected frequencies also
increases, its compotation is usually done on a contingency table. Take for example in the
birth of children to a family, the expected result of the birth of a chi will either male or
female. If the family gave birth to 20 children, considering the low of probability, the
expected result will be 10 males and 10 females, but we may have 8 males and 12 females, 11
males and 9 females.the question that arrives is that at point do we say that there is a
significant deference between the theoretical 50 -50 chance of being male or female and our
observe frequency distribution. The X2 test is used to determine whether a significant
difference occurs between some theoretical or expected frequencies and observed frequencies
in two or more categories.

Formula
Where o is the observed frequencies
E is the expected frequencies
Assuming that the family gave birth to children 20 time and we have 11 boys 9 girls. The
expected frequencies is 10 males 10 females. How do we determine whether the observed
frequency is significantly different from the expected frequency?

A Observed Expected
A male 11 10
A female 09 10

For the males O-E=11-10=1

For the females O-E=10=-1

Taking their squares

For the male = (O-E)2 12 = 1

For the female = (0 - E¿2 - 12 = 1

1
For female = ¿ ¿ = ¿ ¿ = = 0.1
10

1
For male = ¿ ¿ = ¿ ¿ = = 0.1
10

Therefore, X 2 = 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.2

As with all test of significance, a table of X 2 distribution is consulted to determine whether

the value is significance or not. For the one way sample X 2, the degree of freedom is always
the number of cells minus 1. In the case, there are only two cells that is the males and females
occurrences of the birth of children. There fore, ther degree of freedom is 2-1=1. If we
66
consult the chi-square table the values of X 2with one degree of freedom at 0.05 level of
significance is 3.84, therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference between the
observed and expected frequency in birth of the children is upheld or accepted.
CHI-SQUARE FOR TWO MORE CASE
In a study, Dadwak used questionnaire as his study instruments. He used the likert point scale
of strongly agree, agree, neutral strongly disagree but compressed it to three categories of
agree,neutral, disagree. Dadwak used 120 respondents and wanted to find out whether lecture
method is the best teaching method at the secondary level. In this distribution of the
questionnaires; 60 respondent agreed, 40 were neutral and 20 disagree.
To determine whether the observed frequencies of 60, 40, 20, where significance
different from the expected 40, 40, 40, the chi-square test could be applies. In dealing with
two or more sample cases in chi-square ,the same formula is used but the major difference are
the method of determining the expected frequencies and the number of degree of degree of
freedom. suppose we want tofind if the sex of the student is related to their responses to the
question raised on the lecture method as the base teaching methods at secondary level. We
are going to compute the chi-square for the responses of 200 student made up of 100 males
and 100 females. Using a contingency table indicating the rows, column and subtotal is as
shown in the table below

Agree neutral disagree row sub total

Male A B C 100
40(50) 40(30) 20(20)
Female D E F 100
60(50) 20(30) 20(20)
Column 100 60 40 200
Sub total Drand total

Formula
For agree of freedom=(R-1) (C-1)
First of all we have to determine what the expected frequency would have been if all things
were equal for cell A;

Subtotal of column ×total of row

¿
Grand total

Where subtotal of column=100

Subtotal of row cell A =100
Grand total =200

100× 100
= = 50
200

67
 60 ×100 60
CELL B = = = 30
200 2

40 ×100 40
CELL C = = 20
200 2

60 ×100 60
CELL D = = = 50
200 2

60 ×100 60
CELL E = = = 30
200 2

40 ×100 40
CELL F = = = 20
200 2

Using the X2 to compute the value of each cell is X2 = ∑ ¿¿ ¿

100
Cell A = ¿ ¿ = =2
50

100
Cell B = ¿ ¿ = = 3.33
30

0
Cell C = ¿ ¿ = =0
20

100
Cell D = ¿ ¿ = =2
50

(100)
Cell E = ¿ ¿ = = 8.33
30

100
Cell F= ¿ ¿ = =0
20

Summations of the X2 =2+3, 3 + 0 + 2 + 3, 3 + 0 -10.6

We can now determine the degree of freedom.

(R-1) (C-1)

Decision taking; as we consult the chi-square it is observe that with 2df at 0.05level of
significance is 5.99 and our computed value of X 2 = 10.6 showing that the compute value X 2
is far greater than the table value, therefore we reject the null hypothesis of significant
difference.
RESEARCH OR PROJCET REPORT
68
A comprehensive coverage of research experience and an appropriate communication of the
result may be possible only when researcher possesses requisite knowledge of the process
involved in writing a researcher report.
Body of Chapter One (1)
Summarily it is always discussed under the major: Introduction with sub- topics as
 Background of the study
 Statement of the problem
 Purpose of the study
 Signi9ficant of the study
 Hypothesis if possible
 Research question
 Scope of the study or delimitation of study
 Limitation of the study
Background of the Study
In any research report background should be complete and concise. It should
introduce the research problem in a proper context. Arouse and stimulate the readers’ interest.
He should give the information in the phenomenon under study in order that the readers can
understand the previous and current nature of the phenomenon in question. The background
is always presented in a “funnel shape beginning with abroad or general introduction with a
narrower end. Take for instance: a topic “factors militating against students, response to
HIV/AIDS awareness campaign in Nigerian secondary school”.
The research is expected to concisely describe on the areas, looking at the present
situation in HIV/AIDS as a global scourge; when it was discovered, current reporting the
population of people living with HIV as given by global health organization like WHO, its
effect in Nigeria as a nation building, government, nongovernmental organization on the
awareness campaign.
A statement problem is basically what the research intends to look into, he could use
questions as a guide or make his a declarative term which describe specific aspect of the
problem understudy. Statement of the problem indicates why there is gap or an unsatisfactory
state of affairs in a particular area. It also, suggests specific answers on conclusion. Using the
example above, problem could be stated like:
 What are the campaign strategies used of check the spread of HIV/AIDS in secondary
school students?
 To what extent do negative drees code especially female influences the spread of
HIV/AIDS in our schools.
 Will student home influence be a significant determination of non-response to the
awareness campaigners HIV/AIDS?
 What is the influence of materialism in the spread of HIV/AIDS in schools?
The Purpose of Study
It is also called setting device. At least, at the end of the day, the research intends to
accomplish curtain aims or goals. Or it is always the researchers’ reasons or objectives of
carrying out of investigation. it guide the researcher on the collection of relevant data.
69
FOR EXAMPLE:
Topic: female dropout from secondary schools in kanke local government. The purpose of the
study could include:
To find out whether students’ inability to complete secondary education is related to
broken homes.
To find out whether lack of parental care is related to rampant cases of school
dropouts.
To examine the extent to which unwanted pregnancy is related to female school
dropouts.
To examine weather female school dropout could be predicted on the influence of
peer- group.
The Significance of the Study
It refers to the beneficial effort of the research work or the relevant contribution of the study
that will help solve education problem.
The relevant of the research campaign for the awareness of HIV/AIDS spread will include:
 The study will provide a framework for intensive awareness against HIV/AIDS to
many students.
 The result of a study will also form the basis for parental intervention in the fight
against the scourge.
 Help key actors come up with moral code against negative dressing.

Hypothesis (if any)

It is an intelligent guess made by the researcher. It is usually a tentative statement awaiting
and empirical test. It can also be referred to ads a proposing that a researcher has put forward
to enable him solves a research problem.
There are various form in which hypothesis is can be formulated, we have the
 Positive statement hypothesis e.g: half naked dressings arouse the desire for sexual
exploration among students.
 Health education lessons instill good sanity attitude in pupils.
 Teaching biology using instructional material is responsible for better performance.
 The negative statement:
 Half naked dressing has no effort in HIV/AIDS awareness campaign.
 Health education lessons have no effect in good sanitary altitude among pupils,
 Equality statements:
 There is no significant difference between the performance yield of tomato treated
with organic and inorganic fertilizer.
 Greater or less than :
 The fear in teachers who teach cult member students is greater than that of their
counterparts who do not teach cult member students.

70
  Students taught with instructional materials have greater understanding of the content
than their counterparts that were taught without instructional materials.
 Predicative statement:
 Students’ involvement in cultic practices will negatively affect the image of the
school. In conclusion, we can sum up the language of research hypothesis under two
categories which include the Null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. The Null
hypothesis usually carry “no difference” or “no relationship”, hence it suggest that
minor differences not real differences occur between variables which are due to
chance. It is usually presented by HO. e.g comparative study of the performance of
pre-NCE Z1 and Z2 students in biology department, FCE Dunggwan.
 There is no significant difference in the performance mean scores of Z 1 and Z2 pre-
NCE students in biology hence, HO:X1=X2
Research Questions
These are questions being raised by the researcher in order to find out answers or solve the
problems under study. In doing this, the researcher will break the problems with major parts
and raise questions on each.
e.g. topic: problems of teaching biology in secondary school in Plateau State.
 Are there enough qualified biology teachers for teaching of the subject in secondary
schools?
 Are there adequate resources materials for teaching the subject?
 To what extent do the problems of teaching biology in federal government schools
different from those encounters in private and state owned secondary schools.
 Is the teaching of biology in secondary schools adequately supervised?

The scope to the study

This is the area too be covered in the study. There is need for the educational researcher too
describe the geographical size, population, the breadth and depth of the study area.
Limitation of the study
This is the shortcoming or setbacks envisaged in the research. By doing so, readers of your
work would not, judge it based on idea circumstance say, the research is expected to mention
that a wider scope would have been chosen but because of lack of time, finance, difficult
terrain, weather conditions etc.
Method of data analysis
In educational research statistical techniques are classified into two namely descriptive and
inferential statistics. This is because statistics play two major roles. Hence it describes and
infers:
Descriptive statistics involves deviation.
 Measurement scales namely, nominal, interval and ratio scales.
 Measures of dispersion, namely the range and semi-interruptible range, the variance,
and standard deviation.
71
 Measures of central tendency which include the mode, median and mean.
 Measures of relationship, which includes correlation coefficient using
 Pearson product; moment correlation coefficient or spearman Ran-order correlation
method.
Inferential statistics involves the application of;
 The Z-test, the t-test for population proportion and (or difference between two
proportions.
 The students t-test, the t-test for independent samples.
 Analysis of variance (R-test); one-way AN OVA, two factor classification ANOVA.
 Chi-square test-chi-square test of goodness of fit chi-square test of independent.
In a researcher’s choice of a statistical technique for analyzing a givent data, there is need to
consider the following:
This number of groups of subjects represented by the data.
The need to consider the most appropriate technique among others, for drawing
inferences about a population.
The need to consider the most appropriate technique for comparing one population to
another.
The need to consider the most appropriate techniques for contrasting three or more
population or sub groups at a time.
The need to consider nature of the question being asked of the data
To consider statistical techniques that is relevant for exploring population parameters
and those of relationship between variables.
The need to realize that sometimes, some techniques perform adequately even when
their unique underlying assumptions upon which they can be applied are not consider.
The needs to describe a statistical problem in a way that will enable us avoid some
statistical techniques that cannot be used to meet up the need of the researcher. After
this, the suitability of the remaining statistical techniques can be evaluated so that the
most technically appropriate techniques may emerge

Reference
Awotunde, P.O.J & Ugodulunwa, C.A & Ozoyi E.D (2006), Practical Steps to Research in
education. Jos; Deka publications.
Awotunde, P.O.J & Ugodulunwa, C.A (2004), Research methods in education. Jos Fabanich
Ltd.
Cohen J (2001) Statistical power analysis for the behavior sciences new York Academic
process
Dadulum, S.I (2001) Basic Concept in Research method (60-71), in Leere, M M; Dadulum,
S. and Bulus H.
Dewan S.E.(2007), A Practical guide to presents A Research Report in Education. Jos, Wais
Printing press.
Dewan, S.E (2003), the Relationship between drugs abuse and Behaviour problems among
Secondary Schools Pupils. Pancen Journals of education 4(1)71-825

72
Fatimah B. Mukhtar (2008). An Introduction to biostatistics; Printed by Nazareth press Ltd
Ibadan.
Kueziliio, E.A. (1993). Research methodology and Statistics. AWKA, Nigeria Nyel conti
(Nigeria) Publishers.
Nwana. O.C (1981) Introduction to education Research .Ibadan; Heineman.
Ogbonna, B.B.O, Dakun, W.S & Dewan S.E (2006) A new practical Approach to Research
method and Statistics, Jos: Wais printing Press

73
 CHAPTER THREE
POPULATION EDUCATION
By

Lawrence Wilfred Biska

and
Adeniji Adekunle

Population education is defined as the process that assists persons, society, country
and the world to learn the probable causes and consequences of population events. UNESCO
(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) defined population as
“an educational programme which provides for the family, community, nation and the world,
with the purpose of developing rational and responsible attitude.” Wilemann and Lane in
1974 defined population as study of human population and how it affect and effected by
several aspect of life physical, social, cultural, political, economic and ecological. Burbson
defines it as exploration of knowledge and attitude about population, family and sex. Which
includes population awareness, family living, reproduction education and basic values’. It is
an educational programme designed to make learners make a rational decision on population
process, facilities, fertility, natality, mortality, immigration and emigration and to understand
the inter-relationship between population change and development and issues relating to of
qualitative life.
Why population education?
1. It makes students participate and contribute in the improvement of the quality of human
life.
2. It facilitates inquiry learning approach as learning is a continuous process.
3. It teaches students about consequences and to make responsible and rational decisions
about reproductive and sex related matters.
4. It creates and brings out the relationship between individuals, family and the societies in
a particular setting.
5. It uses content from demography and population studies.
6. Helps in understanding the dynamics of population.
7. Create awareness, knowledge and developing positive attitude for a better life.
8. Developing awareness about population control and positive and healthy attitudes among
the youths.
9. It is related to human resource development for sustainable utilization and prudent
management.

Need and Importance of education of Population Education

The world’s population is on the increased daily and this has a devastating and dire effect on
the population, facilities and the resources as well as the environment. It affects:
1. It affects health, Wealth and Happiness of individual, families and the community.
2. It affects progress and development of a country
74
3. It affects security
4. It affects education
5. It affects food supply and production.
6. It affects the environment by degrading it
7. Causes civil strife and social in a quality

Population Education is based on these basic assumptions.

1. The rapid growth in population has become a threat to economic development
2. Over population affects health and wellbeing of the younger generation
3. Population explosion provides an obstacles for having a better standard of living
4. Population education should not be seen as sex education or family planning but be
seen as an avenue for creating right attitude to family size.
5. It should be a continuous exercise always

What is Population?
Population is defined as the number of people found in a particular area and time. Therefore
the human population refers to the number of people living in a particular area from village,
towns, cities, country and continent.
The early human population in the ancient time was not known still they are not as
many as people are now in the universe. Today the world is estimated to having a population
of 7 billion people. The world population has continued to increase rapidly. Thomas Robert
Malthus(1766-1834) postulated that when population is left unchecked it will increase in
geometrical numbers 2,4,6,8,10 …. 100,200,400… while the resources increases in
arithmetical progression from 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8…101.102,103. The population will certainly
overshadow the resource which ultimately leads to starvation and exploitation of resources.
Hence there is the need to always keep the population low.
 In nature population of living organisms grow exponentially until they meet with
environmental resistance then each population stabilizes at a certain size, which can
be supported by its habitat.
 Human beings can control environmental factors that check their population growth to
a certain extent through Increased their average life span and lowered mortality better
hygiene and sanitation and modern medical treatment.
 Increased resource such as food, which will normally have checked their growth,
through intensive agriculture. As a result human population is growing rapidly and it
has reached 7 billion today.

GLOBAL HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH

The global human population growth is around 83 million people or 1.1% percent growth
annually. Now 250,000 people are added into the world every day. And nearly 90 million
every year almost size of Mexico. The global population as 1990 was 6.8billion people it has
it increased by 7.6 per cent in 2017 with increased of one(1) billion people. The world
population is expected to grow by mid 2030 to be 8.6 billion people and by 2050 to almost 10
billion. This rapid population explosion was as a result of advent in advanced medical
breakthrough, industrial revolution, death rates begin to fall, nutrition increases, and good
agricultural advances and increased in life expectancies. Dr. Paul Ehrlich in his book “The

75
Population Bomb” warn of dire consequences of this explosion to our ecosystems and human
survival if the population remains unchecked. Ehrlich (1990) brought a formular for checking
the population as IPA: where I =impact, P=population, A=Affluence (Consumption) and
T=Technology where both the developed and developing world share the brunt of the
population explosion.

Daily Year of Billions

increment increment
------------ 1800 1
127 1927 2
33 1960 3
14 1974 4
13 1987 5
12 1999 6
12 2011 7
12 2023 8
14 2037 9
18 2055 10
33 2088 11
Source: World population perspective 2017.United Nation Population division

Doubling time: this indicates the number of years in which population double itself.
Population growth rate: This is the rate at which the number of individuals in a population
increase in a given time and it is the function of the initial population. This simply refers to
change in population over a unit time period often expressed as percentage of the number of
individuals in the population at the beginning of that period.
Population growth rate = P(t2)/P(t1)
=Pt2=100(1990)/50(1980)=2
A positive growth rate is an indication of population increase while a negative growth
rate is showing decreasing population e.g 50-100=-50 and when it is zero e.g 100-100=0 it
showed no increase/decrease in the population size because there is no birth, death,
immigration or emigration.

Factors accounting for population growth (causes of population change in Nigeria):

Agriculture, Industry, Commerce, Socio-cultural practices and religious beliefs, Social
background, Religious background, Population policies and strategies.
In most countries the main factors responsible for population density include the following:
1. Agriculture: agricultural activities have greatly impacted on the population size of
nations because of the activities tends to draw more people to a particular areas where
farming activities are higher the population will increased and low agricultural
activities draw less number of people. More food are produced now hence there is no
starvation.
2. Industry Industrial activities tend to employ more people with the attendant increased
in population whereas areas with low industries have less number of people..

76
3. Commerce: Commercial Centres have the capacity to engage people because of
several commercial activities. This account for higher population in commercial
centres of trade like New York |London, New Delhi, Doha and Dubai.
Factors of Population Growth in Nigeria
In Nigeria situation population growth is associated to some socio-cultural practices
and religious beliefs.
1. Socio-Cultural Effect: This factor has contributed a lot to high population rate
noticeable in Nigeria. There are some cultures that practice polygamous marriage
where a husband marries many wives and this result to high number of children which
in turn will reflect in the society.
2. Religious Beliefs: Some religious organization do not encourage the practice of
family planning. This has contributed to high population in Nigeria.
3 Lack of education: This is a serious factor in population change in Nigeria. The
peoples lack of education has robbed them of good knowledge of family and planned
parenthood. Therefore has led to the population explosion in the country.
4. Unbriddled sex drive: Nigerians have an unbridled sex drive where they only think
and live sex without minding the consequences of their actions. This has created many
unwanted pregnancies.
5. Lack of planning: An average Nigerian does not plan their lives at all.
6. Superstitions: Nigerians are highly superstitious individuals where they belief that
they more the number of children the high parents succeed in live.

Consequences of High Population in Nigeria

High population in Nigeria has greatly impacted on the development of the country. These
are
1. Energy consumption in electricity in the area of generation, distribution and supply.
2. Starvation: The food supply is not adequate to meet the ever increase in food demand
this grossly lead to starvation because food could not go round.
3. Unhygienic condition: Because of the high number of people in an area there is
always sanitation and this leads to diseases and death.
4. Elevated crime rate: The society cannot absorb all the number hence more people
become criminals in order to meet ends meet.
5. Conflict: This is a product of high population, people always have conflict as result
of scarcity and want.
6. Poverty: Many people will be living below the poverty line because resources cannot
go round everybody
7. Political Instability

Method of Control of Human Population

Population growth must be controlled otherwise it will lead to population explosion that the
mother earth will not be able to support. These factors like war, famine and disease increases
death in human beings yet as good as they are in controlling the population size it is a crude
way to be used in population controlled.
1. Family planning: Parents are advised to undertake family planning

77
2. Child spacing: Couples should space their children to be able to cater for them and
for the female parent to rest before another pregnancy
3. Delayed marriages: This is a situation where an individual delays his/her marriage to
certain age before marrying.
4. Provision of incentives: Couples should be provided with incentives like educational,
health, monetary and any other form in order for them to delay child bearing
5. Medical facilities: There should be improved medical facilities in the country where
the facilities and personnels are readily available curb infant mortality as well as
maternal mortality.
6. Legislative actions: Government should legislate on the number of children to have
as family and the use of contraception be made mandatory for child bearing families.
Ensure no child marriages, abolition of child labor and beggary.
7. Education: Education is the backbone of an individual economy as well as it will
help create awareness on the importance of child spacing and family planning matters,
nutrition and illiteracy.
8. Spread awareness: People need to be told and understand the consequences of
having so many children.
9. Women empowerment: Empowering women to have a say in child bearing,
education, labor matters and be self sufficient really help in curtailing high
population.
10. Eradication of poverty: Poverty has a direct relation to population growth so when
poverty is eradicated the women will have no cause to sell their children or engage
them in child labor to fend for their family.
11. Access to contraceptives: Ensure that people have access to cheap and make
contraceptives cheaper which will help in the prevention of unwanted pregnancies and
births
12. Development: Lack of development leads to high poverty, high illiteracy,
discrimination, lack of awareness, lack of medical facilities invariably increases
population. So there is the need to develop the economy and infrastructural facilities
in Nigeria.

Population Policies and Strategies

Population Policy (Measures)
A population policy is a strategy for achieving a particular pattern of population
change through reproductive behaviors and activities that are put in place by government to
influence population size, growth, distribution or composition in country. The first Nigeria
Policy on population was written in 1988 and 2004 to help reduce and mitigate population
growth in Nigeria during the regime of General Ibrahim Babangida, the then Military
President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and President Olusegun Obasanjo respectively.
This is to be carried out in collaboration with the Federal Ministry of Health, National
Population Commission and the World Bank.

Goals of the Policy.

1. To create a balance between population growth and resources
2. To increase and create awareness
78
3. To reduce infertility through access to quality of reproductive health services
4. To reduce population through delay in first birth, child spacing and family size.
5. To carry out advocacy on reproductive matters

Objectives
1. To reduce population growth
2. Reduce fertility.

STRATEGIES
1. Launch advocacy programs
2. Promote small family norm
3. Increase participation in population activities
4. Ensure provision of quality services in rural and semi urban areas
5. Coordinate and monitor family planning and reproductive health
6. Build effective partnership with Non-Governmental Organization and faith based
organizations
7. Increased awareness on Sex and sexuality.

Methods and Problem of Estimating Human Population

Data
Collecting data in population studies is always an herculean tasks because of the
dynamics involved in the population related information.
Methods of collection of data
 Observation
 Oral interview
 Survey
 Focus group discussion
 Questionnaire
 Experiment
 General

Types of Data Collection

1. Individual data. This is the data that is collected from individuals behavior both
physical and physiological
2. Community data is the type of data collected about the community as a whole and
such data is used to help in the development of the community.
3. National data.This is the type of data collected at national level ranging from
individual,family,societies and communities within the nation.
4. Regional data.This is the type of data collected at regional level in a continent that
would be used get information about a continent.
5. World(International)data.This the type of data collected from all the nations and
regions of the world in order to bring out an informed information or decision.

79
 METHODS OF ESTIMATING HUMAN POPULATION
1. National Census
2. By estimation/extrapolation

Problems associated with Population Estimation

Estimating the population in a certain area is cumbersome and not easy because of the
following issues:
 Increased agricultural activities
 Commercial activities).
 Increased in birth rates
 Decreased in death rates.
 Immigration
 Emigration

The rate of growth an estimated by calculating the following

1. Birth Rate (or natality): This is the number of new individuals being giving births to per
1000 people in the population per year.
Number of birth / year
Birth rate = X 1000.
total number of people∈that year
2. Mortality Rate (or date rate): The number of individuals dying per 1000 people in that
year.

Number of death/ year

Death rate = X 1000.
total number of people∈that year

3. Fertility Rate: The number of live births per 1000 women of a child bearing.

Number of live birth / year

Fertility rate = X 1000.
Number of Womenaged 15−45∈that year

4. Infant Mortality Rate: This number of deaths in a given year of infants (under the age of
1 year per thousand live births.

Number of live birth / year

Infant mortality rate = X 1000.
Number of infants∈that year

POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF RESOURCES

Over the years the population of the world is on the increased with the addition of 88
million to the population pool but the amount of resources has not increased in which to
sustain the ever growing population. The rate of growth in population now has outstripped
the available natural resources and government abilities to provide education, health care,
food, security, good standard of living to the populace. It has become increasingly difficult to
achieve them. This growth rate has cause threats to sustainable and prudent use of resources

80
available because of the sheer numbers of people thereby causing wastages and destruction of
resources through mismanagement.
It has become imperative that government all over the world must give premium to
education, improve productivity, provide social security, intensification of agricultural and
use of higher yields, improvement in medicine and public health, more investment
opportunities and must ensure sustainable economic growth and equitable distribution of
resources these help in lower fertility and economic development and prudent management of
resources.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS OVER POPULATION

Over population can be curtailed through the following ways:
1. Using new integrated farming techniques in areas that hitherto were not agricultural
areas.
2. Establishment of industries in rural areas
3. Provision of infrastructures in rural areas to help decongest the urban areas.
4. Creation of awareness
5. Eradication of poverty
6. Provision of medical facilities outside the congested areas.
7. Legislative action.

Birth Control Measures Involving Male and Female Reproductive Organs

Controversies and consequences

Reproductive Behavior is a behavior relating to the production of offspring including such
patterns as the establishing of mating systems, courtship, sexual behavior, parturition, and the
care of the young. It entails all process by which means the sperm is brought to the egg for
conception and the parental care resulting from the union. There is a complex set of
behavioral adaptations that helps in coordinating the timing and pattering of reproductive
activity. It includes both internal physiological and overt events in both male and female. It is
very important to inform and teach the younger generation on the need to have a healthy
reproductive behavior that would lead to the perpetuation of life. This clearly shows that
every individual either male or female must be socially, culturally, economically,
physiologically, psychologically and physically ready to embark on this great task of bringing
in new offspring. The males rarely battles for breeding rights, women can mate at anytime,
can get pregnant any month. In this regards that the students must learn to make choices. The
choice must be made or faced dire consequences in life.
Early marriage, pre-marital sex, teenage pregnancy and their consequences.
Early Marriage: Early marriage is a marriage undertaken by a girl or boy who is still very
young mostly from 9 years to 17 years. The acceptable age of marriage in Nigeria is 18 years
which is the acceptable universal suffrage age. The early marriage differs in culture and
religion as well as the region. Early marriage has dire consequences to the young ones which
could results to loss of economic capacity, disease, drop out from school, crime rate increases
and prostitution..
Pre-Marital Sex: This is a situation where those who are not married engage in sexual
intercourse before marriage. The young ones have high sexual drive and always find it
81
difficult to control their sexual urges. This is becoming a norm as most of the youth no longer
see pre-marital sex as an exception but a norm. This breeds distrusts, diseases, unwanted
pregnancies, abortion, death and high population resulting in children.
Teenage Pregnancy: This is a situation where a teenager who is in her teens conceives and
become pregnant. The teenage have high fertility and fecundity rate because of the
physiological make up. The teenagers are pruned to diseases, death from abortion, drop out
from school and cannot continue with education while the boy continue with his education.

The Consequences of negative reproductive behaviours.

These are:
1. Guilt and shame for the inappropriate behavior committed.
2. Dropping out from school.
3. Loss of economic capacity
4. Death resulting from STD/STI/HIV and abortions.
5. Prostitution
6. Inability to find a spouse at later time and lack of child bearing.

Birth Control and its Measures

Birth control or contraception is how to prevent conception before it begins by
human’s choice and control. The process of conception can be prevented at several stages.
There are four (5) main methods of prevention of conception. They are:
1. Mechanical methods is the direct prevention of sperm cells reaching the uterus and
fallopian tubes. This is possible through the use of condom, the diaphragm and the
intra-uterine device (IUD).
2. Chemical method this is done through using chemical substances in the form of pills
and injection which goes to alter the hormonal balance in the body system to prevent
conception and spermicides which kills off sperm cells.
3. Sterilization is more advanced method that is being used today to control conception
which is permanent. This includes the female tubal ligation or deliberate severing of
the fallopian tubes and some cases the whole uterus is removed and in male
vasectomy is carried out.
4. Physical method is a withdrawal method where the male removes his penis before
ejaculation and the sperms cells are poured outside the female vagina. This method
requires discipline and it less reliable.
5. Rhythm method is a situation where female menstrual cycle is followed and observed
in which sexual intercourse is restricted at infertile periods.

82
Chart of Contraceptive Options, Highlighting Advantages And Disadvantages
Method What is it? Chances of not Health concerns Strong points Weak points
getting pregnant
Condoms * Fits over erect *if you are *None *Can be bought *Must be put on during
penis and catches very careful in drug stores. sex.
sperms when the each time -
man ejaculate.” 97%. If you are *Easy to use, it *Some men say it
Also; known as not careful reduces easy to reduces sexual feelings.
“rubbers.” each time – carry.
86%. If used *Condoms with
with form- *Used only spermicidal may irritate
more than 99% when needed. vagina or penis.
*Latex condom
*Some people are
help protect
allergic to latex.
against HIV and
other sexual
transmitted
infections
(STDs)

Injectable *Artificial *More than *Few serious *Doesn’t *Must have injection by
hormones 99%. problem for most interfere with health care provider.
injected by a women *Should sex.
clinician. not be used by *May cause heavy
women with liver *Lasts for 3; periods, irregular period,
*Stops ovaries disease, heart
from releasing months light period or eventual
disease, heart
egg each month. disease, breast no period at all.
*Often
*Thickens mucus cancer or blood decreases *May not be able to get
in cervix clots.
bleeding and pregnant for several
(opening to
womb), so it is cramping ‘months after shorts are
difficult for associated with discontinued.
sperm to enter period.
*No protection against
womb.
*Safe to use HIV and other STDs.
while
breastfeeding

*Less chance of
ovarian or
endometrial
cancer.

Diaphragm *Small rubber *If you are *Few health *Can be put in 2 *Some women say its
cup fits inside very careful problem. hours before hard to put in and to take
vagina, (opening each time-94%. sex. out.
to the womb). *More bladder
*If you are not infections for
*Used with very careful some women. *Used only *Can be messy,
contraceptive each time-80%. when needed.
*Very small *Cream or jelly may
cream or jelly
that kills sperm. chance of toxic *May help to irritate vagina or penis.
shock syndrome. protect against

83
 *Must be fitted some STDs (not *Must be left in place 6-
by clinical. HIV). 8 hours after sex.

*No protection against

HIV.

Foam *Made of *If you are *None *Can be bought *Must be put in shortly
Suppositor chemicals that very careful in drug stores. before sex.
ies and kills sperm. each time 94%.
film *Easy to use, *Can be messy.
*Put into vagina *If you are not
before sex. very careful easy to carry.
*May irritate vagina or
each time- *Used only penis.
74%.
when needed.
*If used with *No protection against
condom more *May help HIV.
than 99%. protect against
some STDs (not
HIV).

IUCD *Small device put *98 – 99% *Increased *Always place *May have more
inside womb by a chance of pelvic bleeding and cramping
clinician inflammatory *Does interfere
and cramping during
disease (PID). sex.
*Prevent sperm period or spotting
from fertilizing between period.
egg.
*If a woman gets
pregnant, UID must not
be taken out.

*Should not be used by

women with multiple
partners.

*No protection against

HIV and other STDs.

Natural *Women learn to *If you are *None *If used without *Must chart temperature
family recognize fertile very careful birth control is and vaginal mucus every
planning days of menstrual each time- approved by all day.
fertility cycle. 91%.
awareness religious group.
*Can use barrier *If you are not *If period are not
method *Very low cost regular, may be as
method during very carful
her fertile time each time- effective.
(fertility 75%. *Can improve a
awareness couples *Women must have
method) or communication cooperation of her
*No intercourse and cooperation. partner.
during her fertile *Helpful when *Special classes needed
time (natural
needy become to learn.
family planning).
pregnant.
*No protection against
HIV and other STDs.

Important *Tiny capsules of *More than *Few serious *Can stay in for *For first few months,
artificial 99% problem for most 5 years. may have spotting
hormones put women
84
 under skin of arm *Should not be *Can removed between period, light
by a clinician used by women time, women period, longer period or
with liver disease, can become no period at all.
*Capsule slowly heart disease,
release hormones breast cancer or pregnant right
into blood stream. *Beginning costs are
blood clots. away.
high (N60, 000-N100,
*Stop ovaries *Always place. 000 or more)
from releasing an
egg each month. *Doesn’t *Minor surgery required
*Thickens mucus interfere with to insert or remove
in cervix sex. capsules.
(opening to
womb), so it is *Less chance of *No protection against
hard for sperm to ovarian or HIV and other STDs.
enter womb. endometrial
cancer.

Oral *Pills made of *If you are *Few serious *Simple and *May have weight
contraceptiv artificial very careful problem for most easy to used. chances, moodiness,
e hormones. each time- women. spotting.
more than *Doesn’t
*Stops ovaries 99%. *Very small
from releasing an chance of blood interfere with *Must remember to take
egg each month. *If you are not clots, heart sex. every day.
careful each attacks and
*Must be time- 95% strokes. *Less chance of *May be a good method
prescribed by a PID. for women over 35 who
clinician *May cause high smoke.
blood pressure. *Less chance of
ovarian or *No protection against
endometrial HIV and other STDs.
cancer

Sterilization *Operation that 99.9% *Safer for men *No other *Permanent
makes a person than women method will ever
unable to have a *Cannot change your
*Small chance of be needed.
baby. mind later.
infection or
*Permanent bleeding after *No physical
*No protection against
surgery. effects on sexual
*Both men and HIV and other STDs.
desire or ability.
women can be *Tubal pregnancy
sterilized. could occur if
operation doesn’t
work.

Biological, psychological, social and economic readiness of male and female

reproduction.
Biological Readiness: is a situation where both the female and the male should be
biologically ready for conception. Where they are physiologically ready and the reproductive
parts must be fully developed to be ready to bear a new offspring.
Psychological Readiness: The female and male should prepare psychology to be ready to
conceive and the consequent child birth and rearing. Some psychological readiness of males
and females for reproduction may include: Emotional feelings, Intellectual and abstract

85
reasoning, capacity for inductive and deductive reasoning because child bearing is an
enormous task and responsibility sto be undertaken by all who are ready for child bearing and
parental care.
Social Readiness: The task and responsibility of bringing a new offspring to the world is by
no means a small but an enormous issue. The female and the male must be ready socially to
carry out this task. They must be compatible to show adaptability, matured, ability to be
independent of parents and relations and to become role models and parents.
Economic Readiness is an essential aspect in the process of conception, child birth and
rearing which may include: the capacity to provide all the basic requirements of the family
life inform of these basic necessities of life like food, shelter and cloth as well as education,
health and other secondary needs.
Biotechnology (and its ethical implications)
Biotechnology is the use of biology to solve problems and make useful by- products.
Biotechnology can therefore, be defined as any controlled and deliberate technique that
manipulate and uses living organisms or substances from those organisms to make or modify
a product to improve in plants or animals or developing micro-organisms for specific use that
will enhance life on earth. Examples abound in the usage of biotechnology in the world
which can be found in the use of yeast in bread or taken penicillin as an antibiotic, artificial
insemination for conception, test-tube babies for conception of babies, organ harvesting and
transplant to be used in patients whose organ has failed, gene splicing, surrogacy for someone
to carry someone fetus in her womb other than the owner and cloning to get the same replica
of the exact copy of the individual or traits are all medical advancement. The technology has
solve some medical mysteries but has succeeded in raising new vista in the form ethical
concerns.
Bioethical concerns of biotechnology
As biotechnology advances at a rapid pace, professionals are tasked with examining the
ethical issues emanating from this very life saving and laudable developments. The term
biothics is derived from Greeks with bios means life and ethics means behavior moral
principles that grown or influence a person’s behavior or the branch of philosophy that deals
with moral principles. It was first coined by Fritz Jahr in 1926.Bioethics is the study of
ethical issues emerging from advances in biology and medicine. It has a moral implication as
it relates some medical policy and practices. In 1970,an American Biochemist van Rensselaer
Potter laid the foundation for global ethics.
The scope of bio-ehthics has expanded to include cloning, gene therapy, life extension,
euthanasia, human genetic engineering, astroethics, manipulation of basic biology through
DNA, ZNA, body modifications, chimeras, cryonics, eugenics, gene theft and therapy,
genetically modified food, infertility treatment, parthenogenesis, sex selection, stem cell
research, surrogacy ,trans-sexuality, sex reassignment therapy, procreative beneficence,
population control, contraception as all these may affect the future population.
The cardinal core of bioethics is that life must be valued and allow for the basic and
fundamental biological principles and structures continues and seek for propagation and
continuity of life.

86
The religious bodies like the Jews, Buddhists, Christians and Muslims have developed ways
in dealing with these issues in their respective faiths because they belief that man is trying to
play God which to them is not acceptable. They always push for a natural propagation of life
and its sanctity.

References

Butani, D.K (2006) Dictionary of Biology New Delhi: Academic Publishers

Dyke, F.V (2003) India Conservation Biology. Boston:McGraw-Hill.
Mader, S.S. 92004) Biology. New York. MacGraw-Hill Companies inc.
Waugh, A. & Graut, A. (2010). Anatomy and Physiology in health and illness. London: Churchill
Olaniyonu, B.A. (2004) Essential Biology. Ikeja: Tonad Publishers.
Cecie, B. & Ralph, T. (2007). Biology. The unity and diversity of life 4 th Edition. Mcdigan: Michigan
State University.
Raven, J.M. & Losus, M. (1987) Biology 5th Edition. London: Central piedmont Community College
England.
Kormandy, E.D. (2007) Concepts of Ecology. New Delhi Prentize-Hall, India

87
 CHAPTER FOUR
PLANT PATHOLOGY
By
Dr. Jelten, F.G and Dr. Jwakdak, F.S.
Introduction
Plant Pathology may also be referred to as Phytopathology. The word Phytopathology
is derived from three Greek words: phyto=plants, pathos= suffering or disease and logos=
discourse or study. Plant pathology utilizes the basic techniques and knowledge of botany,
mycology, bacteriology, virology, nematology, plant anatomy, plant physiology, genetics,
biochemistry, microbiology, soil science, physics, chemistry, and other branches of science.
Plant diseases are a normal part of nature and one of many ecological factors that
help keep the hundreds of thousands of living plants and animals in balance with one another.
All species of plants, wild and cultivated alike are subject to disease. Many valuable crops
and ornamental plants are very susceptible to disease and would have difficulty surviving in
nature without human intervention. Cultivated plants are often more susceptible to disease
than are their wild relatives. This is because large numbers of the same species or variety,
having uniform genetic background, are grown close together, sometimes over many square
kilometers. As a result, a pathogen may spread rapidly under these conditions.
A plant is said to be diseased when it is continuously disturbed by some agents that
results in the alteration of physiological and morphological development of the plant. Plant
pathology can therefore be defined as the study of plant diseases and the methods of
controlling them. It may also be defined as the study of any agent in association with plants
that results in an abnormal physiological process that disrupts the plants normal structure,
growth, function, or other activities. This interference with one or more of the plants essential
physiological or biochemical systems elicits characteristic pathological conditions or
symptoms. Plant pathology or phytopathology may be defined differently as:-
a) The study of diseases of plants.
b) The study of pathogenic entities and their mechanism by which they cause disease to
plants.
c) The science which deals with the study of plant disease, causes, spread and methods
of controlling them. Therefore plant pathology involve the study of :
The living entities and the environmental conditions that cause diseases in plants.
The mechanisms by which these factors cause disease in plants
The interactions between the disease- causing agents and the diseased plant, and
The method of preventing disease, alleviating the damage it causes, or controlling a disease
either before or after it develops in a plant.
These agents include pests, parasites or other organisms which may encourage their survival
and prevalence. As a result, there are variations in their pathogenicity.
The occurrence and prevalence of plant diseases vary from season to season,
depending on the presence of the pathogen, environmental conditions, and the crops and the
varieties grown. Some plant varieties are particularly subject to outbreaks of diseases; others
maybe more resistant to them. Losses from plant diseases can have significant economic

88
impact, causing a reduction in income for crop producers and distributors and higher prices
for consumers. As a result, man has been able to identify these agents with the aim of
developing or taking measures that would exclude or minimize their activities on his crops.
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF PLANT PATHOLOGY
The following are approaches in the study of plant Pathology:-
i). Study of the pathogens: By this approach, the disease is dealt with on etiological
basis since the groups of pathogens (bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes, etc) are
known to the plant Pathologists.
ii). Based on the symptoms: The symptoms that the diseases cause are considered.
iii). Physiological basis: This involves the study of the harmful changes in the plants
physiological processes such as photosynthesis, growth, reproduction, etc.

Why Plant Pathology?

Plants are essential for maintenance of life. Plants not only sustain man and animals, they are
also source of food for multitudes of micro-organisms living in the ecosystem. Thus, while
man has been able to subjugate plants and animals for his own use, the competing micro-
organisms still defy his efforts and claim a major share of resources which man would have
like to use for himself. It is in this context that the need for fighting the competing micro-
organisms and other agents that have led to the loss of productivity by plants. The attack on
plants by these micro-organisms change the appearance and productivity of the crop and this
observed change is called a disease.
Plant diseases have been considered as stubborn barriers to the rapid progress of food
production. We call a plant healthy only so long as it continues to perform all its normal
physiological activities and give the expected yield according to its genetic potentiality.

Physiological activities of a healthy plant

1. Normal cell division, differentiation and development.
2. Uptake of water and nutrients from the soil.
3. Synthesis of food from sunlight by photosynthesis.
4. Translocation of water and food to the sites of necessity through xylem and Phloem.
5. Metabolism of synthesized material.
6. Reproduction.
A diseased plant fails to perform one or more of these functions. The effect of a
disease on functioning of an organ depends on which cells or tissues were first attacked by
the pathogen. For example, rotting of root tissues will affect the absorption of water and
minerals from soil and if vascular tissues have been affected, the translocation of water and
photosynthetates will be stopped or reduced. If leaf tissues are attacked by a pathogen,
photosynthesis is affected and plant suffers from deficiency of carbohydrates essential for
supplying energy for other activities
OBJECTIVES OF PLANT PATHOLOGY:
The science of plant pathology has four main objectives:
1. to study the living, non-living and environmental causes of plant diseases,
2. to study the mechanisms of disease development by pathogens,
89
3. to study the interactions between the plants and the pathogen, and
4. to develop the methods of controlling the diseases and reducing the losses caused by
them.

TERMS AND CONCEPTS USED IN PLANT PATHOLOGY

Disorder: Non-infectious plant diseases due to abiotic causes such as adverse soil and
environmental conditions are termed disorders. The common characteristic of noninfectious
diseases of plants is that they are caused by the lack or excess of something (temperature, soil
moisture, soil nutrients, light, air and soil pollutants, air humidity, soil structure and pH) that
supports life. Non-infectious plant diseases occur in the absence of pathogens, and cannot,
therefore, be transmitted from diseased to healthy plants.
Pathogen: An entity, usually a micro-organism that can incite disease. In a literal sense a
pathogen is any agent that causes pathos (ailment, suffering) or damage. However, the term is
generally used to denote living organisms (Fungi, bacteria, mycoplasma-like organisms
(MLO’s), nematodes, viruses, etc.,) but not nutritional deficiencies.
Parasites: Organisms which live in or on another organism and derive the materials they
need for growth from such living organisms (host or suscept) are called parasites.
Pathogenicity: Is the ability of a pathogen to cause/incite disease usually by interfering with
one or more of the essential plant cell function(s).
Pathogenesis: It is the chain of events that lead to development of disease in the host or
sequence of progress in disease development from the initial contact/intimate association
between the pathogen and its host tissue(s) to the completion of the syndrome
Syndrome: The set of sequential/varying symptoms characterizing a disease during the
development of the disease are collectively called a syndrome. For example necrotic spot-
blight-fungal growth-death of organ/plant constitutes a syndrome.
Biotroph: An organism that can live and multiply only on/in another living organism (by
establishing a continuous relationship and can move from cell to cell but does not kill the
plant). It always obtains its food from living tissues on which it completes its life cycle.
Example, Rust, smut and powdery mildew fungi.
Hemibiotroph (Facultative Saprophyte): The parasite which attacks living tissues in the
same way as biotrophs but will continue to grow and reproduce after the tissue is dead, for
example Phytophthora infestans.
Perthotrophs or perthophytes (Necrotroph): A parasite is a necrotroph when it kills the
host tissues in advance of penetration and then lives saprophytically; for example,
Rhizoctonia and Sclerotium rolfsii..
Inoculum: It is the part of the pathogen which on contact with a susceptible host plant causes
infection or the infective propagules which on coming in contact with the host plant causes an
infection.
Inoculum potential: The energy of growth of a parasite available for infection of a host at
the surface of the host organ to be infected or the resultant of the action of environment, the
vigour of the pathogen to establish an infection, the susceptibility of the host and the amount
of inoculum present.
Incubation period: The period of time (or time lapse) between penetration of a host by a
pathogen and the first appearance of symptoms on the host. It varies with pathogens, hosts
and environmental conditions.
90
Predisposition: It is the action of set of environments, prior to penetration and infection,
which makes the plant vulnerable to attack by the pathogen. It is related to the effect of
environments on the host, not on the pathogen, just before actual penetration occurs
Hypersensitivity: Excessive sensitivity of plant tissues to certain pathogens where affected
cells are killed quickly, blocking the advance of obligate parasites.
Infection: Is the establishment of parasitic relationship between two organisms, following
entry, penetration and the establishment of a parasite within a host plant.
Systemic infection: The growth of pathogen from the point of entry to varying extents
without showing adverse effect(s) on tissues through which it passes.
Epidemic or Epiphytotic disease: This refers to any disease which usually occurs widely
but periodically in a destructive form in an area. Example is Late blight of potato.
Endemic: this refers to a disease that is constantly present in a moderate to severe form and
is confined to a particular country or district, example is Club root of cabbage in Nilgiris
Black wart of potato – Synchytrium endobioticum Onion smut – Urocystis cepulae
Sporadic disease: this is a disease which occurs at very irregular intervals and locations and
in relatively fewer instances. Examples include Udbatta disease of rice, Angular leaf spot of
cucumber (caused by Pseudomonas lachrymans.)
Disease is defined as any disturbance brought about by a pathogen or any environmental
factor which interferes with the manufacture, translocation, or utilization of food, mineral
nutrients, and water in such a way that the affected plant changes in appearance and or yields
than a normal, healthy plant of the same variety. It does not occur instantly like injury.
Pathogens bring about these irritating processes through different but inter-related pathways
1. By utilizing the host cell contents,
2. by causing death of cells or by interfering with their metabolic activities through their
enzymes, toxins and growth regulators,
3. By weakening of tissues due to continuous loss of nutrients, and
4. By interfering with translocation of food, minerals and water.
Alternate host: Refers to the host that helps in the completion of the life cycle of the
pathogen and its survival or one of two kinds of plants (which belong to different families) on
which a parasitic organism must develop to complete its life cycle.
Disease cycle: Is the chain of events that are involved in a disease development, including the
stages of development of the pathogen and the effect of the disease on the host.
Eradication: Refers to the control of plant disease by eliminating the pathogen after it is
established or by eliminating the plants that carry the pathogen.
Host: this refers to a plant that harbors a pathogen and serving as its source of food.
Host range: Is the various kinds of host plants that may be attacked by a parasite.
Integrated control: Describes an approach that attempts to use all available methods of
control of a disease of a crop plant for best control results but with the least cost and the least
damage to the environment.
Obligate parasite: Is any parasite that in nature can grow and multiply only on living
organisms.
Epidemiology: Is the study of the interaction between the causal agent/pathogen and the
diseased plant(s)/host(s) in relation to environmental conditions. Environmental factors
include geographical features, climate, and concentration of certain elements in soil and
water.
91
Etiology: this is the study of origin, causes or the study of living, non living and other causes
of disease or disorder in plants.
Resistance: Is the ability of an organism to overcome completely or in some degree the
effects of a pathogen or other damaging factors.
Susceptibility: Is the inability of a plant to resist the effect of a pathogen or other damaging
factor(s).
Symptom: Is the expression of the disease caused by the manifestation of the physiological
reaction of the plant due to the harmful activity of the pathogen or any detectible changes in
colour, shape and/or functions of the plant (the external and internal reactions or alterations)
as a result of a disease, resulting in local or primary or secondary manifestations.
Signs: refers to any physical evidence/structure formed by a pathogen as a result of the
interaction between pathogen and an infected host. Examples include bacterial ooze, fungal
fruiting bodies, nematode cysts and odour of tissues affected.
Virulence: This refers to the degree of pathogenicity of a given pathogen.
Inoculum potential: It is the inoculum needed for successful infection. It is a function of
inoculum density and their capacity. This is the resultant of the action of environment, the
vigour of pathogen to establish an infection, susceptibility of the host and amount of
inoculum present (Dimond and Horsfall, 1960).

HOW PLANT PATHOLOGY AFFECTS THE PRODUCTION OF FOOD AND

QUALITY OF LIFE.
Man occupies this planet earth as a guest of the plant kingdom as he is completely
dependent on plants. When man started growing food crops, he also unwittingly started
culturing the parasites. Outbreak of plant diseases are known from times preceding the
earliest writings. Mention of plant diseases are found in ancient Greek and Indian citations
though they knew little about them. Fossil evidence indicates that plants were affected by
diseases 250 million years ago. The bible and other early writings mentioned diseases such as
rusts, mildews, blights, and blast that have caused famine and other drastic changes in the
economy of nations since the dawn of recorded history. Other plant disease outbreaks with
similar far-reaching effects include late blight of potato in Ireland (1845–60) caused by
Phytopthora infestans ; powdery and downy mildews of grape in France (1851 and 1878);
coffee rust in Ceylon (starting in the 1870s); Fusarium wilts of cotton and flax; southern
bacterial wilt of tobacco (early 1900s); Sigatoka leaf spot and Panama disease of banana in
Central America (1900–65); black stem rust of wheat (1916, 1935, 1953–54); and southern
corn leaf blight (1970) in the United States. This tragic event was a blessing in disguise as it
hastened the realization of the importance of plant diseases to man.
The total economic importance of plant disease must be measured not only by the
actual damage that they cause but also by the cost of preventive control measures and the
limitations that they sometimes impose on crop plants. If plant diseases are left unchecked;
the catastrophic effects on man can only be imagined.
The effects of plant disease as it affects food production and quality of life can be felt
in the following areas:-
a). Reduction in the productivity or yields of crops.
Insect pests can cause several effects on plants ranging from defoilation on their
leaves, malformations to breakdown of such plants as they affect physiological
92
 activities of the plant as well as reduction in the viability of the crop plant; leading to
the death of such plants.
It is estimated that 506 million metric tons of cereals(35%) of the potential world
production, 129 metric tons of potatoes(32%), 636 metric tons of sugar beets and sugar cane
(45%), 78 metric tons of vegetables(28%) 56 metric tons of fruits(29%), 42 metric tons of oil
crops (32%), etc are lost to diseases, insects and weeds. When one considers the potential and
actual value of the crops produced in the various continents, the value of the losses caused to
crop diseases, insects and weeds and the total regional losses differ considerably with
continents. Thus, 25% of all the produce in Europe is lost, 29% in north and Central America,
30% in Europe and China, 33% in South America, 42% in Africa and 43% in Asia.
The kinds and amounts of losses caused by plant diseases vary with the plant or plant
product, the pathogen, locality, environment, control measures practiced, etc or combinations
of these factors. Loss of crops from plant diseases may result in hunger and starvation,
especially in less developed countries where access to disease-control methods is limited and
annual losses of 30 to 50 percent are common for major crops. In some years, losses are
much greater, producing catastrophic results for those who depend on the crop for food.
Major disease outbreaks among food crops have led to famines and mass migrations
throughout history. The devastating outbreak of late blight of potato (Phytophthora infestans)
that began in Europe in 1845 brought about the Irish famine caused starvation, death, and
mass migration of the Irish population. Of a population of eight million, approximately one
million (about 12.5 percent) died of starvation and 1.5 million (almost 19 percent) emigrated,
mostly to the United States, as refugees from the destructive blight. This fungus thus had a
tremendous influence on the economic, political, and cultural development in Europe and the
United States. During World War I, late blight damage to the potato crop in Germany may
have helped end the war.
Crop losses to diseases and pests not only affect national and world food production
supplies and economies but affect even more the individual farmer whether he grows for
direct consumption or for sale. Since operating expenditures for the production of the crop
remain the same, harvest losses due to diseases and pests directly lower the crop and the net
return.
b). Plant products:-
Diseases and pests can lead to reduction in the quantity and quality of products from
such plants as they make fruits and vegetables unattractive and unmarketable.
Losses from plant diseases can also have a significant economic impact, causing a
reduction in income for crop producers and distributors and higher prices for consumers. In
1993 the United States lost more than one million acres (405,000 hectares) of crops to
disease. More than 800,000 acres of wheat succumbed to disease, exacting a monetary loss in
millions of dollars. Plants or plant products may be reduced in quantity by disease in the
field, as indeed is the case with most plant diseases or during storage, as is the case with the
rots of stored fruits, vegetables, grains and fibres. Frequently, severe losses are caused by
reduction in the quality of plant products. For example, spots, scabs and blotches on fruits,
vegetable, grains and fibres or ornamental plants may have little effects on the quantity
produced, but the inferior quality of the product may reduce the market value so much so that
production is unprofitable. Some plant diseases such as ergot of rye make plant products unfit
for human or animal consumption by making them poisonous.
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c). Poverty and malnutrition:-
Approximately 80% of the population in sub-Saharan Africa depends on agriculture
for food, income and employment. However, average yields of these crops are very low.
Approximately 300 million people live below the poverty line in the region; and in the rural
areas, roughly half the population encounters hunger and malnutrition. Recently, researchers
from Kenya and Nigeria began a major push against parasitic weeds (striga project) to the
tune of 90 million dollars, supported by a 6.75 million dollar grant from Bill and Melinda
Gates Foundation to IITA. This parasitic weed has spread across much of sub-Saharan
Africa, causing up to 12 billion US in damage every year to the maize and cowpea crops of
tens of millions of small farmers. Witch weed primarily affects small holder’s farmers who
cannot afford costly herbicides for fighting this plant parasite. The most widespread Striga
species is estimated to have infested up to 4 million hectares of land under maize production
in sub- Saharan Africa, causing yield losses of up to 80%, representing 12 billion dollars in
losses for farmers and affects approximately 100 million people in this region.
DISEASE: A disease may be:
(i). any departure from health, presenting a marked symptom, malady, illness or disorder.
(ii). any variation from the healthy condition that results in an adverse change in the
normal structure, appearance, growth and vital functioning of a plant.
(iii). any abnormal physiological and morphological condition which causes a marked
disturbance in the plant as a whole or any part of it which is induced by certain
external agents such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, etc.
(iv). an infection caused by microorganisms impairing the quality of certain plant products.
PARASITE: A parasite is an organism(plant or animal) which lives in or on the body of
another plant or animal(host) obtaining its food and or shelter from the host. In plants, the
parasite sucks its food from the host using its sucking root (haustorium). Examples of plant
parasites include Mistletoe (Viscum spp), Dodder (Cuscuta reflexa), Striga(Striga lutea), etc.
PEST: A pest is any organism (an animal) that causes damages to crops or crop products and
livestock. Agricultural pests which affect plants and other crops include insects( such as
grasshopper, locusts, cotton stainer, aphids and weevils), birds(such as quella birds, weaver
birds), reptiles and some mammals( such as monkeys and rodents).
CLASSES OF DISEASES
Classification of plant diseases
There are two categories of plant diseases namely biotic and abiotic diseases. While biotic
diseases are those caused by living organisms, abiotic diseases are caused by non-living
factors usually influenced by soil and environmental factors. Biotic diseases maybe classified
based on:-

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1. Occurrence: - this is based on how the disease occurs. This maybe said to be-
a) Endemic disease: this is when the disease occurs constantly in moderate to severe
forms.
b) Epidemic (epiphytotic) disease- the disease occurs widely and periodically affecting
many plants.
c) Sporadic disease- this describes diseases that occur at irregular intervals and locations.
2. Nature of causal agents- based on the nature of causal agent, plant diseases maybe
grouped into:
(i) Non- parasite disease (abiotic): Non- parasitic agents or abiotic factors cause this
disease. Many of the diseases occur due to soil and environmental conditions such as
unfavourable growing conditions, excess and deficiencies of mineral salts in the soil,
pH, presence of harmful salts, very high or low temperatures, changes in the intensity
of light, presence of toxic substances in the soil or atmosphere such as gases,
mechanical injuries and so on. Because noninfectious causal agents are not organisms
capable of reproducing within a host, they are not transmissible.
(ii) Parasite disease (biotic): The infectious agents are called pathogens and can be
grouped as follows: viruses and viroids, bacteria (including mycoplasmas and
spiroplasmas, collectively referred to as mycoplasma-like organisms [MLOs]), fungi,
nematodes, and parasitic seed plants. In nature, plants may be affected by more than
one disease-causing agent at a time. A plant that must contend with a nutrient
deficiency or an imbalance between soil moisture and oxygen is often more
susceptible to infection by a pathogen. A plant infected by one pathogen is often
prone to invasion by secondary pathogens. The combinations of all disease-causing
agents that affect a plant make up the disease complex.
3) Symptoms: A plant suffering from a disease shows certain peculiar characters or
symptoms. Symptoms are the manifestation of structures or organs of pathogen or
their products of interaction between the parasite and the host. Classification
according to symptoms is also inadequate because a causal agent may induce several
different symptoms, even on the same plant organ, which often intergrades.
Symptoms are also very typical and variations among the symptoms can occur based
on climatic factors; such as mosaic viral disease gives frightening and typical
appearance when the weather is cool but if there is a prolonged hot weather, the
typical mosaic symptoms disappear. Similarly, some disease symptoms will develop
for a period of time and after some period; they may change showing diminishing
symptoms on the host. Therefore, it is suggested that symptoms alone should not be
used for identification of plant diseases but rather the host tissues should be
thoroughly examined under the microscope to identify the causative agents.
Symptoms are grouped into the following three categories:-
(i) Necrosis: General necrosis refers to decay rotting of plant parts such as fruits, tubers
and bulbs due to fungi or bacteria. This eventually results to the death of cells, tissues
and organs affected due to the activities of pathogens. Necrosis maybe general or
local, gradual or rapid. Examples include rots( which maybe dry, wet, slimy, hard,
soft, punky, white, brown or black rots), wilts, streak or stripes, spots, blights,
diebacks, etc.
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(ii) Hypoplasia this disease symptom is a marked reduction in size of the plant part(s)
affected such as leaves, flowers and fruits. There may be marked changes in colour of
the host organs and the disease symptom is characterized by stunting and dwarfing in
plants. Examples include variegation, chloris, mosaic, stunting, vein clearing,
resetting, etc.
(iii) Hyperplasia: The plant organ usually becomes increased in size by the action of the
parasites. It is also referred to as an abnormal overgrowth. The marked increase in
size of part(s) of or the whole plant is brought about by both processes of hyperplasic
(increase in cell division resulting in the formation of large number of cells) and
hypertrophy (increase in size of a plant organ due to the increase in size of the
component cells). Examples of these symptoms are galls, curls, hairy roots, witches
broom, etc.
4. Parts of the plants affected: Plant diseases can be grouped based on the part(s)
affected. This may be seed rot, kernel smut (e.g sorghum, maize), foot rot, tuber rot,
bud rot, fruit rot, root rot, stem rot, flower rot, leaf rot, stem rot, seed rot, etc.
5. Destructiveness: The destructiveness of disease differs; some are relatively harmless
while others can quickly kill individual plants. The most destructive diseases are those
that spread rapidly from plant to plant, field to field, geographical area to
geographical area, causing devastating regional epidemics, e.g. late blight of potatoes
and cereal rusts epidemics.
Classification of plant diseases may also be according to the species of plant/crop
affected or even according to the essential process or function that is adversely affected or the
type of organ affected. Note that host indexes (lists of diseases known to occur on certain
hosts in regions, countries, or continents) are valuable in diagnosis. When an apparently new
disease is found on a known host, a check into the index for the specific host often leads to
identification of the causal agent.

MODES OF TRANSMISSION OF PATHOGENS.

Different plant pathogens have different means and agents of dissemination from one place to
another. A few pathogens such as nematodes, fungi zoospores and bacteria can move very
short distances on their own, and thus can move from one host to another very close to it.
This they are able to accomplish by means of certain structures they posses which may aid
this process. The principal agents of dissemination of plant pathogens are:-
1. By non-vectors such as:
i). Water: in this case, the pathogens are disseminated from one field to another through
irrigation or floodwater. Many of the bacterial diseases e.g. citrus canker caused by
Xanthomonas citri is disseminated by splashing of rain drops; Club root disease of
crucifers caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae is also disseminated easily by
splashing of rain drops.
ii). Wind: Mass air movement and strong wind can carry countless number of spores
hundreds and even thousands of kilometers. Slight turbulence of apparently still air
can disseminate them in a microenvironment. Rust disease of cereals caused by
Puccinia graminis, late blight caused by Phythoptora infestans are common examples
of wind disseminated pathogens. Transmission by non vectors involves spread of
pathogens by mechanical contact, vegetative propagation, seeds, etc.
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2. By vectors such as insects: Insects are the principal agents of dissemination and
inoculation of numerous viruses, bacteria and fungi to plants. Insects include
leafhopper, mealy bugs and aphids are known to spread wide variety of plant diseases.
For any disease to develop there must be a point of entry or contact between the
causal agent and host plant. The initial point where the pathogen gets in contact with host
serves as the point of entry or point of penetration. This may be through:-
a). Wound: Many pathogens are known to be wound parasites because they enter plants
only through wounds, such as many wood-roting fungi and some other organisms that
rot fruits and vegetables. Wounding agents may be inanimate ( e.g. wind, hail, snow,
lightning, etc) which may wound or kill plant parts, thus facilitating penetration of
pathogens. Animate agents (e.g man and other animals) may directly or indirectly
cause wound in plants. Among the wound parasites are species of fungi that cause
heart rots of living trees. Examples of fungal species are:- Fomes pini, F.
robustus(causes rots of orange fruits), Penicillium glaucum, P. digitatum, Phythoptora
infestans(causes the dreadful potato blight disease), Erwinia carotovora, E.
amylovorum(causes bacterial rots),Xanthomonas phaseoli(causes common blight of
beans), etc all of which gain entry through wounds.
b). Natural openings: Natural openings in plants include stomata, lenticels and
hydathodes (permanent open pores at the margins and tips of leaves, which secrete
droplets of liquid). Some bacteria and fungi enter into their host tissues through
stomata or hydathodes. The aecial and uredial germ tubes of rust fungi (Cercospora
beticola which causes leaf spot of beets, Puccinia graminis which attack wheat,
Plasmopora vetcola cause mealdew of grapes, etc) enter through the stomata. Among
the bacteria are Xanthomonas malvacearum which causes angular leaf spot of cotton
enters through the stomata too. Xanthomonas compestris causes black rot of cabbage
and related plants enter through hydathodes on margins of leaves. Examples of
pathogens that invade plants through the lenticels are Streptomyces scabies which
causes common scab of potatoes; Penicillium expansum which causes blue mould rot
of apple, Erwinia carotovora causes soft rot of potatoes and many vegetables enter
through lenticels and wounds.
c). Direct penetration: De Barry, Erikson and other students of rust fungi affirmed that
the sporidial germ tubes penetrate host plants directly. The pathogen comes in contact
with its host, it adheres and undergoes adaptation at the point of contact (that it
germinates if the spore feeds and grows). Fine hyphae, haustoria or oppressorium
(structure at point of contact of the germ tube or mycelium with plant surface) is used
for direct penetration of plant surface and pierces the cuticle and the cell wall through
mechanical force. This penetration is aided by enzyme secretion by the pathogens.
Most of the peronosporae (e.g. Peronospora sp, Phythoptora sp.), Ustilagineaee (e.g.
Polystigma rubrum), Discomycetes (e.g. Claviceps sp.) and facultative sclerotiniaceae
are examples of fungi that penetrate directly.
DISEASES OF NON-LIVING ENVIRONMENT
There are many causes and combinations of causes of plant diseases. The three
broadest categories into which they can be grouped are inanimate (non-living environment),

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animate (living environment) and viruses. The inanimate causes of plant disease are thus
discussed:
a). Soil condition
Weather and soil conditions influence the seasonal development and geographic
distribution of plant diseases. The effect of alkalinity or acidity of the soil limits the incidence
and distribution of plant diseases. The effects of the soil are principally on the pathogens and
the limit within which individual species can thrive may differ widely. The soil conditions are
thus discussed.
i). pH: The pH of the soil affects the growth and reproduction of some pathogens
directly and this determines the development of diseases. Sometimes, it is an indicator
of certain other conditions or it acts indirectly by affecting certain biological and
chemical processes in the soil. The soil pH just as plant pathogens and other soil
microflora affect many saprophytic organisms. Among the pathogens that are likely to
be the most prevalent in alkaline soils are Texas root rot (caused by Phymatotriclum
amnivorum, Ophiolobu graminis, Fusarium orthoceros var. pisi cause wilt of peas;
Fusarium oxysporum, F. lycopersici and F. vasinfectum causes vascular parasites of
tomato and cotton scab. These pathogens are most abundant in dry alkaline soils while
club rot is abundant in wet soils. Growth of Plasmodiophora brassicae (the potato
scab organism )is suppressed at a pH of 5.2 or slightly below (pH 7 is neutral;
numbers below 7 indicate acidity, and those above 7 indicate alkalinity). Scab is not
normally a problem when the natural soil pH is about 5.2. Some farmers add sulfur to
their potato soil to keep the pH about 5.0. Clubroot of crucifers (members of the
mustard family, including cabbage, cauliflower, and turnips), on the other hand, can
usually be controlled by thoroughly mixing lime into the soil until the pH becomes
7.2 or higher.
ii). Moisture: Soil moisture may have direct or indirect effects on plants and this forms
one of the basis by which plants are grouped as xerophytes, hydrophytes and
mesophytes. Water deficiency is a common cause of poor growth in plants. The
deficiency can cause stunting, premature ripening or death. For example, a corn seed
does not germinate well in wet and cold soils. It may not germinate or if it germinates,
the seedlings are likely to be weak, chlorotic and stunted. They are predisposed to
attacks by pathogenic organisms that cause root rots and seedling blight. High or low
soil moisture may be a limiting factor in the development of certain root rot diseases.
High soil-moisture levels favour development of destructive water mold fungi, such
as species of Aphanomyces, Pythium, and Phytophthora. Excessive watering of
houseplants is a common problem. Overwatering, by decreasing oxygen and raising
carbon dioxide levels in the soil, makes roots more susceptible to root-rotting
organisms.
Diseases such as take-all of cereals (Ophiobolus graminis); charcoal rot of
corn, sorghum, and soybean (Macrophomina phaseoli); common scab of potato
(Streptomyces scabies); and onion white rot (Sclerotium cepivorum) are most severe
under low soil-moisture levels.
iii). Structure: The physical structure of the soil may have direct effect on plants if it is so
hard and compact, as this prevents normal penetration and and development of roots.
The soil structure also has effect on the aeration and water- holding capacity.
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 Different types of soils have different water- holding capacities which may affect
plants in several ways.
iv). Oxygen: An adequate supply of oxygen in the soil is requisite to normal development
while poor aeration is unfavourable. The amount of free oxygen obviously affects the
activities of saprophytic and parasitic microorganisms, root development of higher
plants and chemical processes in the soil. Oxygen may have important effects on
diseases because of its effects on soil microflora which may in turn affect disease
development. For example, Phythium arhenomanes destructiveness varies with the
amount of oxygen in the soil.
v). Nutrients: So many different kinds of crop plants and many different kinds of
pathogens grow under so many kinds of soil and weather conditions. Most plant
pathogens get their nutrients from the host plants. Nutrients determine how fast the
host plant grows, the kind of growth, determines the physiology and structure of the
host. Nutrition is a basic factor in determining whether a plant grows rapidly or
slowly, weak or vigorous. Some pathogens can attack only slow- growing or weak
hosts. The chemical composition of the soil can cause diseases directly and indirectly,
thereby affecting the development of parasite diseases.
b). Meteorological conditions: Many meteorological conditions can cause diseases directly
and can affect the development of parasitic plant diseases. Plants that grow outside their
appropriate climatic range are likely to develop poorly. For example, tropical plants do not
thrive in temperate zones and temperate zone crops usually do not thrive in the tropics. The
following meteorological factors are discussed:-
i). Light: higher plants require light for photosynthesis. Light deficiency causes
etiolation, weak and spindly growth and underdevelopment generally in plants. A
plant weakened by the lack of light is predisposed to attack by many kinds of
pathogens. Daylength (photoperiod) is important in determining normal or abnormal
development especially of flowering and fruiting of many kinds of crop plants.
ii). Temperature: Plants thrive best where the average temperature is optimum and
where deviation from the normal is not too wide. Extreme of temperature is a menace
of some of the most important food and feed crops in vast agricultural areas of the
world. Low temperatures impose the most absolute limitation on geographic
distribution of wild and cultivated plants. Freezing and thawing is more injurious than
extreme cold.
Each pathogen has an optimum temperature for growth. In addition, different
growth stages of the fungus, such as the production of spores (reproductive units),
their germination, and the growth of the mycelium (the filamentous main fungus
body), may have slightly different optimum temperatures. Storage temperatures for
certain fruits, vegetables, and nursery stock are manipulated to control fungi and
bacteria that cause storage decay, provided the temperature does not change the
quality of the products. Knowledge of optimum temperatures, usually combined with
optimum moisture conditions, permits forecasting, with a high degree of accuracy, the
development of such diseases as blue mold of tobacco (Peronospora tabacina),
downy mildews of vine crops (Pseudoperonospora cubensis) and lima beans
(Phytophthora phaseoli), late blight of potato and tomato (Phytophthora infestans),
leaf spot of sugar beets (Cercospora beticola), and leaf rust of wheat (Puccinia
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 recondita tritici). Effects of temperature may mask symptoms of certain viral and
mycoplasmal diseases, however, making them more difficult to detect.
iii). Relative Humidity (RH): Atmospheric humidity has an effect on the rate of
transpiration of plants. The combination of heat, wind and low R.H can cause
extensive injury or death of plants.
Relative humidity is very critical in fungal spore germination and the
development of storage rots. Rhizopus soft rot of sweet potato (Rhizopus stolonifer) is
an example of a storage disease that does not develop if relative humidity is
maintained at 85 to 90 percent, even if the storage temperature is optimum for growth
of the pathogen. Under these conditions, the sweet potato root produces suberized
(corky) tissues that wall off this fungus.
High humidity favours development of the great majority of leaf and fruit
diseases caused by fungi and bacteria. Moisture is generally needed for fungal spore
germination, the multiplication and penetration of bacteria, and the initiation of
infection. Germination of powdery mildew spores occurs best at 90 to 95 percent
relative humidity. Diseases in greenhouse crops—such as leaf mold of tomato
(Cladosporium fulvum) and decay of flowers, leaves, stems, and seedlings of
flowering plants, caused by Botrytis species—are controlled by lowering air humidity.
iv). Wind: It has both direct and indirect effects by injuring or weakening plants. It may
cause lodging and crinkling of small grains.
v). Rainfall: Torrential rains especially when combined with heavy wind are likely to
cause lodging of small grains. Stems may be bent or broken. Lodged plants often
develop poorly partly because of interference with water conduction and partly
because of reduction in light in the flattened and tangled mass of plants.
vi). Hail: Heavy hailstorms may kill plants, strip foilage or tear holes in the leaves.
vii). Lightning: It may cause injury or even kill plants especially herbaceous plants such
as cotton, potatoes, etc.
c). Agricultural practices: Agricultural practices may weaken or kill plant parts. If food
crops, vines and tree crops are cultivated too close, many roots may be cut off or injured
during weeding and other agricultural practices. Some injuries may be caused by chemicals
such as fungicides, insecticides and herbicides.
D). Industrial contaminants: Air and soil contamination from industries can cause severe
injuries to plants sometimes even at considerable distances from the sources. For example,
smoke and fog cause extensive injury to sensitive plants. Dusts from cement factories are
sometimes injurious to fruit trees.
FACTORS INFLUENCING INFECTION (DISEASE DEVELOPMENT)
Immediately after the penetration of the host by a pathogen, the pathogen becomes
established within the host and this phenomenon is known as infection. During this period,
the pathogen multiplies and grows and invades the host tissues. This is then followed by a

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manifestation of visible and invisible changes in the appearance and function of the infected
plant called symptoms.
Disease development therefore, refers to chains of events which occur between
infection and the production of symptoms of that disease. Disease development and
transmission can therefore be summarized in the following distinct stages:
1. Inoculation: this is a process by which inoculums (spores or other infection bodies)
or the transfer of the pathogen to the infection court, or area in which invasion of the
plant occurs. The infection court may be the unbroken plant surface, a variety of
wounds, or natural openings—e.g., stomata (microscopic pores in leaf surfaces),
hydathodes (stomata-like openings that secrete water), or lenticels (small openings in
tree barks).
2. Incubation: the period of time between the arrival of the pathogen in the infection
court and the appearance of symptoms (that is the germination of innoculum, growth
of the products of germination and its entrance into host tissues and eventual
establishment as a parasite).
3. Infection: This is defined as the appearance of disease symptoms accompanied by the
establishment and spread of the pathogen.
INFECTION PROCESS: DISEASE DEVELOPMENT
The amount of disease that develops in a plant community is dependent on properties
of the host, the pathogen and the environment. The environment can affect both the
susceptibility of the host (e.g. by creating stress in the plant) and the activity of the pathogen
(e.g. providing moisture for spore germination). The pathogen and the host can affect each
other's performance. The plant can also change its environment, by creating a microclimate
around it.

Table 1. Factors that affect disease development.

Pathogen Host Environment
 Temperature
 Presence of pathogen  Susceptibility  Rainfall / Dew
 Pathogenicity  Growth stage &  Leaf wetness period
 Adaptability form  Soil properties
 Dispersal efficiency  Population density &  Wind
 Survival efficiency structure  Fire history
 Reproductive fitness  General health  Air pollution
 Herbicide damage
THE PATHOGEN
The presence or absence of a pathogen is the main factor that determines whether
disease occurs. Introduction of a pathogen to an area from which it has previously been
absent can cause major outbreaks of disease in plant communities. The amount of disease that
develops is often determined by the pathogenecity of the main pathogen. The term
pathogenicity relates to both the virulence (infection ability) and the aggressiveness (the
vigour of the infection) of the pathogen. Pathogenicity is dependent on the pathogen's
reproductive, dispersal and survival fitness.
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 The adaptability of the pathogen is also important in determining its ability to infect
resistant hosts or to survive changed environmental conditions. Adaptability is determined by
the pathogen's genetic flexibility and reproductive efficiency. The spread of a disease and the
formation of epidemics is reliant on the pathogen's ability to disperse rapidly over long
distances. The spores of cereal rusts, for instance, can be blown over vast distances in a few
days, while soil-borne pathogens have little scope for extensive spread.
For a pathogen to cause disease in successive seasons, it must be able to survive the
intervening time. Some pathogens form spores or sclerotia that can survive in the soil for
years, while others colonise alternative plant species until the season of their primary host
comes around again. Saprogenesis is the part of the pathogen's life cycle when it is not in
vital association with living host tissue and either continues to grow in dead host tissue or
becomes dormant. During this stage, some fungi produce their sexual fruiting bodies; the
apple scab Venturia inaequalis for example, produces perithecia, flask-shaped spore-
producing structures, in fallen apple leaves. Other fungi produce compact resting bodies, such
as the slerotia formed by certain root- and stem-rotting fungi (Rhizoctonia solani and
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) or the ergot fungus (Claviceps purpurea). These resting bodies,
which are resistant to extremes in temperature and moisture, enable the pathogen to survive
for months or years in soil and plant debris in the absence of a living host.
Beyond the mere presence of a pathogen, the number of infective propagules available to
infect plants is a crucial factor in determining the amount of disease that develops. Generally,
as the number of propagules increases, the level of disease increases, levelling off when the
amount of disease reaches very high levels and there are few uninfected plants available. The
survival of propagules, and therefore the number of propagules available to cause disease, is
heavily influenced by environmental factors.

THE HOST
The development of disease in a plant community relies on the presence of individual
hosts that are susceptible to that particular pathogen. If the majority of the population is
susceptible to the path types of a pathogen in the vicinity, an epidemic can occur. The
occurrence of disease can also be influenced by the host plant's growth stage and form. Some
diseases are common in seedlings, while others are typical of mature plants. The growth stage
of the population can also affect the microclimate around the plants; for example, the
humidity and sunlight levels under the canopy.
The population structure and density will also affect the development of disease in a
plant community. Crop plants tend to be densely planted, with no other species in amongst
them, making them more susceptible to rapid spread of disease. Extensive, dense plantations
can host spectacular epidemics, particularly if a new pathogen is introduced to the area. In
addition, the general health of the host plant before infection is important in determining the
success of a disease. Necrotrophs do well on poorly growing plants, while biotrophs thrive on
a healthy host plant.

THE ENVIRONMENT

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 The presence of a pathogen against a particular plant will generally not cause serious
disease unless the environmental conditions are favourable. This includes the aerial
environment and the soil (edaphic) environment. Properties of the aerial environment that
influence disease development include moisture levels, temperature and pollution.
Moisture is particularly important to pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Rain splash plays an
important role in the dispersal of some fungi and nearly all bacteria, and a period of leaf
wetness is necessary for the germination of most airborne spores. The duration necessary for
infection varies with temperature. Usually, a longer period of leaf wetness is needed to
establish an infection in cooler temperatures, as germination and infection are generally
accelerated in warmer conditions.
Temperature also affects the incubation, or latent period (the time between infection
and the appearance of disease symptoms), the generation time (the time between infection
and sporulation), and the infectious period (the time during which the pathogen keeps
producing propagules). The disease cycle speeds up at higher temperatures, resulting in faster
development of epidemics. A recently recognised aspect of the aerial environment that can
influence disease in plants is air pollution. A high concentration of pollutants can affect
disease development and, in extreme cases, damage the plants directly by causing acid rain.
The edaphic (soil) environment affects soil-borne diseases, largely by determining the
amount of moisture available to pathogens for germination, survival and motility.
Germination and infection success also rely on the temperature of the soil. The fertility and
organic matter content of the soil can affect the development of disease. Plant defences are
weakened by nutrient deficiency, although some pathogens, such as rusts and powdery
mildews, thrive on well-nourished plants. Other diseases thrive in soils that are specifically
low in organic matter.

PHENOMENON OF INFECTION/ INFECTION PROCESS

The development of all parasitic diseases obviously varies with the pathogen, the host
and with the environmental factors in the air and in the soil. Environmental factors affect the
pathogen, the host and the interactions between the pathogen and the host when there are
interactions.
It is the third link in the infection chain after survival and dispersal of inoculum.
Infection process means establishment of pathogen in the host plant. In case of specialized
pathogens as rusts and powdery mildews, very few or even one spore is capable of causing
infection successfully. In case of non-specialized pathogens such as Pythium, Phytophthora,
Rhizoctonia and Sclerotium require high density of inoculum on the surface of susceptible
host for successful infection.
The success of the process of infection depends on:

1. HOST FACTORS
a) Susceptibility of host: It is genetically controlled by DNA and it is an inheritable
character which is transmitted from parents to off springs.
b) Disease proneness of the host: It is decided by the external factors such as host
nutrition, i.e., more nitrogen application makes the host more susceptible and more
potash application leads to less susceptibility.

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 2. PATHOGEN FACTORS
a) Virulence / aggressiveness of the pathogen: It is determined by genetic material
which is inheritable.
b) High multiplication rate of the pathogen: Chances of infection increases with high
rate of multiplication. High birth rate and low death rate is highly essential for
successful infection.
c) Proper inoculum potential: In case of specialized pathogens, very few or even one
spore is capable of causing infection successfully, whereas, non-specialized pathogens
require high density of inoculum on the surface of susceptible host for successful
infection.
3. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS: Environmental conditions such as temperature,
relative humidity, moisture, etc., are very important for survival, dissemination and
infection process. Process of infection can be grouped into three stages, i.e., pre-
penetration, penetration and post-penetration.
STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF INFECTION OR DISEASE CYCLE
A. PRE-PENETRATION: Depending upon the plant pathogen activity, the plant
Pathogens are classified into 2 categories
1. Active invaders and 2. Passive invaders
Active Invaders
i. Pathogens which make an aggressive effort to gain entry into intact host cells.
ii. They do not require help of any external agency to gain entry into host cells.
iii. Example includes Phyto-pathogenic fungi.

Passive invaders
1. No aggressive effort
2. Require help of external agencies like insect vectors or wounds caused by agricultural
implements.
3. Example: Plant viruses and Phyto-pathogenic bacteria.
Plant viruses are particulate in nature and they do not have any capacity to enter the
host cell so they do not make any aggressive effort for entry, but depend on different insect
vectors for their entry into host cell. Bacteria have no dormant structures; hence no
prepenetration activity except for multiplication in infection drops on the natural openings.
However, nematodes show some orientation towards root surface before actual
penetration. In fungal pathogens, pre-penetration includes spore germination and growth of
the resulting germ tube on the surface of the host plant.
Germination is essentially the change from low metabolic rate to a high metabolic rate
and involves a change from near dormancy to intense activity; for this an energy source is
needed such as a carbohydrate or fat reserve in the propagule.

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 Fungal invasion is chiefly by germ tubes or structures derived from them. In some
fungi like Rhizoctonia solani and Armillariella mellea, the hypha act in a concerted way to
achieve the penetration. In Rhizoctonia solani, the fungus on coming in contact with root
surface, first forms infection cushions and appressoria and from these multiple infections take
place by means of infection pegs. In Armillariella mellea, the fungus hyphae form the
rhizomorphs (aggregation of hyphae into rope like strands) and only these can cause
infection.
B. PENETRATION: Pathogens penetrate plant surfaces by direct penetration or indirectly
through wounds or natural openings. Bacteria enter plants mostly through wounds and less
frequently through natural openings. Viruses, viroids, fastidious bacteria enter through
wounds made by vectors. Fungi, nematodes and parasitic higher plants enter through direct
penetration and less frequently through natural openings and wounds.
a. Indirect Penetration
1. Wounds: Wounds caused by farm operations, hail storms, or insect punctures, etc., will
help in the entry of different plant pathogens into the host cells. Organisms which cause
storage diseases and ripe rots will enter through the wounds caused by farm operations.
Eamples include Rhizopus, Gloeosporium, Aspergillus, Penicilium, Colletotrichum,
Diplodia, etc. Weak parasites enter through the wounds caused by hail storms and freezing
Ex. Macrophomina phaseolina Pathogen causing brown rot of fruits (Sclerotinia fructicola)
enters through the wounds caused by insect punctures. Similarly, causal organism of Dutch
elm disease (Ceratostomella ulmi) enters through the wounds caused by elm bark beetle.
2. Natural openings
i) Stomata: There is variation in the behaviour of germ tube at the time of penetration
through the stomata. In Puccinia graminis tritici, the uredospore germinates and
forms a germ tube which on approaching stoma swells at the tip to form an
appressorium in the stomatal aperture. From the appressorium a blade like wedge
grows through the stomatal slits and swells inside to form a sub-stomatal vesicle from
which the haustoria penetrating the cells are produced.
In Peronospora destructor infecting onion leaves, the germ tube continues to grow
after the formation of first appressorium. In Pseudoperonospora cubensis, the hyphae
penetrate the stomatal aperture and swell to form a sub-stomatal vesicle from which in turn
other hyphae grow to form haustoria in the adjacent cells of the leaves. Mycosphaerella
musicola forms a small structure called stomatopodium over the pore of the stoma after
growing for few days on the surface of the leaf. A hypha then arises from it which grows into
the sub-stomatal chamber and swells to form a vesicle, which in turn gives rise to hyphae
which invade palaside tissues.
Other examples: Xanthomonas campestris pv. malvacearum (Black arm of cotton),
Xanthomonas phaseoli (Bacterial leaf spot of green gram), Phytophthora infestans (Late
blight of potato), Albugo candida (White rust of crucifers) and uredospores of Puccinia
graminis tritici (Black stem rust of wheat).
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ii) Lenticels: Sclerotinia fructicola (Brown rot of fruits), Streptomyces scabies (Scab of
potato), Phytophthora arecae (Mahali disease of arecanut)
iii) Hydathodes: Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Black rot of crucifers)
b) Direct penetration: Most fungi, nematodes and parasitic higher plants are capable of
penetrating the host surface directly. However, the plants are provided with different
mechanisms of defense which include structural features of the host, presence of
chemical coverings on the cell walls, and anti-infection biochemical nature of the
protoplasm. Hence, the pathogens have mechanisms to overcome these barriers for
direct penetration. They are able to do this by:
i) Breakdown of physical barriers: Viruses have no physical force or enzyme system
of their own to overcome structural or chemical barriers of the host and therefore come in
contact with the host protoplasm only through wounds. Bacteria are mostly weak parasites
and cannot employ force to effect penetration. Fungi and nematodes are the only group of
plant pathogens that employ force for direct penetration of the host. Fungi penetrate host
plants directly through a fine hypha produced directly by the spore or mycelium or through a
penetration peg produced by an appressorium. These structures exert pressure on the surface
which results in stretching of the epidermis which becomes thin. Then the infection peg
punctures it and affects its entry.
ii) Breakdown of chemical barriers: the host is provided with defense mechanisms
against invasion which include:
- presence of cuticular layer on the epidermis,
- lack of suitable nutrients for the pathogen in the host cells,
- presence of inhibitory or toxic substances in the host cells,
- exudation of substances toxic to pathogen or stimulatory to antagonists of the
pathogen. Examples include the glands in leaf hairs of begalgram which contain maleic acid
which is antifungal and provide resistance to infection by the rust fungus (Uromyces ciceris
arietini). Similarly, protocatecheuic acid and catechol in the red scales of onion provide
resistance to onion smudge pathogen, Colletotrichum circinans. To overcome these physical
and chemical barriers, the fungi produce various enzymes, toxic organic acids and growth
regulators.

c) Through non-cutinized surfaces:

i) Seedlings: Grain smut of jowar (Sphacelotheca sorghi), loose smut of jowar
(Sphacelotheca cruenta), Downy mildew of jowar and bajra (Sclerospora
graminicola), Wheat bunt disease (Tilletia caries, Tilletia foetida)
ii) Root hairs: Wilt causing fungi (Fusarium sp.), Club root of cabbage
(Plasmodiophora brassicae), Root rot of cotton (Phymatotrichum omnivorum)
iii) Buds: Pea rust fungi (Uromyces pisi), Witches broom of cherries (Taphrina cerasi)
iv) Flowers: Loose smut of wheat (Ustilago nuda tritici), Long smut of jowar
(Tolyposporium ehrenbergi), Bunt of rice (Neovossia horrida), Ergot of rye
(Claviceps purpurea)
v) Leaves: Basidiospores of white pine blister rust fungus (Cronartium ribicola)
germinate and grow down into branches and leaves, where aecia are produced.
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vi) Nectaries: Fire blight of apple (Erwinia amylovora)
vii) Stalk ends: Penicillium italicum, Theilaviopsis paradoxa (Post harvest disease fungi)
Through cutinized surfaces:
- Cuticle: Leaf spot of spinach (Cercospora beticola), early blight of solanaceous
plants (Alternaria solani), Tikka disease of groundnut (Cercospora personata)

C. POST PENETRATION
Invasion and colonization:. A parasitic relationship is formed between host cytoplasm and
parasite cytoplasm. During infection, pathogens grow and multiply within the plant tissues.
Invasion of plant tissues by the pathogen, and growth and reproduction of the pathogen
(colonization) are two concurrent stages of disease development.
Fungi spread into all parts of host organs, either by growing directly through the cells as an
intracellular mycelium or by growing between the cells as an intercellular mycelium. During
establishment, pathogen produces different substances which include enzymes, toxins,
growth hormones and polysaccharides which will help in colonization of the host.
In ectoparasites the main body of the pathogen lies on the surface of the host with
only feeding organs (haustoria) penetrating the tissues. Examples include most of the
powdery mildew fungi. Some fungal parasites develop both external and internal mycelium
such as Rhizoctonia solani. The endophytic parasites or endoparasites grow subcuticularly
(Diplocarpon rosae, black spot of rose), in parenchyma tissues (most fungal and bacterial
pathogens as well as many nematodes) or in vascular tissues (vascular wilt parasites). Some
pathogens are endobiotic, i.e., mycelium is not produced and the thallus is entirely present
within a host cell Example: Synchytrium endobioticum. Bacteria invade tissues
intercellularly, but also grow intracellularly when parts of the cell walls dissolve. Viruses,
viroids, mollicutes and fastidious bacteria invade tissues by moving from cell to cell
intracellularly.
Infection caused by microbes may be local (involve single cells or few cells or small
area) or systemic (pathogen spreads and invades most or all susceptible cells and tissues
throughout the plant Example: Sclerospora graminicola).
EXIT OF THE PATHOGEN
After invasion and colonization of the host, the pathogens come out of the host to
maintain the continuity of the infection chain or disease cycle and escape death due to
overcrowding. Once the pathogens exit from the host, they survive and are disseminated to
other hosts and continue the infection cycle.
Viruses can exist only with the living protoplasm and hence disseminated through
their animate vectors like insects, fungi, nematodes, etc. The bacteria ooze out in the form of
slime on the host surface from where they can be disseminated through water and insects.
However, the fungi have the most elaborate system of exit. Most plant pathogenic
fungi grow out on the host surface and produce repeating spores (secondary inoculum),
usually asexually, under favourable conditions. The spores thus formed are disseminated
through wind, water, soil, seed, vegetative propagating material, agricultural implements, etc.
INTERACTION BETWEEN FACTORS
In general, plants defend themselves against pathogens by two ways: structural or
morphological characteristics that act as physical barriers and biochemical reactions that take
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place in cells and tissues that are either toxic to the pathogen or create conditions that inhibit
the growth of the pathogen in the plant.
i. Structural defense mechanisms: These may be pre-existing, which exist in the plant
even before the pathogen comes in contact with the plant or induced, i.e, even after the
pathogen has penetrated the preformed defense structures, one or more type of structures are
formed to protect the plant from further pathogen invasion.
A) Pre-existing structural defense structures
These include the amount and quality of wax and cuticle that cover the epidermal cells and
the size, location and shapes of natural openings (stomata and lenticels) and presence of thick
walled cells in the tissues of the plant that hinder the advance of the pathogen.
i) Waxes: Waxes on leaf and fruit surfaces form a hydrophobic or water repellent
surface preventing the germination of fungi and multiplication of bacteria.
ii) Cuticle and epidermal cells: A thick cuticle and tough outer wall of epidermal cells
may increase resistance to infection in diseases in which the pathogen enters its host
only through direct penetration. Example: Disease resistance in Barbery species
infected with Puccinia graminis tritici has been attributed to the tough outer
epidermal cells with a thick cuticle. In linseed, cuticle acts as a barrier against
Melampsora lini. The silicification and lignifications of epidermal cells offers
protection against Pyricularia oryzae and Streptomyces scabies in paddy and potato,
respectively.
iii) Sclerenchyma cells: The sclerenchyma cells in stems and leaf veins effectively
blocks the spread of some fungal and bacterial pathogens that cause angular leaf
spots.
iv) Structure of natural openings:
a) Stomata: Most of the pathogens enter plants through natural openings. Some
pathogens like stem rust of wheat can enter its host only when the stomata are open.
The wheat varieties (Cultivar, Hope) in which stomata open late in the day are
resistant as the germ tubes of the spores germinating in the night dew desiccate owing
to evaporation of the dew before stomata begin to open. This can also be called as
functional resistance. The structure of stomata provides resistance to penetration by
certain plant pathogenic bacteria. Example: The citrus variety, szinkum, is resistant to
citrus canker because it posses a broad cuticular ridge projecting over the stomata and
a narrow slit leading to the stomatal cavity thus preventing the entry of bacterial and
fungal spores into the interior of the leaf.
b) Lenticels: The shape and internal structure of lenticels can increase or decrease the
incidence of fruit diseases. Small and suberised lenticels will offer resistance to potato
scab pathogen, Streptomyces scabies.

B) Post-infectional structural defense mechanisms/Induced structural barriers:

These may be regarded as histological defense barriers (cork layer, abscission layers and
tyloses) and cellular defense structures (hyphal sheathing).
i) Histological defense structures
a) Cork layer: Infection by fungi, bacteria, some viruses and nematodes induce plants to
form several layers of cork cells beyond the point of infection. This inhibits the
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 further invasion by the pathogen beyond the initial lesion and also blocks the spread
of toxic substances secreted by the pathogen. Furthermore, cork layers stop the flow
of nutrients and water from the healthy to the infected area and deprive the pathogen
of nourishment. Ex: Potato tubers infected by Rhizoctonia; Prunus domestica leaves
attacked by Coccomyces pruniphorae.
b) Abscission layers: An abscission layer consists of a gap formed between infected and
healthy cells of a leaf surrounding the locus of infection due to the disintegration of
the middle lamella of parenchymatous tissue. Gradually, infected area shrivels, dies,
and sloughs off, carrying with it the pathogen. Abscission layers are formed on young
active leaves of stone fruits infected by fungi, bacteria or viruses. Examples include:
Xanthomonas pruni, and Closterosporium carpophylum on peach leaves.
c) Tyloses: Tyloses are the overgrowths of the protoplast of adjacent living
parenchymatous cells, which protrude into xylem vessels through pits. Tyloses have
cellulosic walls and are formed quickly ahead of the pathogen and may clog the
xylem vessels completely blocking the further advance of the pathogen in resistant
varieties. In susceptible varieties, few or no tyloses are formed ahead of pathogen
invasion. Example: Tyloses form in xylem vessels of most plants under invasion by
most of the vascular wilt pathogens.
ii) Cellular defense structures:
- Hyphal sheathing: The hyphae penetrating the cell wall and growing into the cell
lumen are enveloped by a cellulosic sheath (callose) formed by extension of cell wall,
which become infused with phenolic substances and prevents further spread of the
pathogen. Example: Hyphal sheathing is observed in flax infected with Fusarium
oxysporum f.sp. lini.
- Biochemical defense mechanisms: These can be classified as pre-existing and
induced biochemical defenses.
1) Pre-existing chemical defenses:
a) Inhibitors released by the plant in its environment:
Plants exude a variety of leaf and root exudates which contain amino acids, sugars,
glycosides, organic acids, enzymes, alkaloids, flavones, toxic materials, inorganic ions and
also certain growth factors. The inhibitory substances directly affect micro-organisms or
encourage certain groups to dominate the environment which may act as antagonists to
pathogen.
Example 1: Tomato leaves secrete exudates which are inhibitory to Botrytis cinerea
Example 2: red scales of red onion contain the phenolic compounds, protocatechuic acid
and catechol, which diffuse out to the surface and inhibit the conidial germination of onion
smudge fungus, Colletotrichum circinans. However, these fungitoxic phenolic compounds
are missing in white scaled onions.
Example 3: Resistant varieties of apple secrete waxes on the leaf surface which prevents the
germination of Podosphaera leucotricha (powdery mildew of apples).
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Example 4: In Cicer arietinum (chickpea), the Ascochyta blight resistant varieties have more
glandular hairs which have maleic acid which inhibit spore germination.
Example 5: Resistant varieties of linseed secrete HCN in roots which are inhibitory to
linseed wilt pathogen, Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lini.
Example 6: Root exudates of marigold contain α-terthinyl which is inhibitory to nematodes.
Example 7: Chlorogenic acid present in sweet potato, potato and carrot inhibits Ceratocystis
fimbriata. Similarly caffeic acid and phloretin are present in sweet potato and apple,
respectively.
b) Inhibitors present in plant cells before infection:
 Antimicrobial substances pre-existing in plant cells include unsaturated lactones,
cyanogenic glycosides, Sulphur containing compounds, phenols, phenolic glycosides
and saponins. Several phenolic compounds, tannins, and some fatty acid like
compounds such as dienes, which are present in high concentrations in cells of young
fruits, leaves or seeds are responsible for the resistance of young tissues to Botrytis.
These compounds are potent inhibitors of many hydrolytic enzymes. Example:
Chlorogenic acid in potato inhibits common scab bacteria, Streptomyces scabies, and to
wilt pathogen, Verticillium alboatrum
 Saponins have antifungal membranolytic activity which excludes fungal pathogens that
lack saponinases. Example: Tomatine in tomato and Avenacin in oats.
 Similarly, lectins, which are proteins that bind specifically to certain sugars and occur in
large concentrations in many types of seeds, cause lysis and growth inhibition of many
fungi. Plant surface cells also contain variable amounts of hydrolytic enzymes such as
glucanases and chitinases which may cause breakdown of pathogen cell wall.
2). Post inflectional or induced defense mechanisms:
a) Phytoalexins (Phyton = plant; alexin = to ward off)
􀂾 Muller and Borger (1940) first used the term phytoalexins for fungistatic compounds
produced by plants in response to injury (mechanical or chemical) or infection.
􀂾 Phytoalexins are toxic antimicrobial substances produced in appreciable amounts in
plants only after stimulation by phytopathogenic micro-organisms or by chemical or
mechanical injury.
􀂾 Phytoalexins are not produced by uninfected healthy plants, but produced by healthy
cells adjacent to localized damaged or necrotic cells in response to materials diffusing
from the infected cells. These are not produced during compatible biotrophic
infections.
􀂾 Phytoalexins accumulate around both resistant and susceptible necrotic tissues.
However, resistance occurs when one or more phytoalexins reach a concentration
sufficient to restrict pathogen development.

Characteristics of phytoalexins
1. Fungitoxic and bacteriostatic at low concentrations.
2. Produced in host plants in response to stimulus (elicitors) and metabolic products.
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3. Absent in healthy plants
4. Remain close to the site of infection.
5. Produced in quantities proportionate to the size of inoculum.
6. Produced in response to the weak or non-pathogens than pathogens
7. Produced within 12-14 hours reaching peak around 24 hours after inoculation.
8. Host specific rather than pathogen specific.
Synthesis and accumulation of phytoalexins are shown in diversified families, viz.,
Leguminosae, Solanaceae, Malvaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Convolvulaceae, Compositae and
Graminaceae.
b) Hypersensitive response (HR)
􀂾 The term hypersensitivity was first used by Stakman (1915) in wheat infected by rust
fungus, Puccinia graminis. The hypersensitive response is a localized induced cell
death in the host plant at the site of infection by a pathogen, thus limiting the growth
of pathogen. In the infected plant part, HR is seen as water soaked large sectors which
subsequently become necrotic and collapsed.
􀂾 HR occurs only in incompatible host-pathogen combinations. HR may occur
whenever virulent strains or races of pathogens are injected into non-host plants or
into resistant varieties, and when avirulent strains or races of pathogens are injected
into susceptible cultivars.
􀂾 HR is initiated by the recognition of specific pathogen-produced signal molecules,
known as elicitors. Recognition of the elicitors by the host results in altered cell
functions leading to the production of defense related compounds.
The most common new cell functions and compounds include:
􀂾 A rapid burst of oxidative reactions
􀂾 Increased ion movement, especially of K+ and H+ through cell membrane
􀂾 Disruption of membranes and loss of cell compartmentalization
􀂾 Cross-linking of phenolics with cell wall components and strengthening of plant cell
wall
􀂾 Production of antimicrobial substances such as phytoalexins and pathogenesis-related
proteins (such as chitinases).

c). Cellular responses during HR

􀂾 In many host-pathogen combinations, as soon as the pathogen establishes contact with
the cell, the nucleus moves toward the invading pathogen and soon disintegrates.
Brown resin- like granules form in the cytoplasm, first around the point of penetration
of pathogen and then throughout the cytoplasm.
As the browning discolouration of the cytoplasm continues and death sets in, the
invading hypha begins to degenerate and further invasion is stopped.

Plantibodies: Transgenic plants have been produced which are genetically engineered to
incorporate into their genome, and to express foreign genes, such as mouse genes that
produce antibodies against certain plant pathogens. Such antibodies, encoded by animal
genes, but produced in and by the plant, are called plantibodies. Example: Transgenic plants
producing plantibodies against coat protein of viruses, such as, artichoke mottle crinkle virus
have been produced. Environment interacts, usually in ways that are difficult to quantify and
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predict. Control measures can include sowing of a crop species early, to avoid exposing
seedlings to a disease during the time of year that provides the best environmental conditions
for the pathogen.
SURVIVAL OF PLANT PATHOGENS
The means of survival are the first link in infection chain or disease cycle. The initial
infection that occurs from the sources of pathogen survival (Infected host as a reservoir of
inoculum, saprophytic survival outside the host or dormant spores and other structures in or
on the host or outside the host) in the crop is primary infection and the propagules that cause
this infection are called primary inoculum. After initiation of the disease in the crop, the
spores or other structures of the pathogen are sources of secondary inoculums and cause
secondary infection, thereby spreading the disease in the field. Ex: The fungus (Phytophthora
infestans) causing late blight of potato survives in seed tubers or in soil. Infected tubers bring
the primary infection in the field while primary inoculum (PI) present in soil causes primary
infection of the crop from healthy seed. The PI may also be brought by wind from
neighboring fields or long distances. Then the fungus produces spores on leaves. These
spores are dispersed by wind and water and reach healthy plant surfaces to cause new
infections. This is secondary infection. The primary infection initiates the disease and
secondary infection spreads the disease.
SOURCES OF SURVIVAL OF PATHOGENS:
1) Infected host as reservoir of inoculum (or) survival in vital association with living
plants.
2) Survival as saprophytes outside the host.
3) Survival by means of specialized resting structures in or on the host or outside the
host.
4) Survival in association with insects, nematodes and fungi.

1) Infected host as reservoir of inoculum:

The infected host serving as reservoir of active inoculum is grouped into
a) Seed: Seed may be externally or internally infected by plant pathogens during the
course of development and maturation in fruit or pod. Most seed borne pathogens
survive as long as seed remains viable.
Ex 1: The pathogen of loose smut of wheat, Ustilago nuda tritici, enters the stigma and style
and infects the young seed, in which it survives as mycelium.
Ex 2: Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato has been shown to survive in dried tomato seed for
20 years.
b) Collateral hosts / Alternative hosts (wild hosts of same families): Collateral hosts
are those which are susceptible to the plant pathogens of crop plants and provide
adequate facilities for their growth and reproduction of these pathogens during
offseason. Weeds which survive and live during non-cropping season provide for the
continuous growth and multiplication of the pathogen. Thus the weed hosts help to
bridge the gap between two crop seasons.
Ex: The fungal pathogen for blast disease of rice, Pyricularia grisea (Teleomorph
Magnaporthe grisea) can infect the grass weeds like Brachiaria mutica, Dinebra
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 retroflexa, Leersia hexandra, Panicum repens etc., and survive during off-season of
rice crop. As soon as a fresh rice crop is raised, the conidia (inoculum) liberated from
the weed host disseminated by wind infects the fresh rice crop.
c) Alternate hosts (Wild hosts of other families): The role of alternate hosts is not as
important as of collateral hosts. However, when a pathogen has very wide host range
(as Sclerotium rolfsii, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium moniliforme etc.) and is tolerant
to wide range of weather conditions the alternate hosts become very important source
of survival of the pathogen. These alternate hosts are very important for the
completion of the life cycle of heteroecious rust pathogens.
For example in temperate regions the alternate host of Puccinia graminis tritici (black
or stem rust pathogen of wheat), the barberry bush (Berberis vulgaris) grows side by
side with the cultivated host. In such areas this wild host belonging to a different
family is important for survival of the fungus.
d) Self sown crops: Self sown crops, voluntary crops and early sown crops are
reservoirs of many plant pathogens. Ex: Self sown rice plants harbour the pathogen
(Rice tungro virus) as well as vector (Nephottetix virescens).
e) Ratoon crops: Sometimes ratoon crops also harbour the plant pathogens.
Ex: Sugarcane mosaic.
f) Survival by latent infection: Latent infection refers to the conditions in which the
plant pathogens may survive for a long time in plant tissue without development of
visual symptoms. Ex: Xylella fastidiosa, the causal agent of pierce’s disease of
grapevine infect different weeds without developing visible symptoms.
2) Saprophytic survival outside the host:
The ability to live saprophytically enables many plant pathogens to survive in the
absence of growing susceptible plants. Saprophytic survival usually occurs in or on
the soil. Waksman (1971) distinguished between soil inhabitants and soil invaders; the
former comprise the basic fungal flora of the soil, whereas the later are short lived
exotics. In the absence of the cultivated host plant, fungi are capable of surviving as
saprophytes and can be studied under three categories:
1) Soil inhabitants: Those organisms which survive indefinitely in the soil as
saprophytes in the absence of the host plant. Ex: Species of Pythium, Rhizoctonia and
Sclerotium
2) Root inhabitants: These are more specialized parasites that survive in soils in close
association with their hosts. The active saprophytic phase remains as long as the host
tissue in which they are living as parasites is not completely decomposed. Ex: Species
of Fusarium, Verticillium (vascular wilt causing fungi) and root rot of cotton
(Phymatotrichum omnivorum)
3) Rhizosphere colonizers: Those organisms which colonize the dead substrates in the
root region and continue to live like that for a longer period which are more tolerant to
soil antagonism. Ex: Leaf mold in tomato: Cladosporium fulvum

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DIFFERENT LEVELS OF PATHOGEN ATTACK TO PLANTS
The following levels are considered:
Saprophytes- these organisms that live on dead organic matter and obtain food from it; such
as fungi.
Facultative saprophytes- these are parasites which under certain conditions can become
saprophytes; such as smut fungi.
Facultative parasites- these are saprophytes which under certain conditions become
parasites; such as Fusarium and Pythium.
Obligate parasites- these are parasites that must require a living host to reproduce and
complete their life cycles. They cannot be cultured in the laboratory in a medium; such as
Puccinia (rust) and downy mildew (Perenospora species).
HOW DO YOU ESTABLISH THE CAUSE OF A DISEASE?
When a pathogen is found to be associated with a diseased host plant, to diagnose if it is the
cause of a disease, the following steps, called Koch’s postulate should be followed to verify
the actual cause of the disease in question:
The pathogen must be found associated with the disease in all the diseased plants examined.
The pathogen must be isolated and grown in pure culture.
The pathogen from pure cultures must be inoculated on a healthy plant of the same species on
which the disease appears, and it must produce the same disease on the inoculated plant.
The pathogen must be isolated in pure culture again and its characteristics must be exactly
like those observed in (ii) above.
PLANT DISEASES SYMPTOMS
The plant suffering from a disease shows peculiar characters or symptoms different from a
normal plant. Usually, the symptoms of the disease are the result of structures or organs of
the pathogen, or the products of interaction between the parasite and the host. The different
types of symptoms are grouped into following three categories:
1) Necrosis: Necrotic symptoms are as a result of death of cells, tissues, organs or the
whole plant. Below are examples of necrotic symptoms:-
a) Rots: Rots results from the death and disintegration of the affected tissues of plants
by a wide range of fungi and bacteria. Based on the plant organ attacked by the
pathogens the rots may be root rot, leaf rot, stem rot, bud rot, foot rot, collar rot, fruit
rot, etc. Rots are also classified as: soft rot, wet rot, dry rot depending on the nature of
tissues affected.
b) Spots: Spots are commonly found on leaves but may develop on stem and fruits.
Spots are dead tissues killed by parasite present on the leaves or part of the plant
affected. Leaf spots are symptoms produced by the fungi and are brown in
characteristics, although they may be yellow or grayish. Dead tissues of the spot may
fall out leaving a circular hole called shot hole.
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c) Wilts: The aerial portion (shoot) of the plant dry up and droop as a result of
dehydration if water is the cause or else it could be due to pathogens. In the case of
pathogens as cause of the symptom, the vascular tissues of the plant are plugged up
with pathogens that may completely or partially interrupt the transpiration and
translocation currents of the affected plant.
d) Canker: - This is a necrotic lesion found on the bark or cortex of woody or
herbaceous stems. The disease develops and the bark sloughs off, open wounds
formed and may spread to other tissues.
e) Damping-off: This necrotic symptom results in collapse and death of young
seedlings. The tissues of the base or crown of the roots are attacked, the disease
advances and the tissues become too weak and finally the seedling topple down and
die.
f) Die back: This is the progressive browning and death of twigs or branches from the
tip towards the base of the plant.
g) Mummification: Fleshy fruits become transformed into shriveled, wrinkled and dried
structures called mummies.
h) Streaks (stripes): An elongated narrow lesion of dead tissue normally appears on the
stem or leaf veins and becomes brown in colour.
i). Blight: This is the rapid death of twigs of blossomed leaves. The blighted portion
turns brown or black in colour.
2) Hypoplasia: This disease results in marked reduction in size of plant parts such as
leaves, flowers and fruits or shows a marked change in colour of host organs. Below are
examples of hypoplasia symptoms:-
Variegation: A mixture of white or yellow areas with regions of normal green produced in
green tissues of leaves.
Mosaic: Alternating patches of light green or yellow and dark green.
Chlorosis: Failure of formation or absence of chlorophyll due to low temperature, mineral
deficiencies, presence of viruses and other fungal, bacterial diseases.
Stunting: Dwarfing of the entire plant.
Rosetting: Shortening of the internodes of shoot because of failure to elongate normally,
resulting in crowning foliage into a rosette.
Vein-clearing: Yellowing of tissues near the veins commonly caused by viruses.

3) Hyperplasia: This is a marked Increase in size of plant organ by the action of

parasite. Either or both processes of hyperplasia and hypertrophy bring about this increase.
Hypertrophy is an increase in size of an organ due to the increase in size of the component
cells while hyperplasia is an increase in size of a plant organ because of the increase in cell
division resulting in the formation of large number of cells. Examples of hyperplasia
symptoms include:-
Galls: These are overgrowth development on all the plant part forming small pustules or
warts, large tubercles or tumors.
Hairy roots: An abnormal number of fine fibrous root development forming compact
clusters called hair root.
Curl: Leaves showing curling, crinkling and puckering due to growth in certain tissues e.g.
Papaya leaf curl.
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Witches broom: Numerous closely grouped clusters of fine slender branches arising from an
enlarged axis in woody plants.
Intumescences: Small wart-like swelling of epidermal tissues of leaves.

FEATURES OF MAJOR PLANT PATHOGENS

Viruses and Viroid
General features (characteristics)
Virus is a Latin word “poison”. Viruses are inanimate organisms. Viruses and viroids are the
smallest of the infectious agents much smaller than any bacterium. The structurally mature
infectious particle is called a virion. Virions range in size from approximately 20 nanometers
(0.0000008 inches) to 250–400 nanometers and are of various shapes. Viroid is an infectious
RNA particle that resembles a virus but is smaller. Viroids differ from viruses in that they
have no structural proteins, such as those that form the protein coat (capsid) of the virus.
Both viruses and viroids are obligate parasites—i.e., they are able to multiply or
replicate only within a living cell of a particular host. Plant viruses contain ribonucleic acid
(RNA) unlike animal virus which contain deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA). This means that
viruses which belong to kingdom- Vira may be classified as RNA or DNA virus depending
on the nucleic acid of the virus. A single plant species may be susceptible to infection by
several different viruses or viroids. Major disease of important food crops such as potato,
tomato, wheat, oats, rice, corn, peach, orange, sugar beet, sugarcane, and palm result from
viral infection. Diseases are generally most serious in plants that are propagated vegetatively,
or asexually—i.e., grown from cuttings, cut divisions, sprouts, and other plant material, rather
than grown from seeds (sexually propagated).
Structure of virus ( ie the major features of virus, see above)
Viruses are now known to have rod-shaped (long and elongated) structure of about 300 mules
in length and 15 mules in diameter. Some viruses may be round-shaped. An example of a
virus is Bacteriophage (T2-phage) whose structure is shown below.

The protein body of the virus, that is nucleoprotein(nucleic acid and protein), consist of a
polyhedral head, neck, core, sheath and plate, and a six tail fibres. A compact double stranded
spherical DNA molecule of about 52,000 mules (0.05m) is found contorted in the head
1mule = 1/1000,000 mm or 1/25,000,000 inches.

Symptoms
The symptoms of viral and viroid plant diseases fall into four groups:
(1) Change in colour: yellowing, green and yellow mottling, and vein clearing;
(2) Malformations: distortion of leaves and flowers, rosetting, proliferation and witches'-
brooms (abnormal proliferation of shoots or roots), and little or no leaf development
between the veins;
(3) Necrosis: leaf spots, ring spots, streaks, wilting or drooping, and internal death,
especially of phloem (food-conducting) tissue; and
(4) Stunting or dwarfing of leaves, stems, or entire plants. Rarely may they kill the host in
a short time (e.g., spotted wilt and curly top of tomato). More commonly they cause reduced
yield and lower quality of product.
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 In many cases, virus-infected plants are more susceptible to root rots, stem or stalk
rots, seedling blights, and possibly other types of diseases. Some plants may carry one or
more viruses and show no symptoms; thus, they are latent carriers and a source of infection
for other plants. Symptoms of certain virus-infected plants, such as geraniums, may be
masked at high temperatures.

Diseases caused by virus

Examples of diseases caused by plant viruses include: Tobacco mosaic, cassava
mosaic,pawpaw mosaic,

Transmission
With the exception of tobacco mosaic virus, relatively few viruses or viroids are
spread extensively in the field by contact between diseased and healthy leaves (plant
materials). All viruses that spread within their host tissues (systemically) can be transmitted
by grafting branches or buds from diseased plants on healthy plants. Natural grafting and
transmission are possible by root grafts and with dodder (Cuscuta species). Vegetative
propagation often spreads plant viruses. Fifty to sixty viruses are transmitted in seed, and a
few seed-borne viruses, such as sour-cherry yellows, are carried in pollen and transmitted by
insects.
Most disease-causing viruses are carried and transmitted naturally by insects and
mites, which are called vectors of the virus. The principal virus-carrying insects are about two
hundred(200) species of aphids, which transmit mostly mosaic viruses, and more than one
hundred(100) species of leafhoppers, which carry yellow-type viruses. Whiteflies, thrips,
mealy bugs, plant hoppers, grasshoppers, and a few beetles also serve as vectors for certain
viruses. Some viruses may persist for weeks or months and even duplicate themselves in their
insect vectors; others are carried for less than an hour. Slugs, snails, birds, rabbits, and dogs
also transmit a few viruses, but this is not common.
A small number of plant viruses are soil borne. Viruses causing grape fanleaf, tobacco
rattle, and tobacco and tomato ring spots, as well as several strawberry viruses, are spread by
nematodes feeding externally (i.e., ectoparasitic) on plant roots. A few soil borne viruses may
be spread by the swimming spores of primitive, soil-inhabiting pathogenic fungi, such as
those causing big vein of lettuce, soil borne wheat mosaic, and tobacco necrosis.
Viruses often overwinter in biennial and perennial crops and weeds (plants that overwinter by
means of roots and produce seed in their second year or during several years, respectively), in
plant debris, and in insect vectors. Plants, once infected, normally remain so for life.

Control
After a plant is infected with a virus/viroid, little can be done to restore its health.
Control is accomplished by several methods, such as growing resistant species and varieties
of plants or obtaining virus-free seed, cuttings, or plants as a result of indexing and
certification programs. Indexing is a procedure to determine the presence or absence of
viruses not readily transmitted mechanically. Material from a “test” plant is grafted to an
“indicator” plant that develops characteristic symptoms if affected by the viral disease in
question. In addition, more drastic measures are sometimes followed, including destroying
(roguing) infected crop and weed host plants and enforcing state and national quarantines or
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embargoes. Further control measures include controlling insect vectors by spraying plants
with insecticides or fumigating soil to kill insects, nematodes, and other possible vectors.
Growing valuable plants under fine cheesecloth or wire screening that excludes insect vectors
is another means of control. Separation of new plants from virus-infected plantings of the
same or closely related species is sometimes effective, and the simple practice of not
propagating from plants suspected or known to harbour a virus also reduces loss. Both dry
and wet heat treatments are based on the sensitivity of certain viruses to high temperatures.

Bacteria
Thousands of bacterial species occur in nature. Many of these perform biochemical
processes essential for the continuity of life; for example, bacterial detritivores, or
decomposers, feed on nonliving organic matter, recycling it through the ecosystem. There
are, however, hundreds of bacterial species that cause diseases in humans, animals, and
plants. Bacteria grow under all possible environments, they occur in air, water, soil, plant,
animals, etc

General characteristics/ ie major features

Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms—i.e., single-celled microorganisms. They
are achlorophyllous microorganisms living by autotrophic, saprophytic and parasitic lives.
They may be motile due to the presence of flagella or nonmotile due to the absence of the
flagella.
Structurally, bacterial cell is primitive and lack a definite nucleus and nuclear
membrane (in which the nuclear substance is not enclosed in a membrane), golgi complex,
mitochondria and other cellular organelles.. The size of bacteria ranges between 0.1-0.5
mules. The shapes of bacteria include:
Cocci(Round): These are round in shape and may be further grouped as:
Micrococci

Diplococcic

Tetracocci

Streptococci

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Staphylococci

Bacilli (Rodshaped): They are slightly long, that is appears like a rod or stick of chalk.. They
may be sub-grouped into:
Bacillus

Diplobacillus

Spiral: They have spiral or spring-like shape

Comma-shaped

Based on flagella, the bacteria may be grouped into:

Monotrichous: Have single flagellium at one end of the cell

Lophotrichous : Have many flagella present at one end of the cell

Amphitricous : Have many flagella in two tuff at two ends of the cell.

Petritrichous : Have flagella all over a cell

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Bacteria cause a wide range of plant disease, however, some are useful to plant and animals.
The principal genera of plant pathogenic bacteria are Agrobacterium, Clavibacter,
Erwinia, Pseudomonas, Xanthomonas, Streptomyces, and Xylella. With the exception of
Streptomyces species, all are small, single, rod-shaped cells approximately 0.5 to 1.0
micrometre (0.00002 to 0.00004 inch) in width and 1.0 to 3.5 micrometres in length.
Streptomycetes develop branched mycelia (narrow, threadlike growth) with curled chains of
conidia (spores) on the tips of the mycelia. Streptomyces are gram-positive; most species of
the other genera are gram-negative.
Diseases and Symptoms
Bacterial diseases can be grouped into four broad categories based on the extent of
damage to plant tissue and the symptoms that they cause, which may include vascular wilt,
necrosis, soft rot, and tumours. Vascular wilt results from the bacterial invasion of the plant's
vascular system. The subsequent multiplication and blockage prevents movement
(translocation) of water and nutrients through the xylem of the host plant. Drooping, wilting,
or death of the aerial plant structure may occur; examples include bacterial wilt of sweet corn,
alfalfa, tobacco, tomato, and cucurbits (e.g., squash, pumpkin, and cucumber) and black rot
of crucifers. Pathogens can cause necrosis by secreting a toxin (poison). Symptoms include
formation of leaf spots, stem blights, or cankers. Soft rot diseases are caused by pathogens
that secrete enzymes capable of decomposing cell wall structures, thereby destroying the
texture of plant tissue—i.e., the plant tissue becomes macerated (soft and watery). Soft rots
commonly occur on fleshy vegetables such as potato, carrot, eggplant, squash, and tomato.
Tumour diseases are caused by bacteria that stimulate uncontrolled multiplication of plant
cells, resulting in the formation of abnormally large structures.
Most bacteria produce one major symptom, but a few produce a range or combination
of symptoms. In general, it is not particularly difficult to tell whether a plant is affected by a
bacterial pathogen; however, identification of the causative agent at the species level requires
isolation and characterization of the pathogen using numerous laboratory techniques.
Transmission and infection
Bacterial pathogens enter plants through wounds, principally produced by adverse
weather conditions, humans, tools and machinery, insects, and nematodes, or through natural
openings such as stomata, lenticels, hydathodes, nectar-producing glands, and leaf scars.
Most foliage invaders are spread from plant to plant by windblown rain or dust. Humans
disseminate bacteria through cultivation, grafting, pruning, and transporting diseased plant
material. Animals, including insects and mites, are other common transmission agents. Some
bacteria, such as the causal agent of Stewart's, or bacterial, wilt of corn (Erwinia stewartii),
not only are spread by a flea beetle but also survive over winter in this insect.
When conditions are unfavourable for growth and multiplication, bacteria remain dormant on
or inside plant tissue. Some, such as the crown gall bacterium, may survive for months or
years in the soil.
Bacterial diseases are influenced greatly by temperature and moisture. Often, a
difference of only a few degrees in temperature determines whether a bacterial disease will

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develop. In most cases, moisture as a water film on plant surfaces is essential for establishing
an infection.
Control
In general, the diseases caused by bacteria are relatively difficult to control. This is
partly attributable to the speed of invasion as bacteria enter natural openings or wounds
directly. Direct introduction of chemicals also enables them to escape the toxic effects of
chemical protectants. Losses from bacterial diseases are reduced by the use of pathogen-free
seed grown in arid regions. Examples of diseases controlled by this method include bacterial
blights of beans and peas, black rot of crucifers, and bacterial spot and canker of tomato.
Seed treatment with hot water at about 50° C (120° F) is also effective for crucifers,
cucurbits, carrot, eggplant, pepper, and tomato. Bactericidal seed compounds control some
bacterial diseases, such as angular leaf spot of cotton, gladiolus scab, and soft rot of
ornamentals. Rotation with nonhost crops reduces losses caused by wilt of alfalfa, blights of
beans and peas, black rot of crucifers, crown gall, and bacterial spot and canker of tomato.
Eradication and exclusion of host plants has been useful against citrus canker, angular leaf
spot of cotton, fire blight, and crown gall. Resistant varieties of crop plants have been
developed to reduce losses from wilts of alfalfa, corn, and tobacco; angular leaf spot of cotton
and tobacco; and bacterial pustule of soybeans, among others.
Protective insecticidal sprays help control bacterial diseases, such as wilts of sweet
corn and cucurbits and soft rot of iris. Protective bactericidal sprays, paints, or drenches
containing copper or antibiotics are used against bacterial blights of beans and celery, fire
blight, crown gall, blackleg of delphinium, and filbert and walnut blights. Finally, sanitary
measures—i.e., clean plow down of crop refuse, destruction of volunteer plants and weeds,
sterilization of pruning and grafting tools—as well as refraining from cultivating when
foliage is wet, overhead watering and spraying of indoor plants, and late cutting or grazing of
alfalfa and other crops, are useful in reducing the incidence of bacterial diseases.
Diseases caused by fungi
Fungi cause the great majority, an estimated two-thirds, of infectious plant diseases. They
include all white and true rusts, smuts, needle casts, leaf curls, mildew, sooty molds, and
anthracnoses; most leaf, fruit, and flower spots; cankers; blights; scabs, root, stem, fruit, and
wood rots; wilts; leaf, shoot, and bud galls; and many others. All economically important
plants apparently are attacked by one or more fungi; often many different fungi may cause
disease in one plant species.
General characteristics
The fungi represent an extremely large and diverse group of eukaryotic
microorganisms. The cells, which contain a membrane-bound nucleus, are devoid of
chlorophyll ( achlorophylous) and have rigid cell walls. Fungi have a plantlike vegetative
body consisting of microscopic branching threadlike filaments of various lengths, called
hyphae (singular hypha), some of which extend into the air while others penetrate the
substrate on which they grow. The hyphae are arranged into a network called a mycelium. It
is the mass of the mycelium that gives fungal growth its characteristic “cottony” or “fuzzy”
appearance. Fungi reproduce by a variety of methods, both asexual and sexual. They produce

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many kinds of spores in very large numbers. For example, the colour of a moldy piece of
bread is due to the colour of a massive number of microscopic mold spores.
Disease Symptoms and signs
In general, a fungal infection can cause local or extensive necrosis. It can also inhibit
normal growth (hypotrophy) or induce excessive abnormal growth (hypertrophy or
hyperplasia) in a portion of or throughout an entire plant. Symptoms associated with necrosis
include leaf spots, blight, scab, rots, damping-off, anthracnose, dieback, and canker.
Symptoms associated with hyperplasia include clubroot, galls, warts, and leaf curls.
In some instances, the fungus infecting the plant may produce growth or structures on
the plant, stem, or leave such as masses of mycelium or aggregates of spores with a
characteristic appearance. These developments are referred to as signs of infection, in
contrast to symptoms, which refer specifically to the plant or plant tissue.
Transmission
Fungi are spread primarily by spores, which are produced in abundance. The spores
can be carried and disseminated by wind currents, water (splashing and rain), soil (dust),
insects, birds, and the remains of plants that once were infected. Vegetative fungal cells that
exist in dead plant material also can be transmitted when they come in contact with a
susceptible host. The survival of vegetative cells of plant pathogenic fungi in nature depends
on climatic conditions, particularly temperature and moisture. Vegetative cells can survive
temperatures from −5° to 45° C (23° to 113° F); fungal spores are considerably more
resistant. The germination of spores, however, is favoured by mild temperatures and high
humidity.
Control
Thousands of fungal species can infect a broad range of plants and because each
fungal species has different characteristics, a variety of practices are available to control
fungal diseases. The principal control measures include the use of disease-free seed and
propagating stock, the destruction of all plant materials that may harbour pathogenic fungi,
crop rotation, the development and use of resistant plant varieties, and the use of chemical
and biological fungicides.
Diseases caused by nematodes
Plant parasitic Nematodes are elongated, sometimes short or long and slender tube-
like and unsegmented roundworms (also called nemas or eelworms). The great majority
cannot be seen with the unaided eye, because they are very small and translucent. Plant
parasitic nematodes have a hollow stylet or spear which is used to puncture plant cells. The
lips are six in number, the body cavity contain a fluid through which circulation and
respiration takes place. The digestive system is hollow tube extending from the mouth
through the easophagus, intestine, rectum and anus. Female nematode has one or two ovaries
followed by an oviduct and uterus terminating in a vulva. Practically all adult forms fall
within the range of 0.25 to 2 millimetres in length.

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Mode of nematode attack
About 1,200 species cause disease in plants. Probably every form of plant life is fed upon by
at least one species of nematode. They usually live in soil and attack small roots, but some
species inhabit and feed in bulbs, buds, stems, leaves, or flowers.
Plant parasitic Nematodes obtain food by sucking juices from them. Feeding is
accomplished through a hollow, needlelike mouthpart called a spear or stylet. The nematode
pushes the stylet into plant cells and injects liquid containing enzymes, which digest plant
cell contents. The liquefied contents are then sucked back into the nematode's digestive tract
through the stylet. Nematode feeding lowers natural resistance, reduces vigour and yield of
plants, and affords easy entrance for wilt-producing or root rot-producing fungi or bacteria
and other nematodes. Nematode-infested plants are weak and often appear to suffer from
drought, excessive soil moisture, sunburn or frost, mineral deficiency or imbalance, insect
injury to roots or stems, or disease.
Common symptoms of nematode injury include stunting, loss of green colour and
yellowing; dieback of twigs and shoots; slow general decline; wilting on hot and bright days;
and lack of response to water and fertilizer. Feeder root systems are reduced; they may be
stubby or excessively branched, often discoloured, and decayed. Winterkill of orchard trees,
raspberries, strawberries, ornamentals, and other perennials is commonly associated with
nematode infestations.
Root injury develops partly from the nematodes feeding on cells and partly from toxic
salivary excretions of the parasite. Tissues often respond by producing either an enlargement
or degeneration of cells; sometimes both occur.
Many nematodes are native and attack cultivated plants when their natural hosts are
removed. Others have been introduced with seedling plants, bulbs, tubers, and particularly in
soil balled around roots of infested nursery stock.
Nematodes may live part of the time free in soil around roots or in fallow gardens and
fields. They tunnel inside plant tissues (endoparasites) or feed externally from the surface
(ectoparasites) and may enter a plant through wounds or natural openings or by penetrating
roots. All nematodes parasitic on plants require living plant tissues for reproduction.
Nematodes are attracted to host roots by sensing either the heat given off by roots or the
chemicals secreted by roots.
Soil populations and developmental rate of nematodes are affected by the length of
the growing season; temperature; availability of water and nutrients; and moisture, type,
texture, and structure of soil. Certain species live strictly in light, sandy soils; some build up
high populations in muck soils; and a few seem to thrive in heavy soils. High populations and
greater crop damage are much more common in light sandy soils than in heavy clay soils.
Nematodes may be found in plant tissues in large numbers. Hundreds of thousands may be
present in infested roots or bulbs.
After a plant-infecting nematode has been accidentally introduced into a garden or field,
several years pass before the population builds up sufficiently (i.e., up to several billion or
more active nematodes per hectare) to cause conspicuous symptoms in a large number of
plant.
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne species) are well known because of the
conspicuous “knots,” or gall-like swellings, they induce on roots. More than 2,000 kinds of
higher plants are subject to their attack. Losses are often heavy, especially in warm regions
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with long growing seasons. Certain species, however, such as the northern root-knot
nematode (M. hapla), are found where soil may freeze to depths of nearly a metre.
Vegetables, cotton, strawberry, and orchard trees are commonly attacked. Garden plants and
ornamentals frequently become infested through nursery stock.
Root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus species), cosmopolitan in distribution, are
endoparasites that cause severe losses to hundreds of different crop and ornamental plants by
penetrating roots and making their way through the tissues, breaking down the cells as they
feed. They deposit eggs from which new colonies develop. After a root begins to decline in
vigour, nematodes move into the soil in search of healthy roots. Lesions form in the root as
fungi and bacteria enter damaged tissues, and root rot often occurs. Annual crops may
succumb early in the season, but perennials and orchard trees may not decline for several
years.
The golden nematode of potatoes (Heterodera rostochiensis) is a menace of the
European potato industry. Great efforts have been made to control it.
A related, cyst-forming species, the sugar beet nematode (H. schachtii), is a pest that
has restricted acreage of sugar beets in Europe, Asia, and America.
The burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis) is a serious endoparasite in tropical
and subtropical areas, where it attacks citrus (causing spreading decline), banana, avocado,
tomato, black pepper, abaca, and more than 200 important crops, trees, and ornamentals,
causing severe losses.
Many important ectoparasites feed on plant roots—dagger nematodes (Xiphinema), stubby-
root nematodes (Trichodorus), spiral nematodes (Rotylenchus and Helicotylenchus), sting
nematodes (Belonolaimus), and pin nematodes (Paratylenchus). Leaf, or foliar, nematodes
(Aphelenchoides species) and bulb and stem nematodes (Ditylenchus dipsaci) cause severe
losses in vegetable and ornamental bulb crops, clovers, alfalfa, strawberry, sweet potato,
orchids, chrysanthemums, begonias, and ferns.

Control measures
Control measures for nematodes often include rotation with nonhost plants, growing
of resistant varieties and species, use of certified, nematode free nursery stock, and use of soil
fumigants (nematicides) as preplanting or postplanting treatments. Steam or dry heat is
applied to soil in confined areas, such as greenhouse benches and ground beds. Exposure to
moist heat, such as steam or hot water at 50° C (120° F) for 30 minutes, is sufficient to kill
most nematodes and nematode eggs. Shorter periods are needed at higher temperatures. State
and federal quarantines prohibiting movement of infested soil, plants or plant parts,
machinery, and other likely carriers also exist. Cultural practices to promote vigorous plant
growth (i.e., watering during droughts, proper application of fertilizers, clean cultivation, fall
and summer fallowing, use of heavy organic mulches or cover crops, and plowing out roots
of susceptible plants after harvest) are useful for specific nematodes. Asparagus, marigolds
(Tagetes species), and Crotalaria species are toxic to many plant-infecting nematodes.
ALGAE
The word algae come from a latin word 'alga' referring to sea weed. Algae are
chlorophyllous thallophytes and autotrophic but do not show any cellular differentiation.
Asexual (spore) and sexual reproductions are found in algae. Algae are widely distributed;
they thrive well under all possible environment of the earth, from fathom depth of ocean to
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the highest peaks of mountains. Algae exhibit a remarkable variation in their size from a
microscopic and unicellular (e.g. Chlamydomonas) to a multicellular, complex giant sized
(e,g.Macrocystis). Other marked variations are the giant kelp or Laminaria nearly seven
meters long and see weed called Macrocystis macrocarph more than 180 meters longs found
in the ocean at the southern tip of South America.
Examples of algae are:- Pandorina, Chlamydomonas, Nostoc , Ulva, Chlorella, Ulothrix,
Spirogyra species, etc. The group of algae that grows on other plants is called epiphytes e.g.
Ulothrix, Oedogonium. Chara, Nitella, Hydrilla,etc .
Diseases. The parasitic algae are- Cephaleuros spp that grows on leaves of angiosperms and
cause disease known as Cephaleurus on tea plants popularly called red rust disease of tea.
Cephaleuros virescer cause alga diseases in oil palm), Oscillatoria, Anacbaeniolum are
found as parasite on man and intestine of animals while Phyllosiphon spp are parasitic on
angiosperms
Parasitic seed plants
A number of flowering plants are parasites of other plants. Among the more important ones
are mistletoe, dodder, and witchweed.
Mistletoe
Mistletoes are semiparasitic seed plants that feed on trees and obtain water and
mineral salts by sending rootlike structures (haustoria) into vascular tissue of the inner bark.
There are three important types: American (Phorodendron species), European (Viscum
album), and dwarf (Arceuthobium species). All produce sticky seeds spread by birds.
American mistletoe, restricted to the Americas, is best known for its ornamental and
sentimental uses at Christmastime. The leafy, bushy evergreen masses, up to one metre or
more in diameter, appear on tree branches. They are most conspicuous after deciduous leaves
have fallen. The European mistletoe is similar in habit and appearance to its American
relative. Tree branches infected by mistletoes may become stunted or even die.
Dwarf mistletoe is common on and very destructive to conifers in forests. Seedlings
and young trees may be stunted, deformed, or killed. Conspicuous witches'-brooms form in
the crown or spindle-shaped swellings (later cankers) in limbs and trunk. Canker and wood-
rotting fungi often enter through mistletoe wounds.
Dodder
More than 100 species of dodder (Cuscuta) are widely distributed and called such names as
strangleweed, devil's-hair, pull down, hell-bind, love vine, and goldthread. The leafless,
yellow-orange, threadlike stems twine around a number of field and garden host plants. By
extending to nearby plants, it may draw them together and downward until a tangled
yellowish orange patch is formed.
Witchweed
Witchweed, a small parasitic weed (Striga asiatica), is widely distributed in Asia,
southern Africa, and the Sahel. It has been known in the coastal sandy soils of North and
South Carolina since the mid-1950s but through intensive efforts has been contained.
Witchweed parasitizes the roots of many hosts, including maize (corn), sorghum, sugarcane,
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rice, small grains, and more than 50 species in the grass and sedge families. A serious
infestation may cause corn plants to be severely stunted, wilt, and turn yellow or brown, thus
reducing the acre yield. Witchweed robs the host of water and food, causing it to grow more
slowly than normal and often to die before maturing. Control is difficult; useful measures
include application of selective herbicides before seeds are produced; rotation with a resistant
crop and keeping plantings free of weed grasses that may serve as hosts; and prevention of
seed set by growing trap crops and then destroying them with herbicides.
ENVIRONMWNTAL FACTORS AFFECTING DISEASE DEVELOPMENT
Important environmental factors that may affect development of plant diseases and
determine whether they become epiphytotic or epidermic include temperature, relative
humidity, soil moisture, soil pH, soil type, and soil fertility.
Temperature
Each pathogen has an optimum temperature for growth. In addition, different growth
stages of the fungus, such as the production of spores (reproductive units), their germination,
and the growth of the mycelium (the filamentous main fungus body), may have slightly
different optimum temperatures. Storage temperatures for certain fruits, vegetables, and
nursery stock are manipulated to control fungi and bacteria that cause storage decay, provided
the temperature does not change the quality of the products. Little, except limited frost
protection, can be done to control air temperature in fields, but greenhouse temperatures can
be regulated to check disease development.
Knowledge of optimum temperatures, usually combined with optimum moisture
conditions, permits forecasting, with a high degree of accuracy, the development of such
diseases as blue mold of tobacco (Peronospora tabacina), downy mildews of vine crops
(Pseudoperonospora cubensis) and lima beans (Phytophthora phaseoli), late blight of potato
and tomato (Phytophthora infestans), leaf spot of sugar beets (Cercospora beticola), and leaf
rust of wheat (Puccinia recondita tritici). Effects of temperature may mask symptoms of
certain viral and mycoplasmal diseases, however, making them more difficult to detect.
Relative humidity
Relative humidity is very critical in fungal spore germination and the development of storage
rots. Rhizopus soft rot of sweet potato (Rhizopus stolonifer) is an example of a storage disease
that does not develop if relative humidity is maintained at 85 to 90 percent, even if the
storage temperature is optimum for growth of the pathogen. Under these conditions, the
sweet potato root produces suberized (corky) tissues that wall off the Rhizopus fungus.
High humidity favours development of the great majority of leaf and fruit diseases
caused by fungi and bacteria. Moisture is generally needed for fungal spore germination, the
multiplication and penetration of bacteria, and the initiation of infection. Germination of
powdery mildew spores occurs best at 90 to 95 percent relative humidity. Diseases in
greenhouse crops—such as leaf mold of tomato (Cladosporium fulvum) and decay of flowers,
leaves, stems, and seedlings of flowering plants, caused by Botrytis species—are controlled
by lowering air humidity or by avoiding spraying plants with water.

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Soil moisture
High or low soil moisture may be a limiting factor in the development of certain root
rot diseases. High soil-moisture levels favour development of destructive water mold fungi,
such as species of Aphanomyces, Pythium, and Phytophthora. Excessive watering of
houseplants is a common problem. Overwatering, by decreasing oxygen and raising carbon
dioxide levels in the soil, makes roots more susceptible to root-rotting organisms.
Diseases such as take-all of cereals (Ophiobolus graminis); charcoal rot of corn,
sorghum, and soybean (Macrophomina phaseoli); common scab of potato (Streptomyces
scabies); and onion white rot (Sclerotium cepivorum) are most severe under low soil-moisture
levels.
Soil pH
Soil pH, a measure of acidity or alkalinity, markedly influences a few diseases, such
as common scab of potato and clubroot of crucifers (Plasmodiophora brassicae). Growth of
the potato scab organism is suppressed at a pH of 5.2 or slightly below (pH 7 is neutral;
numbers below 7 indicate acidity, and those above 7 indicate alkalinity). Scab is not normally
a problem when the natural soil pH is about 5.2. Some farmers add sulfur to their potato soil
to keep the pH about 5.0. Clubroot of crucifers (members of the mustard family, including
cabbage, cauliflower, and turnips), on the other hand, can usually be controlled by thoroughly
mixing lime into the soil until the pH becomes 7.2 or higher.
Soil type
Certain pathogens are favoured by loam soils and others by clay soils.
Phymatotrichum root rot attacks cotton and some 2,000 other plants in the southwestern
United States. This fungus is serious only in black alkaline soils—pH 7.3 or above—that are
low in organic matter. Fusarium wilt disease, which attacks a wide range of cultivated plants,
causes more damage in lighter and higher (topographically) soils. Nematodes are also most
damaging in lighter soils that warm up quickly.
Soil fertility
Greenhouse and field experiments have shown that raising or lowering the levels of
certain nutrient elements required by plants frequently influences the development of some
infectious diseases—for example, fire blight of apple and pear, stalk rots of corn and
sorghum, Botrytis blights, Septoria diseases, powdery mildew of wheat, and northern leaf
blight of corn. These diseases and many others are more destructive after application of
excessive amounts of nitrogen fertilizer. This condition can often be counteracted by adding
adequate amounts of potash, a fertilizer containing potassium.
NON INFECTIOUS DISEASE CAUSING AGENTS
Noninfectious diseases, which sometimes arise very suddenly, are caused by the
excess, deficiency, non-availability, or improper balance of light, air circulation, relative
humidity, water, or essential soil elements; unfavourable soil moisture-oxygen relations;
extremes in soil acidity or alkalinity; high or low temperatures; pesticide injury; other
poisonous chemicals in air or soil; changes in soil grade; girdling of roots; mechanical and
electrical agents; and soil compaction. In addition, unfavorable preharvest and storage
conditions for fruits, vegetables, and nursery stock often result in losses. The effects of

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noninfectious diseases can be seen on a variety of plant species growing in a given locality or
environment. Many diseases and injuries caused by noninfectious agents result in heavy loss
but are difficult to check or eliminate because they frequently reflect ecological factors
beyond human control. Symptoms may appear several weeks or months after an
environmental disturbance.
Injuries incurred from accidents, poisons, or adverse environmental disturbances often result
in damaged tissues that weaken a plant, enabling bacteria, fungi, or viruses to enter and add
further damage. The cause may be obvious (lightning or hail), but often it is obscure.
Symptoms alone are often unreliable in identifying the causal factor. A thorough examination
of recent weather patterns, the condition of surrounding plants, cultural treatments or
disturbances, and soil and water tests can help reveal the nature of the disease.
Adverse environment
High temperatures may scald corn, cotton, and bean leaves and may induce formation
of cankers at the soil surface of tender flax, cotton, and peanut plants. Frost injury is
relatively common, but temperatures just above freezing also may cause damage, such as net
necrosis (localized tissue death) in potato tubers and “silvering” of corn leaves. Alternate
freezing and thawing, heaving, low air moisture, and smothering under an ice-sheet cover are
damaging to alfalfa, clovers, strawberries, and grass on golf greens. Legume crowns
commonly split under these conditions and are invaded by decay-forming fungi.
The drought and dry winds that often accompany high temperatures cause stunting,
wilting, blasting, marginal scorching of leaves, and dieback of shoots. Leaf scorch is common
on trees in exposed locations following hot, dry, windy weather when water is lost from
leaves faster than it is absorbed by roots. Leaf scorch and sudden flower drop are common
indoor plant problems because the humidity in a home, an apartment, or an office is usually
below 30 percent. Injured plants are often very susceptible to air and soil pathogens and
secondary invaders.
Blossom-end rot of tomato and pepper is prevalent when soil moisture and
temperature levels fluctuate widely and calcium is low.
Poor aeration may cause blackheart in stored potatoes. Accumulation of certain gases
from the respiration of apples in storage may produce apple scald and other disorders.
All plants require certain mineral elements to develop and mature in a healthy state.
Macronutrients such as nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, and magnesium are
required in substantial quantities, while micronutrients or trace elements such as boron, iron,
manganese, copper, zinc, and molybdenum are needed in much smaller quantities. When the
supply of any essential nutrient falls below the level required by the plant, a deficiency
occurs, leading to symptoms that include stunting of plants; scorching or malformation of
leaves; abnormal coloration; premature leaf, bud, and flower drop; delayed maturity or failure
of flower and fruit buds to develop; and dieback of shoots.
Symptoms of nutrient deficiencies vary depending on the nutrients involved, the stage
of plant growth, soil moisture, and other factors; they often resemble symptoms caused by
infectious agents such as bacteria or viruses.
The availability of water may affect nutrient uptake by the plant. Blossom-end rot of
tomato, a disease associated with a deficiency of calcium, may occur if the water supply is
irregular, even if an adequate amount of calcium is in the soil. This discontinuity in
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availability of water will inhibit uptake of the calcium in a quantity sufficient to nourish a
fast-growing tomato plant resulting in necrosis at the blossom end of the fruit. This situation
generally disappears when water conditions improve.
Excess minerals can damage plants either directly, causing stunting, deformities, or
dieback, or indirectly by interfering with the absorption and use of other nutrients, resulting
in subsequent deficiency symptoms. A superabundance of nitrogen, for example, may cause
deficiency symptoms of potassium, zinc, or other nutrient elements; a lack of or delay in
flower and fruit development; and a predisposition to winter injury. If potassium is high,
calcium and magnesium deficiencies may occur.
The pH of a soil has a dramatic impact on nutrient availability to plants. Most plants
will grow in a soil with a pH between 4.0 and 8.0. In acidic soils some nutrients are far more
available and may reach concentrations that are toxic or that inhibit absorption of other
nutrients, while other minerals become chemically bound and unavailable to plants. A similar
situation exists in alkaline soils, although different minerals are affected. Oats planted in
alkaline soils that actually contain a sufficient amount of manganese may develop the
manganese-deficiency disease gray speck. This occurs because an elevated soil pH causes
manganese to react with oxygen to produce manganese dioxide, a form of the nutrient that is
insoluble to plants.
An excess of water-soluble salts is a common problem with houseplants. Salt
concentrations may build up as a whitish crust on soil and container surfaces of potted plants
following normal evaporation of water over a period of time. Symptoms include leaf
scorching, bronzing, yellowing and stunting, and wilting, plus root and shoot dieback.
Damage from soluble salts is also common in arid regions and in regions where ice-control
chemicals are applied heavily.
Several nonparasitic diseases (e.g., oat blast, weakneck of sorghum, straighthead of
rice, and crazy-top of cotton) are caused by combinations of environmental factors—e.g.,
high temperatures, moisture stress or poor irrigation practices, imbalance of mineral nutrients,
and reduced light. Environmental disturbances alter the normal physiology of the plant,
activity of pathogens, and host-pathogen interactions.
Toxic chemicals
Many complex chemicals are routinely applied to plants to prevent attack by insects,
mites, and pathogens; to kill weeds; or to control growth. Serious damage may result when
fertilizers, herbicides, fumigants, growth regulators, antidesiccants, insecticides, miticides,
fungicides, nematicides, and surfactants (substances with enhanced wetting, dispersing, or
cleansing properties, such as detergents) are applied at excessive rates or under hot, cold, or
slow-drying conditions.
Some pollutants are the direct products of industry and fuel combustion, while others
are the result of photochemical reactions between products of combustion and naturally
occurring atmospheric compounds. The major pollutants toxic to plants are sulfur dioxide,
fluorine, ozone, and peroxyacetyl nitrate.
Sulfur dioxide results primarily from the burning of large amounts of soft coal and
high-sulfur oil. It is toxic to a wide range of plants at concentrations as low as 0.25 part per
million (ppm) of air (i.e., on a volume basis, one part per million represents one volume of
pure gaseous toxic substance mixed in one million volumes of air) for 8 to 24 hours. Gaseous
and particulate fluorides are more toxic to sensitive plants than is sulfur dioxide because they
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are accumulated by leaves. Ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate injury (also called oxidant injury)
are more prevalent in and near cities with heavy traffic problems. Exhaust gases from internal
combustion engines contain large amounts of hydrocarbons (substances that principally
contain carbon and hydrogen molecules—gasoline, for example). Smaller amounts of
unconsumed hydrocarbons are formed by combustion of fossil fuels (e.g., coal, oil, natural
gas) and refuse burning.
Ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrate, and other oxidizing chemicals (smog) are formed when
sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. This pollutant complex is damaging to
susceptible plants many kilometres from its source. Ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate are
capable of causing injury if present at levels of 0.01 to 0.05 part per million for several hours.

Physical injury
Lightning, hail, high winds, ice and snow loads, machinery, insect and animal
feeding, and various cultural practices may seriously injure plants or plant products. With the
exception of lightning, which may cause death of trees and succulent crop plants in limited
areas, such injury does not usually kill plants.

DIAGNOSIS OF PLANT DISEASE

Examination of leaves is usually considered to be the best starting point in diagnosis. The
colour, size, shape, margins, spots and blights (lesions) are often associated with a particular
fungus or bacterium. Many fungi produce “signs” of disease, such as mold growth or fruiting
bodies that appear as dark specks in the dead area. Early stages of bacterial infections that
develop on leaves or fruits during humid weather often appear as dark and water-soaked spots
with a distinct margin and sometimes a halo—a lighter-coloured ring around the spot.
Rapid and accurate diagnosis of disease is necessary before proper control measures
can be suggested. It is the first step in the study of any disease. Diagnosis is largely based on
characteristic symptoms expressed by the diseased plant. Identification of the pathogen is
also essential to diagnosis.
Three steps involved in diagnosis include: careful observation and classification of the facts,
evaluation of the facts, and a logical decision as to the cause.

Variable factors affecting diagnosis

A skilled diagnostician must know the normal appearance of an affected plant species, its
local air and soil environment, the cultural conditions under which it is growing, the
pathogens described for the area, and the disease-developing potential of the pathogen.
Diagnosis is best done in the presence of the growing plant. Disease is suspected when, for
example, part or all of a plant begins to die. Disease also is indicated when blossoms, leaves,
stems, roots, or other plant parts appear abnormal—i.e., misshapen, curled, discoloured,
overdeveloped, or underdeveloped. Diseased plants also often fail to respond normally to
fertilizing, watering, pruning, insect and mite control, or other recommended practices

PLANT DISEASES OF FOOD CROPS.

Significant losses of plant products from disease may have serious adverse effects on the
economy and man in general. The presence of epidemic diseases in a single area poses threats
to other localities where the crop in question is widely grown. A pathogen may not destroy its
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host but can cause serious effect on the quality of the product. The following economic crops
of importance and the threat, which plant pathogens pose to them are discussed below-

Maize (Zea mavs): Maize is susceptible to a wide variety of diseases, many of which are of
worldwide distribution every part of the plant may be attacked by pathogens causing the
following diseases: rust, ear rot, leaf blight, wilt, stalk rot, smut, charcoal rot, ergot,
anthracnosis, streak, etc. The following are some examples of diseases and their causal
organisms of maize.

Disease Causal organism

Rust Puccinia sorghi, P polysora, P graminis
Leaf blight Helminthosporium maydis, H turcicum , H carbonum
Mildew Slerospora maydis, S sorghi, S sacchari, S. graminicola,
Smut Ustilago maydis, Sphacelotheca reiliana
Ergot Clavicep purpurea
Streak stilago maydis
Wilt Fusarium oxysporum

Rice (oryza sativumjc: The rice plant is a host to many pathogens but never reaches the
epidemic proportion as in other cereals such as wheat. The followings are diseases and their
causal agents of rice.
Cassava (Manihot esculentus): Fungal diseases are now known to cause a lot of
disease to cassava. These diseases range from a number of leaf disease to root rot disease.
Below are some of the diseases and their causal agents.

Disease casual organism

Brown leaf spot Cercospora henningsis, Phyllosticta spp, Phoma spp
White thread Fomes lignosus
Tuber rots Rhizopus spp, Fusarium spp
Anthracnose Glomeralla spp
Super-elongation Sphaceloma spp

Yam (Dioscorea spp):- Fungal rots account for great loss of stored tubers than any other
cause. Fungi cause both dry and soft rots in the tubers. The diseases and their agents include:-
Cocoa (Theobroma caco): Cacao is a tropical crop that is worldly grown as a source of
chocolate drink.

Disease Organism
Hemileia vastatrix, H. coffeicola Phytophthora irfestans
Omphalia flavida
Cercospora coffeicola
Gloeosporium cingulatum, Collectotrichum coffeanum Pellicularia
koleroga
Organism
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Marasmius perniciousus
Monilia roreri, Phytophthora palmivora Pseudococcus njalensis
Colectotrichum gloeosporioides Diplodia theobromae
Armillaria mellea
Phytophthora palmivora

Organism
Dothidella ulei, Oidium heveae Phytophthora palmivora, P faberi, P meadii Fomes lignosus
Disease
Coffee (Coffea spp: C. Arabica, C. robusta, etc): Coffee is produced worldwide. It is a
source of revenue for its producers and also an expcrt crop. The most important commercial
species are: Coffea arabica and C robusta
Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis): This plant is the world's source of natural latex.
Disease
Rust of berry
Leaf rust
Leaf spot
Brown eye spot

Anthracnose or leaf drop

Thread blight

Witches broom
Pod rots
Swollen root Anthracnose
Charcoal pod rot
Root rots
Black pod (Leaf, fruit & stem)

Disease
Diseases Stem rust Stripe rust Leaf rust Loose smut Stinking smut Flag smut Scab
Blotch Take-all
Wheat(triticum aestivum vulgari): Wheat is a cereal that is worldly cultivated. Wheta is
susceptible to attack by many kinds of plant pathogens. The fungal diseases and their causal
agents include:-
Barley (Hordeum vulgare) and Oat (Avena sterilis): These cereals are susceptible to attack by
mostly same kinds of fungal pathogens. These include:
Disease Loose smut Stem rust Leaf stripe Scab
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Casual organism Ustilago spp
Puccinia graminis var. tritici Puccinia glumarum
Gibberalla zea
Casual Organism

Puccinia graminis var. tritici Puccinia glumarum

Pucccinia. Rubigo- vera Ustilago tritici
Tilletia spp
Urocysfis tritici
Gibberella zeae
Septoria nodorum Ophiobulus graminis

Cotton (Gossypium spp)

Disease
Leaf spot
Ball rot/black arm

Organism

Xanthomonas malvacearum Xanthomonas malvacearum

BIOLOGY AND CONTROL OF DISEASES

FUNGAL DISEASES
Fungi destroy many agricultural crops, fruit and nuts. Fungi are responsible for
numerous epidemic diseases of plants that spread from plant to plant and places to places
resulting in crop failure and economic loses. One of the numerous fungal diseases is
discussed bellowed:-

SMUT
Fungi commonly found on maize, oats, wheat, barley, sugar cane and other cereals cause
smut disease.
Appearance: Soot-like (black) masses of spores on leaves, stem and cobs.
Spread: By means of spores through blowing by wind.
Organism:- Ustilago spp (U. maydis and U. zae).

History: A parasitic fungus commonly attacking members of graminae( cereals)

Growth: Grow as saprophytes in soils and on rich organic materials.
Host: Maize, wheat, sorghum and cereals generally.
Infection.- Takes place by means of basidiospores( teleutospores) or dormant mycelia.
The spore falls on the stigma, germinate and produce a pro-mycelium which penetrates into
the ovary.

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As the ovary develops, the mycelium remains dormant in the grain (seed). When the later
(seed) germinates, the mycelium grows, ramifies, and eventually causes the diseases. The
disease is therefore said to seed borne. The spores may also adheres to the seed externally and
are release during threshing of the ears, they scatters and may infect new host through their
young parts e.g. roots, stems and leaves or the spikelets as in the case of Ustilago zae on
maize. The basidiospores may produce a uninucleate hyphae which may infect the host or
grow on the surface of the host body. Two of these hyphae fuse in host tissue or just outside,
thereby producing binucleate mycelium, this then grow and causes the diseases.
Control: Destruction of the infected parts by burning or burying, treatment of seed by
soaking in warm 'water before planting and by use of fungicides. Biological control of the
specific fungus, periodic inspections by a plant pathologist to recommend first aids in local
infections or permanent curative measures.
Other major fungal diseases of plants include; leaf blight of potatoes, brown rusts, and
leaf rust, black rust or stem rust, foot rot of wheat, powdery mildew, stripe rust, maize rust,
brown spot of rice, etc.

BACTERIAL DISEASE.
Bacteria are one-celled living organisms many of which are parasites causing diseases of crop
plants. Amongst the diseases caused in plants by bacteria are rots which is briefly discussed
below-
Rots: Rots are caused by bacteria found in roots, leaves and stem of crops.
i. Appearance: - Depending on the nature of plant tissue affected, the rot may appear soft
and exudating or dry and hard. It may also be black, brown, grayish, etc.
ii. Spread: By contact and rain splash ..
iii. Occurrence- They occur everywhere, that is in water, air, soil and foodstuffs.
iv. Structure: May be round, rod shaped, spiral
v. Reproduction: Commonly by binary fission.
vi. Ogarnism;- Xanthomonas spp, Pseudomonas spp, Erwinia spp, Corynebacterium spp.
vii. Host: - Tomatoes, potatoes, vegetables.
viii. Infection: - The bacterium come into contact with the plant and by means of its
enzymes action, penetrates the host tissues directly or through other openings such as
lenticels, stomata, hydathodes etc. The bacteria establish itself finally lead to infection
in the host by deriving its nutrients on its host.
ix. Control: - By spraying, application of antibiotics, seed treatments,
Other bacterial diseases of plants(1eaf spot , wilt, leaf stripe, galls, ring rot of
potatoes, tomatoes and tuber scab, necrosis, canker, stem and fruit spots, halo blight of oat
etc.) may be controlled by fumigation and washing of seed with chemicals.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT PROTECTION

The aim of a plant pathologist is to control plant disease in order to prevent economic loss,
thereby increase the economic value of the crop. A control measure that is useful in one
disease may be ineffective for another control measures.
Successful disease control requires thorough knowledge of the causal agent and the
disease cycle, host-pathogen interactions in relation to environmental factors and host.
Disease control starts with the best variety, seed, or planting stock available and continues
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throughout the life of the plant. For harvested crops, disease control extends through
transport, storage, and marketing. Relatively few diseases are controlled by a single method;
the majority requires several approaches. These often need to be integrated into a broad
program of biological, cultural, and chemical methods to control as many different pest
including insects, mites, rodents, and weed on a given crop as possible.

Control principles can be discussed under two broad headings.

Prophylaxis: In this method, control measure is directed against the inoculums or causal
gent.This protects the host from the pathogen or from the environment that may favor the
development of a disease. This method involve the principles of exclusion and avoidance,
eradication, protection, host resistance and selection, and therapy.

Exclusion and avoidance

The principle of exclusion and avoidance is to keep the pathogen away from the growing host
plant. This practice commonly excludes pathogens by disinfection of plants, seeds, or other
parts, using chemicals or heat. Inspection and certification of seed and other planting stock
help ensure freedom from disease. For gardeners this involves sorting bulbs or corms before
planting and rejecting diseased plants. Federal and state plant quarantines, or embargoes have
been established to prevent introduction of potentially destructive pathogens into areas
currently free of the disease. More than 150 countries now have established quarantine
regulations.

Eradication
Eradication is concerned with elimination of the disease agent after it has become established
in the area of the growing host or has penetrated the host. Such measures include crop
rotation, destruction of the diseased plants, and elimination of alternate host plants, pruning,
disinfection, and heat treatments.
Crop rotation with nonsusceptible crops “starves out” bacteria, fungi, and nematodes
with a restricted host range. Some pathogens can survive only as long as the host residue
persists, usually no more than a year or two. Many pathogens, however, are relatively
unaffected by rotation because they become established as saprophytes in the soil (e.g.,
Fusarium and Pythium species; Rhizoctonia solani; and the potato scab actinomycete,
Streptomyces scabies) or their propagative structures remain dormant but viable for many
years (e.g., cysts of cyst nematodes, sporangia of the cabbage clubroot fungus, and onion
smut spores).
Destruction of weed hosts also helps control such viral diseases as cucumber mosaic
and curly top. For fungi whose complete life cycle requires two different host species, such as
black stem rust of cereals and white-pine blister rust, destruction of alternate hosts is
effective. Destruction of diseased plants helps control Dutch elm disease, oak wilt, and peach
viral diseases—mosaic, phony peach, and rosette. Elimination of citrus canker in the
southeastern United States has been one of the few successful eradication programs in
history. Infected trees were sprayed with oil and burned.
Pruning and excision of a diseased portion of the plant have aided in reducing inoculum
sources for canker and wood-rot diseases of shade trees and fire blight of pome fruits.
Disinfection of contaminated tools, as well as packing and shipping containers, controls a
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wide range of diseases. Direct application of dry or wet heat is used to obtain seeds, bulbs,
other propagative materials, and even entire plants free of viruses, nematodes, and other
pathogens.

Protection
The principle of protection involves placing a barrier between the pathogen and the
susceptible part of the host to shield the host from the pathogen. This can be accomplished by
regulation of the environment, cultural and handling practices, control of insect carriers, and
application of chemical pesticides.

Regulation of the environment

Selection of outdoor growing areas where weather is unfavourable for disease is a
method of controlling disease by regulating the environment. Control of viral diseases of
potato, for example, can be accomplished by growing the seed crop in northern regions where
low temperatures are unfavourable for the aphid carriers. Another environmental factor that
can be brought under control is the storage and in-transit environment. A variety of
postharvest diseases of potato, sweet potato, onion, cabbage, apple, pear, and other crops are
controlled in storage and shipment by keeping humidity and temperature low and by reducing
the quantity of ethylene and other natural gases in storage houses.

Cultural practices
Selection of the best time and depth of seeding and planting is an effective cultural
practice that reduces disease impact. Shallow planting of potatoes may help to prevent
Rhizoctonia canker. Early fall seeding of winter wheat may be unfavourable for seedling
infection by wheat-bunt teleuspores. Cool-temperature crops can be grown in soils infested
with root-knot nematode and harvested before soil temperatures become favourable for
nematode activity. Adjustment of soil moisture is another cultural practice of widespread
usefulness. For example, seed decay, damping-off (the destruction of seedlings at the soil
line), and other seedling diseases are favoured by excessively wet soils. Adjustment of soil
pH also leads to control of some diseases. Common potato scab can be controlled by
adjusting the pH to 5.2 or below; other acid-tolerant plants then must be used in crop rotation,
however.

Regulation of fertility level and nutrient balance

Potash and nitrogen, and the balance between the two, may affect the incidence of
certain bacterial, fungal, and viral diseases of corn, cotton, tobacco, and sugar beet. A number
of microelements, including boron, iron, zinc, manganese, magnesium, copper, sulfur, and
molybdenum, may cause noninfectious diseases of many crop and ornamental plants.
Adjusting the soil pH, adding chelated (bound or enclosed in large organic molecules) or
soluble salts to the soil, or spraying the foliage with these or similar salts is a corrective
measure.

Handling practices
Late blight on potato tubers can be controlled by delaying harvest until the foliage has
been killed by frost, chemicals, or mechanical beaters. Avoidance of bruises and cuts while
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digging, grading, and packing potatoes, sweet potatoes, and bulb crops also reduces disease
incidence.

Control of insect vectors

There are many examples in which losses by bacteria, viruses, and mycoplasma-like
disease agents can be reduced by controlling aphids, leafhoppers, thrips, beetles, and other
carriers of these agents.

Chemical control
A variety of chemicals are available that have been designed to control plant diseases
by inhibiting the growth of or by killing the disease-causing pathogens. Chemicals used to
control bacteria (bactericides), fungi (fungicides), and nematodes (nematicides) may be
applied to seeds, foliage, flowers, fruit, or soil. They prevent or reduce infections by utilizing
various principles of disease control. Eradicants are designed to kill a pathogen that may be
present in the soil, on the seeds, or on vegetative propagative organs, such as bulbs, corms,
and tubers. Protectants place a chemical barrier between the plant and the pathogen.
Therapeutic chemicals are applied to combat an infection in progress.
Soil treatments are designed to kill soil-inhabiting nematodes, fungi, and bacteria.
This eradication can be accomplished using steam or chemical fumigants. Soil borne
nematodes can be killed by applying granular or liquid nematicides. Most soil is treated well
before planting; however, certain fungicides can be mixed with the soil at planting time.
Seeds, bulbs, corms, and tubers are frequently treated with chemicals to eradicate pathogenic
bacteria, fungi, and nematodes and to protect the seeds against organisms in the soil—mainly
fungi—that cause decay and damping-off. Seeds are often treated with systemic fungicides,
which are absorbed and provide protection for the growing seedling.
Protectants are not absorbed by or translocated through the plant; thus they protect
only those parts of the plant treated before invasion by the pathogen. A second application is
often necessary because the chemical may be removed by wind, rain, or irrigation or may be
broken down by sunlight. New, untreated growth also is susceptible to infection. New
chemicals are constantly being developed.

Biological control
Biological control of plant diseases involves the use of organisms other than humans
to reduce or prevent infection by a pathogen. These organisms are called antagonists; they
may occur naturally within the host's environment, or they may be purposefully applied to
those parts of the potential host plant where they can act directly or indirectly on the
pathogen.
Although the effects of biological control have long been observed, the mechanisms by which
antagonists achieve control are not completely understood. Several methods have been
observed: some antagonists produce antibiotics that kill or reduce the number of closely
related pathogens; some are parasites on pathogens; and others simply compete with
pathogens for available food.
Cultural practices that favour a naturally occurring antagonist and exploit its
beneficial action often are effective in reducing disease. One technique is to incorporate green
manure, such as alfalfa, into the soil. Saprophytic microorganisms feed on the green manure,
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depriving potential pathogens of available nitrogen. Another practice is to make use of
suppressive soils—those in which a pathogen is known to persist but causes little damage to
the crop. A likely explanation for this phenomenon is that suppressive soils harbour
antagonists that compete with the pathogen for food and thereby limit the growth of the
pathogen population.
Other antagonists produce substances that inhibit or kill potential pathogens occurring
in close proximity. An example of this process, called antibiosis, is provided by marigold
(Tagetes species) roots, which release terthienyls, chemicals that are toxic to several species
of nematodes and fungi.
Only a few antagonists have been developed specifically for use in plant-disease control.
Citrus trees are inoculated with an attenuated strain of tristeza virus, which effectively
controls the virulent strain that causes the disease. An avirulent strain of Agrobacterium
radiobacter (K84) can be applied to plant wounds to prevent crown gall caused by infection
with Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Many more specific antagonists are being investigated and
hold much promise for future control of disease.

Therapy
Therapeutic measures have been used much less often in plant pathology than in
human or animal medicine. The recent development of systemic fungicides such as oxathiins,
benzimidazoles, and pyrimidines has enabled growers to treat many plants after an infection
has begun. Systemic chemicals are absorbed by and translocated within the plant, restricting
the spread and development of pathogens by direct or indirect toxic effects or by increasing
the ability of the host to resist infection.
Immunization/ Host resistance and selection
Disease-resistant varieties of plants offer an effective, safe, and relatively inexpensive
method of control for many crop diseases. Most available commercial varieties of crop plants
bear resistance to at least one, and often several, pathogens. Resistant or immune varieties are
critically important for low-value crops in which other controls are unavailable, or their
expense makes them impractical. Much has been accomplished in developing disease-
resistant varieties of field crops, vegetables, fruits, turf grasses, and ornamentals. Sometimes,
a new plant variety is developed that is highly susceptible to a previously unimportant
pathogen.

Variable resistance
Resistance to disease varies among plants; it may be either total (a plant is immune to
a specific pathogen) or partial (a plant is tolerant to a pathogen, suffering minimal injury).
The two broad categories of resistance to plant diseases are vertical (specific) and horizontal
(nonspecific). A plant variety that exhibits a high degree of resistance to a single race, or
strain of a pathogen is said to be vertically resistant; this ability usually is controlled by one
or a few plant genes. Horizontal resistance, on the other hand, protects plant varieties against
several strains of a pathogen, although the protection is not as complete. Horizontal resistance
is more common and involves many genes.

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Obtaining disease-resistant plants
Several means of obtaining disease-resistant plants are commonly employed alone or
in combination. These include introduction from an outside source, selection, and induced
variation. All three may be used at different stages in a continuous process; for example,
varieties free from injurious insects or plant diseases may be introduced for comparison with
local varieties. The more promising lines or strains are then selected for further propagation,
and they are further improved by promoting as much variation as possible through
hybridization or special treatment. Finally, selection of the plants showing greatest promise
takes place. Developing disease-resistant plants is a continuing process. Special treatments
for inducing gene changes include the application of mutation-inducing chemicals and
irradiation with ultraviolet light and X rays. These treatments commonly induce deleterious
genetic changes, but, occasionally, beneficial ones also may occur.
Methods used in breeding plants for disease resistance are similar to those used in
breeding for other characters except that two organisms are involved—the host plant and the
pathogen. Thus, it is necessary to know as much as possible about the nature of inheritance of
the resistant characters in the host plant and the existence of physiological races or strains of
the pathogen.
The use of genetic engineering in developing disease-resistant plants
The techniques of genetic engineering can be used to manipulate the genetic material of a cell
in order to produce a new characteristic in an organism. Genes from plants, microbes, and
animals can be recombined (recombinant DNA) and introduced into the living cells of any of
these organisms.
Organisms that have had genes from other species inserted into their genome (the full
complement of an organism's genes) are called transgenic. The production of pathogen-
resistant transgenic plants has been achieved by this method; certain genes are inserted into
the plant's genome that confers resistance to such pathogens as viruses, fungi, and insects.
Transgenic plants that are tolerant to herbicides and that show improvements in other
qualities also have been developed.
Apprehension about the release of transgenic plants into the environment exists, and
measures to safeguard the application of this technology have been adopted. As of 2006,
more than 250 million acres (100 million hectares) worldwide were planted with genetically
modified (GM) crops. Among the most successful GM crops are corn (maize), soybeans, and
cotton, all of which have proved valuable to farmers with respect to producing increased
yields and having economic advantages.

References

Agarios, G.N. (1936). Plant Pathology, 5th ed.

Stakman, E.C. (1915). Principles of Plant Pathology

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 CHAPTER FIVE
ANIMAL HISTOLOGY

By
Ezema Mabel Ph.D
HISTOLOGY
Histology is the study of tissues. All multicellullar organisms possess group of cells of
similar structure and function assembled together to form tissue. A tissue can be defined as a
group of physically linked cells and associated into cellular substances that are specialized for
a particular function or functions. The cells of a tissue generally share a similar origin in the
embryo. Tissues improve the efficiency with which the body functions by allowing division
of labour, which is sharing of tasks, with each tissue being specialized for a particular job.
Higher levels of organization than the tissue occur, particularly in animals. A number of
tissues working together as a functional unit is called an organ, for example the stomach or
the heart.
In animals, organs form parts of even larger functional units known as systems, for
example the digestive system (Pancreas, liver, stomach, duodenum etc.) and the vascular
system (heart and blood vessels).
Animal tissues are divided into four groups.
1. Epithelial
2. Connective, including areolar tissue, fibrous tissue, adipose tissue, cartilage, bone
3. Muscle
4. Nervous tissue

Epithelial tissue.
Epithelial tissue is arranged in single or multilayered sheets and covers the internal
and external surfaces of the body of an organism. Epithelial cells are held together by small
amounts of carbohydrate-based cementing substance and by special junctions between cells.
The bottom layer of cells rests on a basement membrane composed of a network of
fibre, which include collagen, in a matrix. The basement membrane provides structural
support for the epithelium and also binds it to neigbouring structures.
Types of Epithelial tissue.
There are six main types of epithelial tissue and function of the cells comprising them.
i. Cuboidal epithelium
The cells are cubical in shape. Each cell has a spherical nucleus in the centre. It is
found in the glands and lining of kidney tubules as well as in the ducts of the glands.
They also constitute the germinal epithelium which produces the egg cells in the
female ovary and the sperm cells in the male testes.

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 CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

2. Pavement epithelium

The cells are flattened, giving a paving appearance in surface view. The resulting sheet of
cells is thin and delicate. It is found in places where the protective covering needs to be
readily permeable to molecules in solution, for example the lining of capillaries and alveoli in
the lungs.
3. Columnar epithelium

Columnar

Cytoplasm

Nucleus

Basal layer

It consists of cells elongated at right angles to the basement membrane, in other words
they appear to be tall and column-like when viewed in section. Columnar epithelium is found
lining the intestine where it plays an important part in supporting other types of cells and
absorbing soluble food material.
4. Ciliated epithelium

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 These are simple columnar epithelial cells but in addition they possess hair like
outgrowths called cilia on their free surfaces. These cilia are capable of rapid, rhythmic,
wave-like beatings in a certain direction. Ciliated epithelium is found in the air passages like
the nose and also in uterus and fallopian tubes of females. The movement of the cilia propels
the ovum to the uterus.
5. Glandular epithelium

Epithelial cells are frequently interspersed with secretory cells. The resulting tissue
known as glandular epithelium secretes materials into the cavity or space which it happens to
be lining. A good example is seen in the lining of the mammalian intestine. Glandular
epithelium has large numbers of goblet cells which secrete mucus into the lumen of the
intestine. The lubricating action of the mucus facilitates the movement of solid matter along
the intestine. Glandular epithelial cells often become specialized as gland cells which are
capable of synthesizing and secreting certain substances such as enzymes, milk, mucus, sweat
and saliva.

STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM
Stratified epithelium is made up of a series of layers of cells and is much thicker than
ordinary epithelia. Tough and impervious, it comprises the epidermis of skin where its
function is protective.
The multi-layered nature of stratified epithelium derives from the fact that the cells at its
base, the formative layer, maintain the capacity to divide repeatedly along a plane parallel to
the basement membrane. As the multiplication continues the daughter cells get pushed
gradually outwards as new cells are formed beneath them. As the cells move outwards they
become flattened and eventually die off, to be replaced by new ones from beneath.

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CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Ground
Elastic fibre
substance

Fibroblast

Collagen
Macrophag
fibre
e

Fat Cell
Mast-cell

The tissues and organs in the body must be supported and held in position. This
function is performed by connective tissue which binds organs and tissues together. It follows
from its function that connective tissue must be strong. It consists of matrix or grand
substance in which a variety of structures may be embedded. The cells are usually widely
separated from each other. An extensive blood supply runs through the tissue in some parts of
the body, as in the dermis of the skin. Connective tissue fulfils many functions other than
packing and binding other structures together, such as providing protection against wounding
or bacterial invasion (Areolar tissue), insulation of the body against heat loss (adipose tissue),
providing a supportive frame work for the body (cartilage and bone) and producing blood
cells.

Component of Connective Tissue

 Collagen fibres: Flexible but very strong and non-stretchable
 Ground substance: In which the various fibres and cells are embedded
 Fibroblast: Long flat cells which produce the collagen and elastic fibres
 Mast cell: Secretes the grand substance and anticoagulant.
 Fat cell: Which stores fat
 Macrophage: A large amoeboid cell which ingests a wide variety of foreign particles
and is important in defending the body against disease.
 Elastic fibre: Form a loose network of stretchable fibres.
Muscular tissue
A muscle is a very specialized tissue which is remarkably similar throughout the
animal kingdom. Muscles are largely made up of protein and they consist of large numbers of
very long cells known as muscle fibres, bound together by connective tissue. They can
contract (shorten) and relax, and have a good blood supply to provide them with the glucose
and oxygen they need when they are working and remove the waste products which result.
In mammals the muscle tissue can make up as much as 40% of the body weight.
There are three main types of muscle; each specialized to perform a particular function.
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(a). Skeletal muscles is also known as striated muscles or voluntary muscles. This is the
muscle which is attached to the skeleton and so is involved in locomotion. It is under the
control of the voluntary nervous system and its appearance under the microscope is striated or
stripy. It contracts rapidly but also fatigues or tires relatively quickly.
(b). Smooth muscle is also known as involuntary muscle. It does not appear striated under
microscope and is under control of the involuntary nervous system. It is found in the gut
where it is involved in moving the food along and in the blood vessels. It both contracts and
fatigues slowly.
(c). Cardiac muscle is found exclusively in the heart. It is striated and the fibres are joined by
cross connections. It contracts spontaneously and does not fatigue.

THE SKIN
The major homeostatic organ involved in thermoregulation is the skin. Heat loss
through the gut and the respiratory surfaces occur and cannot be prevented, but the skin has
evolved to provide an enormous surface area which can be modified either to conserve or to
lose heat. The skin is the largest single organ. It covers the entire surface of the body, in a
water proof layer, providing protection both against mechanical damage and from the
ultraviolet radiation of the sun.
The skin can be regarded as a sense organ, containing thousands of sensory nerve
endings providing the brain with information about many aspects of the outside world,
including temperature, touch and pain. It is also an excretory organ, with urea, salt and water
being lost in the sweat. The major hamestatic function of the skin is in thermoregulation.
Epidermis: This is made up of cornified layer, Granular layer and Malpighian layer. The
many layers are produced by the malpighian layer. They contain varying amounts of pigment
to protect the lower cells from damage by ultraviolet radiation from the sun. The cells gain
Keratin which makes them waterproof. These layers form an outer layer preventing the entry
of pathogens, protecting against radiation damage.
Dermis: The dermis lies underneath the epidermis and is composed of dense connective
tissue. Hair of mammals originates from hair follicle which are embedded in the dermis. A
smooth muscle called the erector pili contracts to erect the hair. In humans the muscles are
seen as “goose-pimples”. Sebaceous gland secretes an oily substance (sebum) which helps to
keep the hair flexible and waterproofs the surface of the skin.
Sweat glands produce sweat by absorbing water and solutes from the capillaries. The
evaporation of sweat from the surface of the skin causes cooling and the sweat contains
excess water, urea and salts so is also a method of excretion.
The dermis contains blood vessels and neurons that control the flow of blood through
the skin in order to regulate body temperature. When the body temperature is high, blood
flow to these vessels increase; the rate of sweat production increases. As more sweat is
released on to the skin surface, heat is lost as the water evaporates. When the body
temperature is low, blood flow to the dermis decreases. Shivering occurs as a mechanism to
produce heat when the body temperature is low. The dermis contains receptors for pressure,
touch, pain etc.
The subcutaneous fat layer is made up of adipose cells. This layer helps to protect the
body from mechanical damage and acts as an insulating layer against heat loss. It stores
energy in the form of fat.
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 MAMMALIAN SKIN

LIVER
The liver is one the major body organs concerned with homeostatis. It is the largest
individual organ contained within the body, a reddish-brown organ which makes up about 5%
of the total body mass. It lies just below the diaphragm and is made up of several lobes. The
cells of the liver are surprisingly simple and uniform in appearance, considering the variety
and complexity of the functions of the organ. The liver cells are called hepatocytes. The
appearance of the hepatocytes shows that they are metabolically active cells. They have large
nuclei, prominent Golgi apparatus and many mitochondria. The liver has a unique blood
supply within the body. Oxygenated blood is supplied to the liver by the hepatic artery and
removed from the liver and returned to the heart in the hepatic vein. However, the liver is
also supplied with blood by a second vessel, the hepatic portal vein which carries blood from
the intestine straight to the liver. Blood from the hepatic artery and the hepatic portal vein is
mixed in spaces called sinusoids which are surrounded by hepatocytes.
This mixing increases the oxygen content of the blood from the hepatic portal vein,
supplying the hepatocytes with sufficient oxygen for their needs. The hepatocytes secretes
bile from the breakdown of the blood into spaces called canaliculi, and from these the bile
drains into the bile ductiles which take it to the gall bladder.
The liver carries out about 500 different tasks.
Liver tissues
Kupffer cell

Hepatocyte

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 Kupffer cells ingest foreign particles and help protect against disease. The liver has a
very rich blood supply. About 1dm3 of blood flows through it every minute. Up to ¾ of this
blood comes from the gut via the hepatic portal vein and is loaded with the products of
digestion and absorption. These are the raw materials for the many metabolic activities of the
liver.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER

Carbohydrate Control
All the hexose sugars which are absorbed from the gut are converted into glucose by
the hepatocytes. Also the hepatocytes are closely involved in the homeostatic control of
glucose levels in the blood under the control of insulin and glucagon. When blood glucose
levels rise, hepatocytes convert glucose to the storage carbohydrate glycogen under the
influence of insulin. Similarly, when blood sugar levels start to fall, the hepatocytes convert
the glycogen back to glucose under the influence of the hormone glucagon.

Lipid Control
Some carbohydrate can be stored as glycogen by the liver, and some glycogen is
stored in the muscles. Any excess carbohydrate eaten over is converted to lipids by the
hepatocytes for storage elsewhere in the body. The hepatocytes are also involved in removing
cholesterol and various other lipids from the blood and breaking them down or modifying
them for use elsewhere. Cholesterol is needed by the body for the formation of cell
membranes, particularly in the nerve cells, and for the production of hormones.
Excess cholesterol is excreted in the bile and may precipitate to form gall stones in the
gall bladder or bile duct. A raised blood cholesterol level can cause problems as cholesterol
may be deposited in the blood vessels and cause heart attacks.

Protein Control
The liver plays a vital role in protein metabolism. It produces certain plasma proteins.
The hepatocytes also carry out transamination, the conversion of one amino acid into another.
The diet does not always contain the required balance of amino acids, but transamination can
overcome many potential problems this might cause. The most important role of the liver in
protein metabolism is in deamination. The body cannot store either protein or amino acids.
Any excess protein eaten would be excreted and therefore wasted were it not for the action of
the hepatocytes. They deaminate the amino acids, removing the amino group and converting
it first into the very toxic ammonia and then to urea. Urea is less poisonous and can be
excreted by the kidneys. The remainder of the amino acid can then be fed into cellular
respiration or converted into lipids for storage.

Bile Production
The production of bile by the hepatocytes is important in homeostatis for several
reasons. Bile contains:
i. Bile salts which have a valuable role in the digestion of fats
ii. Bile pigments which excrete the break down products of haemoglobin.
iii. Cholesterol, the removal of which helps to control the blood level within narrow
boundaries.
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Storage
The liver stores a variety of substances, releasing them as necessary to maintain a
steady concentration in the blood. Substances stored include glycogen, with its important role
in sugar metabolism, the lipid-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K and the water soluble vitamins
of group B and vitamin C. The liver also stores Iron, copper, zinc and cobalt ions.

Control of Toxins
Toxins are constantly produced in the body. Apart from urea many other metabolic
pathways produce potentially poisonous substances. We also take in a wide variety of poisons
on a voluntary basis, such as alcohol and drugs. The liver is the site where all these
substances are absorbed and detoxified. A classic example is the way the liver deals with
hydrogen peroxide, a byproduct of various metabolic pathways. Hepatocytes contain the
enzyme catalase one of the most active of all known enzymes, which splits the hydrogen
peroxide into oxygen and H20.

KIDNEY
The kidneys of mammals are capable of producing waste fluid which is more
concentrated than the body fluid and this allows mammals to conserve water and inhabit
relatively inhospitable environments. In humans, as in other mammals, the kidneys are dark
reddish brown in colour and are attached to the back of the abdominal cavity. They are
surrounded by a thin layer of fat which helps to protect them from mechanical damage. They
control the water potential of the blood that passes through them, removing substances which
would affect the water balance as well as getting rid of urea, the nitrogenous waste product of
protein breakdown. The kidneys produce fluid called urine, which is collected and stored in
the urinary bladder. This is emptied at intervals when full.

Internal structure of kidney

Cortex:- This has a particularly rich capillary network and so is very dark red in colour. It
contains the malpighian bodies of all the nephrons.
Medulla:- This contains the loops of Henle from the nephrons.
Pelvis:- The central chamber where urine arrives from the collecting ducts.

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Functions of the Kidney
The kidney carries out three main functions in its osmoregulatory role
1. Ultra filtration
2. Selective reabsorption
3. Tubular secretion
In human, blood passes through the kidneys at a rate of 1200 cm3 per minute, which
means that all the blood in the body travels through the kidney and is filtered and balanced
approximately once every 5 minutes. The functions of the kidney are carried out by the
individual nephrons. Each nephron is about 12-14 mm long, and there are about 1.5 million
of them in each kidney. This means that there are many kilometre of tubules in the kidneys
all engaged in filtering and balancing the blood.

ULTRAFILTRATION
Ultrafiltration occurs due to a combination of very high blood pressure in the
glomerular capillaries and the structure of the Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus. The high
blood pressure develops in the capillaries because the diameter of the afferent vessel is
greater than the efferent vessel.
The high pressure squeezes the blood plasma out through the pores in the capillary
wall. All the contents of the plasma can pass out of the capillary; its wall retains only the
blood cells. The basement membrane between the capillary and the Bowman’s capsule acts
as the filter, preventing platelets and plasma proteins from passing through. Ultrafiltration
removes urea, the waste product of protein breakdown, from the blood. It also removes a lot
of water and all the glucose, salt and other substances which are present in the plasma.
Much of the water and salt may be needed by the body. Glucose is a vital energy
supply for the body and is never, under normal circumstances excreted.

Loop of Henle

THE URINE
The fluid produced by the kidney tubules is collected first in the pelvis of the organ. It
then passes along the ureters to the bladders, where it is stored until the bladder is
sufficiently stretched to stimulate micturition. The urine contains variable amount of water
and salts and large quantities of urea. Substances such as glucose or protein appearing in the
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urine indicates either that there are problems elsewhere in the body, in the pancreas or that
the kidneys are not working properly.

OVARIES AND TESTIS

The female sex organs are the ovaries; these are found low in the abdominal cavity
and are closely associated with the uterus and fallopian tubes. It is the presence of the
ovaries which results in the outward signs of femaleness. The ovaries have two main
functions and they are controlled by chemical messages from the pituitary gland in the brain
just like the testes. Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates the development of ripe ova, the
female gametes, within structures called follicles in the ovaries. Follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH) also stimulates the production of the hormone oestrogen. Luteinizing
hormone (LH) brings about the production of the hormone progesterone.
Oestrogen is responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics, those physical
attributes associated with femaleness. The changes in the female’s body shape during
puberty tend to be more dramatic than those in the male. The production of ova begins in the
feotus long before birth. By the time of birth about 2 million immature ova-containing
follicles are present in the ovaries of a baby girl. Only about 450 of these ova will be
released from mature follicles and a tiny fraction of these will be fertilized and develop into
new human beings. At puberty, the menstrual cycle begins and is repeated approximately
every 28 days for the years of a woman’s reproductive life, that is until she runs out of ova,
and enters her menopause.
The male sex organs are the testes. In human males the testes are found outsides the
main body cavity in a thin-skinned sac called the scrotum. This external position makes these
delicate organs vulnerable but helps to maintain the optimum temperature for the production
of healthy sperm, 2-30C lower than normal body temperature. It is the presence of testes
which result in the development of all the other characteristics of maleness. The testes have
two main functions, controlled by hormones produced by the pituitary gland in the brain.
Follicle stimulating hormones (FSH) stimulates the development of spermatozoa. Luteinizing
hormone (LH) stimulates the testes to make testosterone. The testes are made up of several
different type of cells, most of which are involved in sperm production.
However, the function of the interstitial or leydig cells is to manufacture the male sex
hormone testosterone. Testosterone is responsible for the production of sperm and wholly
responsible for the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics. The
whole body undergoes growth spurt. Facial hair, pubic hair and body hair begin to grow. The
Larynx enlarges and the voice deepens. Shoulders and chest broaden. The testes grow larger,
become active and start sperm production. The penis enlarges and the scrotum.
Sperm product production usually continues throughout the life of the individual.
Spermatozoa are produced in the epithelium of the seminiferous tubules. Many millions are
made each day. Sertoli or nurse cells supply the support, protection and nutrition to the
maturing sperm.

BLOOD
Blood is the transport medium of the body. It is an extremely complex substance
carrying a wide variety of cells and substances to all areas of the body. Blood carries out a
wide variety of function:-

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1. Transport of digested food product from the villi of the small intestine to all the areas of
the body where they are needed for either immediate uses or storage.
2. Transport of food molecules from storage areas to the cells which need them.
3. Transport of excretory products from the cells where they have been formed to the areas
where they will be excreted.
4. Transport of chemical messages (hormones) from the glands where they are made
around the body.
5. Helping to maintain a steady body temperature by distributing heat from deep-seated or
very active tissue around the system.
6. Transport of oxygen from the lungs to all cells for respiration.
7. Transport of carbon dioxide from respiring cells to the lungs.
8. Clotting of the blood, to prevent excessive blood loss and the entry of pathogens.
9. Providing immunity through the lymphocytes.
10. Engulfing and digesting pathogen by the phagocytotic action of the granulocytes.

BLOOD COMPONENT
Plasma
This Liquid is the main component of blood, and consists largely of water. Plasma
contains fibrinogen, a protein vital for the clotting of blood. The removal of fibrinogen from
plasma results in serum, which contains a wide range of dissolved substances to be
transported.
Eryhrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

Erythrocytes are biconcave discs. There are approximately 5million erythrocytes per mm 3 of
blood. The cells contain haemoglobin, the red oxygen-carrying pigment which gives them
their colour. Erythrocytes are formed in the red bone marrow of the short bones. Mature
erythrocytes do not contain a nucleus and have a limited life of about 120 days.

Leucocytes:-(white blood cells)

Leucocytes are much larger than erythrocytes, but can squeeze through narrow gaps
by changing their shape. There are approximately 7000 leucocytes per mm 3 of blood. They
all contain nucleus and have colourless cytoplasm. Most are formed in the white bone
marrow of the long bones, although some lymphocytes
are formed in the lymph gland and spleen.

Neutrophilis Monocytes Lymphocytes platelets

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Platelets (Thrombocytes)
Platelets are tiny fragments of large cells called megakaryocytes which occur in the
bone marrow. They are involved in the clotting of the blood.
Although blood is a fluid, it must be seen as a connective tissue which consists of a
ground substance, blood plasma and cell elements, blood corpuscles. The only difference
with the other connective tissues is that it does not contain fibre elements.

BONE
Bone tissue occurs in the different bones of the skeleton, bone is a hard and rigid
tissue. Like cartilage, bone consists of living cells with large amounts of ground substances or
matrix. It is impregnated with organic salts such as calcium carbonates (7%) and calcium
phosphate (85%). Small amounts of sodium and magnesium is also present. In addition to
this, the matrix contains numerous collagenous fibres and a large amount of water. Collagen
fibers together with the bone cells constitute the organic (living) matter in bone tissue. There
are different groups of bone in the skeleton, e.g. alia long bones such as the humerus and
femur.

Structure of a Bone
A long bone such as the femur consists of a center piece, the shaft (diaphysis) and a
thickened head (epiphysis) at each end. The heads articulates with other bones in the joints
and are covered with a thin layers of hyaline cartilage. The remainder of the bone is covered
with a tough, strong membrane, the periosteum which is richly supplied with blood vessels.
There is a small artery which penetrates the shaft near the center to supply the bone tissue
with blood. Beneath the periosteum is a layer of compact bone which is thicker in the shaft
than in the two heads. The shaft encloses a hollow, the marrow cavity, which is lined with a
thin soft membrane known as the endosteun. The marrow cavity contains a soft tissue richly
supplied with fat cells and blood corpuscles, the yellow marrow. The epiphysis of a long
bone consists of spongy (or cancellous) bone covered with a thin layer of compact bone. This
is made up of bone bars (or trabeculae) arranged in such a way that they are able to resist any
force which applied upon the bone. Between the bars are many tiny cavities filled with a red
marrow which contains numerous red blood corpuscles in different stages of development
alive and once they have completely surrounded by the hard bone matrix they are called
osteocytes. The osteocytes are embedded in fluid-filled cavities within the concentric
lamellae. These cavities are known as lacunae and occur at regular intervals in these
concentric layers of bone tissue. The lacunae are connected to one another and to the
Haversian canal by a system of interconnecting canals known as canaliculi. Each Haversian
canals, its concentric lamellae, lamellae, lucume with osteocytes and canaliculi forms a long
cylinder and it called a Havesian system. Separate Haversian systems are joined to each other
by means of interstitial lamellae.

Growth of Bone Tissue

In a child a long bone has a layer of cartilage between the head (epiphysis) and the
shaft (diaphysis). The cartilage grows actively which causes an increase in the length of the
bone. The bone grows in the length until the child reaches its adult size. The cartilages then
also ossified and disappear. At the same time the bone increases in thickness as a result of the

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formation of bone tissue immediately beneath the perioteum. The innermost layers, nearest to
the marrow cavity, are constantly absorbed, which enlarges the size of the marrow cavity.

Function Of Bone Tissue

 Support: The skeleton, which consists mainly of bone tissue, forms a supportive
framework giving shape and rigidity to the body.
 Locomotion: The bone tissue forms a system of lever to which the voluntary muscles
are attached
 Protection: It serves to protect the soft and delicate organs of the body such as the
skull protects the brain.
 Manufacturing of Blood cells: Red blood cells are manufactured in the red bone
marrow, which is situated in the spongy tissue at the ends of long bones.
 Homeostasis: Bone plays a part in homeostasis because it helps to maintain a
constant level of calcium in the blood.

BONE

Patella surface
Reference

Ann, Fullick (1994) Advanced Biology Heinemann Educational Publishers

Robert, M. B. V. (1985) Biology A Functional Approch Marlborougy
Sarojini T.R (2005). Modern Biology for Senior Secondary Schools. Third edition Africana
First Publishers Limited
STAN, (1990) Stan Biology for Senior Secondary School Ibadan Heineman Education Books
Nigeria Limited.
Taylor, D.J. Green N.P.P, Stout G.W. (2010) Biological Science 1 ×2. Third edition.
Cambridge University Press United Kingdom

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 CHAPTER SIX
BIOLOGY PRACTICAL III
By
Filshak A. L. Mercy
This chapter deals mainly with the practical aspect of the anatomy and histology of
plants of the monocotyledon, dicotyledon and diversity of chordates

PREPARATION OF TEMPORARY SLIDES FOR TRANSVERSE- SECTION OF

ROOT, STEM AND LEAF OF MONOCOTYLEDONOUS AND DICOTYLEDONOUS
PLANTS

Step I: Preliminary preparation

- The materials for these preparations can be obtained from a young maize and beans
plant.
- Young maize plant is used to prepare the transverse-section of root, stem and leaf of a
monocotyledonous plant.
- Young bean plants used to prepare the transverse-section of root, stem and leaf of a
dicotyledonous plant.
- The young plants (i.e Bean & Maize) are expected to have been planted for one or
two weeks before the day of the experiment.

Step II: Preparation of Temporary slides

- Carefully uproot the maize/bean plant ensuring that the roots are intact.
- Carefully rinse the root in water to remove soil particles from it.
- Section the transverse-section of the root, stem, leaf making use of microtome
knife/razor blade.
- It is expected that the sectioned specimen should be as this as 10NM (0.01mm). This
will ensure proper light penetration into the specimen as well as the staining reagents.
- Place the section on an empty slide and add a drop of water to maintain the cells.
- Stain the specimen using iodine or any other suitable staining reagents.
- Carefully mount the specimen under the microscope.
- You are expected to adjust the microscope until certain features are clearly seen under
the light microscope.
- View the stained specimen under the microscope.
- Report the practical.
- Diagram to be drawn in class.

General Function of the Root

The root shows negative phototropism and responds positively to gravitational forces
(geotropism). The functions are:
- Absorption of water and mineral salts from the soil.
- Anchor the plant firmly to the soil.
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- Store food as in sweet potatoes, carrot, cassava etc
- Provide raw-materials needed for photosynthesis and other related anabolic processes
in plants.
- Some roots store water. This is found in some members of the pumpkin family
(Cucurbitaceous), especially those that grow in arid regions, may produce water
storage roots.
- Some plants roots perform parasitic function to ensure the survival since they lack
chlorophyll necessary for photosynthesis e.g dodder plant.

COMPARING THE TRANSVERSE-SECTIONS OF MONOCOTYLEDON STEM &

DICOTYLEDON STEMS.

The differences between the transverse-section of monocotyledon stem and Dicotyledon stem
are tabulated below:

Monocotyledonous stem Dicotyledonous stem

Pith absent Pith present
Scattered vascular bundle Arranged vascular bundles in rings
Cambium absent Cambium present
Narrow cortex Wide cortex
Secondary thickening absent Secondary thickening present
Sclerenchyma appear below the epidermis Collenchyma’s appears below the epidermis

Comparing the transverse-section of monocotyledon root & dicotyledon root.

Monocotyledon root Dicotyledon root
Wide pith present usually larger and well Pith absent
developed
Has many xylem bundles radially arranged Has only one star shaped xylem bundle centrally
placed
Cambium absent No secondary thickening Cambium develop during secondary thickening
Many phloem bundles Few phloem bundles
Structure & Functional differences Between stem and root.
Stem Root
Respond positively to phototropic and negatively Respond positively to geotropic and hydrotropic
geotropic and hydrotropic but negatively phototropic
Cuticle present Cuticle absent
Root hairs generally absent if present cannot Root hairs present and can absorb mineral salt
absorb mineral salt and water (e.g goat weed) water
Cambium present between phloem and xylem Cambium absent in the young root
The phloem and xylem occur together in a The phloem and xylem occur alternately in a
vascular bundles vascular bundle
Usually green due to presence of chlorophyll and Usually white or brown and cannot (manufacture
can photosynthesized food) photosynthesized because of lack of
chlorophyll.

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Functions of stems:
- The hold the leaves in position for photosynthesis
- They hold flowers and fruit in position for pollination and dispersal respectively
- They conduct water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves & conduct
manufacture food from the leaves to the roots growing regions and storage organs of
the plants.
- Some stems are modified for special functions such as climbing protections, food
storage, water storage and vegetative reproduction
- Some stem contains chlorophyll and thus can photosynthesis to manufacture organic
food

General Functions of leaves

The normal functions of leaves are:
i. Photosynthetic function
ii. Transpiration function
iii. Respiration function
iv. Transportation (TTPR)

Other special functions of leaves are:

i. Protection: Cactus and palm fronds of palm trees are modified into spine for
protection of the plants.
ii. Climbing: Plants like Gloriossa Superba have the apex of its leaves modified into
tendrils for climbing
iii. Storage organ: The leaves of some plants such as the aloes are fleshy and thick. This
also helps in storing water which is needed during the period of drought food is also
stored in the leaves of onion bulb.
iv. Feeding: The leaves of some plants such as sundew Drosera rotundifolia and Venue
fly trap Dionaea muscipula are modified for trapping insects for food.
v. Vegetative reproduction: The leaf of Bryoohylum pinnatum is used for vegetative
propagation.

PART TWO
DIVERSITY OF CHORDATES
Learning objectives
By the end of the lesson students should be able to:
- Identify specimen A to F with reasons
- Outline the biological features of the specimen(s)
- Classify each specimen to at least class level
- Discuss the adaptive features of the specimen identified
- Identify the distinguishing features of the specimens given
- Draw and label the specimens given

Step I: Introductory note

Chordates are animals that possess notochord at one stage of their development. The
notochord is usually located at the dorsal part of the body.

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They are grouped into five classes: Namely:
Class – Pieces e.g Fishes – Tilapia, Dogfish, Shark etc.
Amphibian e.g Toad, Frog etc
Reptilian e.g Lizard, Snake etc
Aves e.g Birds – Fowl, Ducks, Pigeon etc
Mammalia e.g Rat, Bat, Lion, Man etc

Step II: Identification of specimen(s)

Identify the following specimen(s) with reasons
1. Specimen A (Tilapia)
2. Specimen B (Dog fish or Shark)
3. Specimen C (Toad)
4. Specimen D (Lizard)
5. Specimen E (Fowl)
6. Specimen F (Rat)
Specimen A is a Tilapia zilli
Reason/Adaptive features
- Presence of scale for protection
- Presence of paired fins for swimming
- Presence of gills for gaseous exchange
- Presence of tail fin for movement
- Presence of lateral fins for detection of vibration in the water
- Presence of a pair of eye for vision
- Presence of pair of pectoral fin for balancing
- Presence of swim bladder for buoyancy
- Presence of streamlined body for easy movement
The biological features of specimen A (Tilapia zilli) are:
Scales, pairs of fins, lateral lines, mouth, operculum, dorsal fin, pair of eye, anus, gills,
nostrils.

Classification of specimen(s)
Tilapia Shark Toad Lizard
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordate Chordate Chordate Chordate
Sub-phylum Vertebrata Vertebrata Vertebrata Vertebrata
Class Osteich thyes Osteich thyes Amphibian Reptilian
Order Perciformes Lamniformes Salient (Anura) Squamata
Family Cichlidae Carcharihindae Bufonidae Agamidae
Genus Tilapia Carcharedon Bufo Agama
Species Tilapia Carcharedon Bufo Agama
zilli carcharias regularis agama

Domestic Pigeon Rat Bat

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 bird
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordate Chordate Chordate Chordate
Sub-phylum Vertebrata Vertebrata Vertebrata Vertebrata
Class Aves Aves Mammalia Mammalia
Order Galliformes Columbiformes Rodentia Chiroptera
Family Gallidae Colum bidae Muridae Hipposideridae
Genus Gallus Columba Rattus Hipposideridae
Species Gallus Columba Ratus Hipposideres
domesticus guinea or livia rattus bealus

External features of a tilapia zilli (fig. vi)

Adaptive features of specimen (A) Tilapia zilli to Aquatic Habitat
- Possession of a streamlined body such shape offers minimum resistance to water
flowing over them.
- Occurrence of gills for breathing or gaseous exchange.
- Presence of air bladder for buoyancy in water.
- Occurrence of fins to facilitate swimming movement.
- Dorsal side is dark and ventral side is silvery white for camouflage against predator.
- Scales to prevent mechanical injury
- Presence of lateral line to detect vibrations in water
- Anus for removal of nitrogenous waste e.g. Ammonia

Student Activities
Carefully locate the operculum of specimen A “Tilapia zillia” and lift it with a pair of
forceps cut the operculum off to expose the structures that lie underneath count the gill arches
exposed.
Make a drawing from the head to the trunk regions and label fully.
Specimen B (Shark)

Reasons for identification are:

- Scales pairs of lateral fins
- Movable jaws articulated to the cranium
- Enamel covered teeth on the jaws
- Unpaired dorsal fins
- Presences of gill pouches
- A pair of eye

Adaptive features of specimen B (Shark)

- Well-developed teeth for feeding
- Powerful fins for locomotion and swimming
- Gills for gaseous exchange
- Streamlined body for easy movement
- Claspers for copulation and reproduction
- Cloacae aperture for excretion
Biological features of specimen B (shark)
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- Gill opening or gill slits, mouth, nostrils, heteroceral tail (in some species), paired
fins, unpaired fins scales.
Specimen C (Toad)
Reasons for identification are:
- Presence of poisonous gland
- Presence of webbed hind limbs
- Presence of warty rough skin
- Presence of bulgy eye
- Presence of tympanic membrane

Adaptive features of specimen C (Bufo regularis)

- Streamlined body for easy movement in water and on land
- Presence of lungs for gaseous exchange (gill as in tadpole for gaseous exchange)
- The warty rough skin is also use for gaseous exchange
- Webbed hind limb for swimming
- Powerful muscles in the hind limb for hopping
- The absence of neck and tail facilitate easy movement both on land and in water
- The nictitating membrane helps to keep the eyeball moist and clean when the toad is
on land and serves as a protective covering when it is in water
- The bulged eyes give the toad a keen and wide range of vision
- The vometrine teeth and the teeth on the roof of the mouth help to hold the prey
- The attachment of the thick sticky tongue to the front of the lower jaw makes it an
effective organ for catching prey e.g insects
- The toad is capable of camouflaging. The pigment (chromatophore) in the skin can
change the colour of the toad to suit its background. This prevented it from being
attack by enemies i.e predators
- Presence of poison gland for protection against predators.

Ext. Features of toad (Bufo regularis) “fig vii”

Specimen D (Lizard) Agama agama
Reasons for identification are:
- Elongated body which is divided into head, trunk and tail
- Presence of dry scaly skin
- Presence of five toes ending in claws for climbing
- Presence of nuchal crest
- Presence of nostril
- Presence of tympanic membrane

Biological features of Agama agama

Scales, claw, digit, gular fold, nostrils, eye and ear drum (tympanic membrane) vent, short
neck, mouth.

Adaptive features of Agama agama

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Streamlined body for easy movement on land
- Presence of scales to prevent mechanical injury and also for regulation of body
temperature
- They have the tendency of cut off some part of their tail which movement confuse the
predator and the lizard escapes
- Gaseous exchange is by lungs
- Can adopt arboreal life to ensure survival
- Claws facilitate climbing of trees and wall
- Bulged eyes for perfect vision

Ext. Features of Agama agama

Specimen E (Fowl) or Pigeon (Columba livia)
Reasons for identification
- Presence of feather, beak, wings, claw, nostrils, digits, etc
- Body divided into head, nock, trunk and tail
- The body is covered with feather

Biological features of Pigeon (Columba livia) beak, neck, wing, quill, features tail feather,
contoue feather, eye, head, scales, claw, digits etc

Adaptive features of Columb livia

- Presence of beak for picking grain
- Presence of feather for regulation of the body temperature
- Presence of wing supported with muscles for fight
- Presence of light, hallow bone for flight
- Presence of claw for grasping
- Feather also provides protective coloration from the predators

Types of feather
There are basically five kinds of feather peculiar with birds they are:
1. Quill/contour feathers
2. Semiphlime or covert feather
3. Down feather
4. Filoplumes feather
5. Bristle feathers

Functions of Different Feathers

Functions of the Quill features
 They provide a streamlined shape to the body.
 They are used for flight due to their light nature.
 Surface area and their strong barbs.
 They protect the body from the wears and tears.
 They keep the body warm and prevent water from sticking to the body.

Functions of the covert feathers

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- They serve as heat insulator
- They block spaces between the quill or contour feather

Functions of the Down feathers

- In young birds they serve as the only body covering
- They serve as heat insulators
Functions of Filoplumes
- They assist in the orientation of feathers for flight, due to their sensory nature or
function.
- They enable the animal determine the environmental condition when in flight.

Functions of Bristle
- They protect the eyes from dust particles.
- They screen out foreign particles from the body and the eardrum.

Adaptations of Birds for Flight

- They possess a streamlined body which reduces air resistance when in flight.
- They possess wings with a large surface area which give the bird a lifting power in
flight.
- The breastbone (sternum) is modify to form a kneel for the attachment of large
muscles that operate the wings.
- They possess light and hollow bones which reduces the body weight.
- They lack teeth which reduces their body weight.
- They have air sacs in the body which act as air reservoir when the animal is flying,
also it contributes to the lightness of the body.
- They possess tail feather which is modified for steering during flight and for
braking /stopping.
- They possess an efficient breathing system (Respiratory system) made up of lungs and
numerious air sacs which allow the circulation of air around the body.
- They are homoeothermic (warm blooded) animal which ensures faster metabolic
activities.

Adaptation shown by flightless birds

- Their body is usually large and heavy
- Their feathers have lost their barbules and there is no firm surface to beat the air
- They have a small wings compared with the remaining part of the body
- The sternum muscles possess few blood vessels, hence the muscles lack adequate
oxygen for flight.
- They have small kneel therefore the flight muscles attached to it are poorly developed

Ext. Features of bird (fig x)

Differences between the external features of an Adult toad and a bird (fowl).

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 Toad Bird
No beak Beak present
Large and bulging small and non bulging
No tail Tail present
No wings Wings present
No scales Scale present
Webbed hind limb Digit clawed
Digits not clawed Digit clawed
No neck Neck present

How lizard is more advanced.

Than toad evolutionally
- Lizard has a dry and scaly skin, an effective adaptation to life on land while toad has
moist, soft and scales less skin, an adaptation for life in water and wet environment.
- Fertilization in lizard is internal with lying of leathering and soft eggs which resist
desiccation on land. In toad fertilization is external with laying of gelatinous covering
for its egg to aquatic life.
- Lizard respires by lungs while toad respires by skin,.
- Lizard possesses limbs with five toes ending in claws for climbing, digging holes for
laying of eggs running on the terrestrial habitat while toad has webbed hind limb for
swimming (an adaptation to aquatic life).

Specimen F Rattus rattus

Practical Questions
1. Identify specimen A without reasons
2. State the biological features of specimen F
3. State the adaptation of Rattus to Terrestrial Habitat
4. Classify specimen F to species level
5. Describe the mode of nutrition peculiar with specimen F
6. State in a tabular form the differences between Aves and Rattus rattus
7. Outline other similarities
8. Draw and label fully the external features of specimen F

Biological features of Rattus rattus are:

Whiskers, Nose, Mouth, Ear, hair, tail, eye etc

Adaptation of Rat to its habitat

- They possess whiskers for sensation. It helps them feel their way into the dark
especially in their burrows.
- They have movable pinna which allows the detection of sound from different
directions
- They have short limb which ends with sharp claws which is adapted for scratching
away the earth and the hind legs for throwing it back.
- They are Omnivorous animal therefore food shortage is never a problem.
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- They have dark fur (hairy covering). Helps in camouflaging and encage predator.
- They have a pointed head long, stagnated and their limbs are folded which allows
easy passage into the burrows.

The differences between Aves and Rat

Aves Rats
Possess feather Feather absent
Fur absent Fur present
Beak present Beak absent
Mouth present Mouth present
Wings present Wings absent
Pinna absent Pinna present
Whisker absent Whisker present

Similarities between Aves and Rats

- Both have ear
- They have claw in their hind limb
- Both are terrestrial animals
- They are warm-blooded animal
- They respires with lungs

References
Duyilemi, B.O. and Duyilemi, A.N. (2006) Practical Biology for Schools and Colleges.
Jordan, E.T. and Verma, P.S. (2006) Invertebrate Zoology S. Chad and company Ltd.
Reprinted edition by Rajendra Rauindra printers.
Iloeje S. O. (1996) Practical Biology Longman Nigeria Plc. Reprinted Edition by Academy
press Plc Lagos.
Tayor, D.J. Green N.P.O and stout, G.W. (1997) Biological Science. Third edition
Cambridge University Press.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

By
Gotan, Y.S.
INTRODUCTION
Physiology is the study of the processes and functions associated with life. Plants
germinate, grow, reproduce, respire, excrete, move, reproduce etc. and die. Plant physiology
studies such processes.

WATER RELATIONS OF PLANTS: This explains how plant absorbed water, used it and
how it is lost from the plant body.

Importance of Water to Plants

Water plays an important role in plants growth but some important ones are:
1. It forms the major constituent of the protoplasm of the cell.
2. It involve in bio-chemical reactions such as hydrolytic, condensation, photosynthesis,
transpiration etc in plants.
3. Water is a solvent for many chemical reactions.
4. It is a medium for the movement of dissolved substance in the xylem and phloem tissue.
5. It is a medium whereby motile gametes moves for fertilization in lower plants.
6. Water aid in the dispersal of spores, seeds and fruits in different plants.
7. Water maintains the temperature in plants tissues.
8. Water maintains the turgidity of plants body.
9. The amount of water present in the soil changes the morphology and anatomy of plants.

SOIL WATER
The water present in the soil may be of the following:
1. Gravitational water: This is the water which reaches deeply into the soil after rains
due to gravitation. The plant do not absorb this water through their roots.
2. Capillary water: The water which remains present in the intercellular spaces of soil.
This is the only water which plants can absorbed through their roots.
3. Hygroscopic water: The water present around the soil particles in form of thin
vapour. Plants do not absorbed this water.
4. Crystalline or Chemically combined water: The water which remain chemically
bound to the soil particles. Plants do not absorbed this water.eg CUSO4.5H20
5. Running water: The water which after rains flows down through the slopes. Plants
do not absorbed this water.

WATER REALATIONS OF PLANT CELLL

A typical vacuolated plant cell shows the following structures:

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1. Cell wall: This is a relatively rigid structure made up of cellulose. It is permeable to
water and some materials, except when it becomes old. That becomes impregnated with
fatty materials.
2. Plasmalemma (plasma membrane): This is the outer layer of the protoplasm below
the cell wall. It is selectively permeable, controlling the passage of materials into and
out of the cell by osmosis.
3. Cytoplasm (hyaloplasm): The part of the protoplasm outside the nucleus in which the
cisternae and membrane-bound organells lie. It also contains storage products e.g lipid,
droplet and starch grains.
4. Tonoplast: The membrane separating the cell vacuole from the protoplasm. It allowed
water to pass through it into the cell vacuole from outside the cell.
5. Vacuole: A fluid filled cavity within the cytoplasm.
6. Cell Sap: A solution of organic and inorganic compounds. These may include sugars,
soluble polysaccharides, soluble proteins, amino acid, carboxylic acids, red, blue and
purple anthocynanims, and mineral salts. Starch grains, oil droplets and crystals of
various kinds maybe present.(Fig1).

Fig.1. Structure of a typical vacuolated plant cell.

Some Important Terms in Connection with water Relations of Plants
Diffusion: This is the movement of free molecules of gases, liquids and solids from region of
higher concentration to the lower concentration due to internal or external forces. For
example: Blowing of wind, smell of scent, dissolution of sugar in water, photosynthesis,
respiration, dissolution of KMnO4 in water.
Factors affecting rate of diffusion are:
Temperature, concentration of the medium, size of particles, solubility of solutes, diffusion
pressure gradient (DPG) and density of the particles.
Importance of diffusion in plants:
 The exchange of O2 and CO2 gases in the atmosphere through stomata takes place by
diffusion.
 Transpiration through the stomata takes place by diffusion.
 The diffusion of ions of mineral salt during absorption takes place by diffusion.
 The absorption of water through the root of plants also is by diffusion

OSMOSIS: When two solution of different concentrations are separated by a semi permeable
membrane, the diffusion of water or solvent molecules takes place from the solution of lower
concentration to higher concentration.
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Osmotic pressure: This is the pressure/force required to prevent further movement of water
into a system. The OP of solutions is always greater than pure water and it is directly
proportional to the concentration of soluble solutes in solution.
Turgor Pressure: Is the outwardly directed hydrostatic pressure exerted against the cell wall
when a cell absorbs water.
Wall Pressure: Is the inwardly directed counter pressure exerted by the cell wall. The wall
pressure is always equal in magnitude to the turgor pressure.

Importance of Osmosis
1. It is involved in the movement of water from the soil into the root of plant through their
root hairs.
2. It is involved in the cell to cell movement of water from the root hairs to other cells of the
root.
3. It is involved in the movement of water from aquatic habitats into the body of aquatic
plants.
4. It is used in the maintenance of turgor pressure in plant cells.
5. It is involved in opening of stomatal pore in the guard cells.
6. Helps in the dehiscence of fruits and sporangia.

Differences Between Diffusion and Osmosis

Diffusion Osmosis
1. Occur in solid, liquid and gas Occurs only in liquids
2. Dos not require a semi Requires a semipermeable
permeable Membrane membrane
3. The movement of molecules The movement of water or
takes place from higher solvent takes place from
concentration to lower Solution of lower concentration
concentration to higher concentration

WATER POTENTIAL
Concept of Water Potential in Plants
 Water is a good solvent
 The tendency of water to move in any system is explained by the concept of water
potential
 This measures the energy available for movement in water
 Water potential of pure water subject only to atmospheric pressure is zero
 Water potential is expressed in units of pressure such as bar/ 1bar = 100kpa now is in
kilopascal (kPa)
 One bar is approximately equal to normal atmospheric pressure at sea level
 Water potential in plant cell can be raised by inward pressure of wall/pressure potential
 The presence of solute in water decreases water potential by an amount proportional to its
concentration
 The influence of solute on water potential is called solute potential
 It is always negative
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  Solute potential of OSM sucrose solution is – 11 bars
 Water potential of content of a cell or its vacuole is ʯ = ʯp + ʯs
Where
ʯ = water potential
ʯp = pressure potential
ʯs = solute potential.

The Components of Water Potential

The water potential of a living cell is determined by three major components:
 Matric potential (ʯm)
 Solute potential (ʯs)
 Pressure potential (ʯp)
Therefore, ʯ = ʯm + ʯs + ʯp.

MATRIC POTENTIAL
This is the components of water potentials influenced by the presence of a matric and has
negative value. In plant tissues and cells is often neglected because it is insignificant in
Osmosis.
Water Potential = S + P

WATER ECONOMY OF PLANT

This deal with the all activities connected with income and expenditure of water by
the plant. It deals with all physiological activities of plants concerned with water uptake and
transport and loss of water in plants.
Water economy in plants includes:
1. Absorption of water from the soil by the root hair is use for absorption of water
because of its large surface area. The root hairs usually function for only few days. They are
replaced progressively by new ones.
Some important factors that influenced water absorption by the roots from the soil:
i. Amount of moisture available in the soil
ii. The content of aeration of the soil
iii. The degree of soil temperature
iv. The depth of rooting of the plant
v. The Osmotic concentration of the rooting medium
vi. Water potential
2. Transport of absorbed water across the root to the base of the stem. Movement of the
absorbed water across the cortex of the root to the xylem usually occurs by two ways:
i. The cell-to-cell movement of water across the root
ii. Casparian strip (Casparian band): a band of suberized and/or lignified wall material in
the redial and transverse wall of cells of the Endodermis. This control the rate of flow
of water into the xylem.

3. Upward movement of absorbed water in plants.

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Different groups of plants used different mechanism of transporting water from the xylem
tissue to other plant organs such as leaves, flowers, fruits, etc.
The most important mechanism used by plants in the upward movement of absorbed water
are:
1. Root pressure
2. Capillary action
3. Reduced atmospheric pressure
4. Pumping mechanism of the living cells in the xylem tissue.
5. Transpiration pull

LOSS OF WATER INPLANTS:

Some plants lose water in liquid form through the process called guttation. It involved
the loss of water in droplet form from the margins of the leaves e.g Tomato.
TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration: This is the loss of water by evaporation from a plant surface (buds, flowers,
fruits, leaves etc). Transpiration occurs in cuticle, lenticels or stomata. The greatest amount of
water lost by plant is the stomata.

Factors affecting transpiration

The factors affecting transpiration in plants are:
a. External environmental factors: these includes;
1. Temperature: higher temperature gives greater transpiration, at higher
temperature water evaporates more freely than at lower temperature.
2. Light intensity: higher light intensity causes the stomata to open widely.
3. Wind: increase in air movement increases transpiration.
4. Humidity: the lower the relative humidity, the greater the rate of transpiration.
5. Amount of water available in plant factors: when the amount of soil water is
low, less water will be loss by transpiration. The opposite takes place when excess
water is available in the soul.

b. Structure of the plant factors: these includes;

1. The surface of the leaves: the larger the leaves surface the greater the rate of
transpiration.
2. Sunken stomata: the more the sunken the stomata the lesser the rate of
transpiration.
3. In-rolling of the leaf: the more in-rolling of the leaf the lesser rate of transpiration.
4. Hairy surface of the leaf: the more hairy surface of the leaf the lesser the rate of
transpiration.
5. The thick and waxy cuticles: the more thicker and waxy cuticles of the leaf, the
lower the rate of transpiration.
Significance of transpiration
1. It increase the rate of salt absorption in the soil.
2. It increases cooling effects of the plant.
3. Excess transpiration causes flaccidity and wilting in plants.
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4. As the water evaporates, hygroscopic salts absorbs water from the atmosphere thereby
making the leaves to become moist.
5. Excess water in plant is removed by transpiration

Difference Between Transpiration and Evaporation

Transpiration Evaporation
1. Is a biological phenomenon Is a simple physical phenomenon
2. It is controlled by guard cells It is not controlled by guard cell
3. It takes place through the surface of It take place through the surface of various
leaves open water bodies and does not require
living organism
4. Takes place due to osmotic pressure and Suction pressure or osmotic pressure not
suction pressure involved
5. Takes place in living cells Living cell not required
6. The temperature of the plant is Has no relation with plant temperature
maintained

Difference between Transpiration and Guttation

Transpiration Guttation
1. The water loss take place in the form of The water loss takes place in the form of
water vapours liquid drops
2. Transpired water is pure water The liquid from guttation is not pure water
but contain a number of dissolved substances
such as salt, sugar and coenzymes.
3. Takes place through stomata, lenticels Take place through hydathodes which are
and cuticles found at the margin of the leaves
4. Stomata become closed or open (open in The hydathodes remain open whole day and
the day and closed at night) night
5. Takes place during day hours Takes in the morning or at night.
6. It is controlled by the guard cells. It not controlled by guard cells.

7. Root pressure is not involved Takes place due to development of root

pressure
8. Maintains the temperature of the plant Has no relation with plant temperature
9. Takes place in all higher terrestrial plants Takes place mainly in herbaceous plants like
tomato, potato, grasses.

Special Features in Plants to Reduce Transpiration

Three types of features are found in plants to reduce transpiration. These includes:
(a) Morphological features: It includes:
1. Presence of dry, hard and cylindrical stem with ridges and furrows.
2. Presence of bark and cork on stems.
3. Reduction in number of branches and size of stem.
4. Decrease in length and number of branches in roots.
5. Presence of fleshy roots for storage of water.
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6. Presence of small scaly and reduced leaves.
7. Presence of small leaves which soon fall off.
8. Presence of long narrow and needle-like leaves .eg Pinus.
9. Presence of thick leaves covered by thick waxy cuticles.
10. Some leaves are thick, fleshy and mucilaginous.
11. Modification of stipules into thorn.
12. Presence of excess hairs on leaves.
13. The rolling and folding of leaves.
14. Presence of smooth and shining leaves.

(b) Anatomical Features:

1. presence of thick cuticles.
2. Presence of another wax layer on the cuticles.
3. Presence of multilayered epidermis.
4. Presence of hair and scales on the epidermis.
5. Presence of sunken and less number of stomata.
6. Presence of mucilage, gum, resin, latex and tanine in the hypodermal cells.
7. Presence of excess amount of schrenchyma.
8. Presence of compactly arranged palisade cells.

(c) Physiological Features:

1. Presence of high osmotic pressure in the cell-sap of leaves.
2. Presence of hydrophilic substances in the cells of stem and leaves.
3. Presence of excessive growth of root.
4. Closing of stomata during adverse conditions.

1 Experiment to show that water is given off during Transpiration.

A potted plant its soil surface covered properly with a polythene bag to prevent any water
loss from the soil is enclosed in a bell-jar and then kept in sunlight. After about 6 hours
liquid droplets will be seen on the inner surface of the bell – Jar.
A control experiment is set up using a shoot in a similar situation but all the leaves and
flowers detached.

2 Experiment to compare transpiration rates from the two surfaces of the

Dorsiventral leaf
With cellotape, attached dried cobalt Chloride paper on the upper and lower surfaces
of a healthy leaf plant. The property of cobalt chloride paper is that they are deep blue when
dry, but in contact with moisture they turn pink.
Examine the said experiment after 10 – 30 minutes. It will be seen that the cobalt
Chloride paper on the lower surface of the leaf turns pink early than the one on the upper
surface. This indicates that the transpiration is more vigorous from the lower surface because of
the presence of more number of the stomata than on the upper surface.

STAMA (pl. STOMATA): The epidermis of leaves and green stems has many small pore called
stamata.

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Stomata are the most important structures that are involved in transpiration. They differ in their size,
frequency and spacing on the leaves.

STRUCTURE OF STOMATA
The stoma is surrounded by guard cells, which control the size of its aperture. Guard cell are
often the only epidermal cells that have significant number of chloroplasts. The modified epidermal
cells (usually one or two) adjacent to each guard cell are called subsidiary cells or accessory cells. The
guard cell has nucleus, cytoplasm and many chloroplast.
In dicotyledons the guard cells are typically kidney-shaped, while in grass they are
usually more dumbbell-shaped. Stomata opening is possible by the guard cells taking up
water and swelling.(Fig2).

Fig.2. Structure of a Dicot stoma and a Monocot stoma. In monocot plants, the guard cell is dumb-shaped.
The central wall of the guard cell are extremely thick, while the ends of the guard are thin walled.

The involvement of stomata in transpiration

In healthy plants, the opening of stomata pore only occurs in the day time when there
is light. They normally remain closed at night. In light both photosynthesis and respiration
occurs. . However, the carbon IV oxide concentration is lower than at night time, because
photosynthesis utilizes the carbon IV oxide produced by respiration.
Changes taking place during opening of stomata
1. The concentration of carbon IV oxide in the leaves is reduced due to photosynthesis.
2. The pH of the cell-sap of guard cell is increased (pH 7).
3. The starch is converted in soluble sugar due to the action of enzyme Phosphorylase.
4. The osmotic pressure in the guard cells increased
5. The water from mesophyll cells diffuses into the guard cells and becomes turgid resulting
in opening of stomata.
Changes taking place during closing of stomata
1. The concentration of carbon IV oxide in the leaves increased in intercellular spaces.
2. The pH of the cell-sap of guard cell is reduced (pH 5).
3. Soluble sugars are converted into starch.
4. The osmotic pressure in the guard cells reduced.
5. The water from mesophyll cells diffuses out of the guard cells and becomes flaccid
resulting in closing of stomata.
MINERAL NUTRITION IN PLANTS
Introduction: Woodward (1699) for the first time observed that plants grow better in muddy
water than in rain water.

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 Nutrition is a metabolic process whereby living organism obtains its food
requirement. Green plants are called autotrophic and animal are called heterotrophic.
The materials needed by organisms in their nutrition are called nutrients. These
materials are described as organic nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, or
inorganic nutrients such as potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, boron, zinc etc.
Importance of nutrition
1. Provides energy to living organisms
2. Makes body growth possible
3. It provides repair and maintenance of worn-out tissues.
4. Helps in the secretion of enzymes use for metabolic activities.
5. Helps in the maintenance of the external osmotic environment
6. It regulates body PH
7. It is use for reproduction
MATERIAL REQUIREMENT OF PLANTS
A number of elements are needed by plants for their healthy growth and development.
Those essential elements needed by plants in relatively large amount are known as macro or
major elements. These includes: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulphur, Potassium, Calcium,
Magnesium and Iron. Others includes Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. There are some
elements that are needed in relatively small amount (trace elements) or micro nutrients. These
includes: Magnesium, Boron, Copper, Zinc, Molybdenum, and Chlorine.
Besides these two major groups of elements needed by plants, a number of others are
found in certain plants which have not been proved to serve any useful purpose in such
plants. For example, Aluminum occurs in tea, mosses and ferns. Also there is no conclusive
evidence to show that sodium and silicon are essential for plant growth.
At present there is no list of macro and micro nutrients that is final. A number of
others may be added to the list.
Note:
1. Iron is regarded by some plant physiologist as micro nutrients while others regard it as
macro nutrients.
2. Chlorine is grouped together with sodium and silicon, which even though are present in
many plants, but have not been confirmed to be essential to the growth of plants.
3. Antagonism occurs in some essential nutrient elements. For example, potassium present
in plants slow down the absorption of calcium and vice versa.
4. Growing medium should be balanced. For example, when nitrogen is more than
potassium in a growth media, a high proportion of nitrogen will be absorbed. And this
leads to potassium deficiency symptoms in plants.
5. Growing media use for studies must have satisfactory conditions for pH value.
6. Growth media must be adequately aerated.
7. Essential nutrients must be in relatively dilute solutions in the media

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Elements, source how they are absorbed, roles and deficiency symptoms.
S/N Elements Source How they are Roles Deficiency syndromes
absorbed
1 Nitrogen N i. Atmospheric nitrogen i. Nitrogen fixing Formation of Stunted growth,
ii. NPK fertilizer and bacteria proteins and yellowing and drying of
manure ii. from the root in nucleic acid older leaves
iii. Nitrates in the soil the soil farm NPK
iv. Ammonium in the salt and manure
iii. absorbed in form
or Urea, Nitrates,
Ammonium.
2 Phosphorus P i. NPK fertilizer i. From NPK Synthesis of Poor weedy growth,
ii.soil containing fertilizer nucleic acid, reddish colour in the
phosphate of Ca, K and ii. soil containing protein and stem leaves. Molting of
Mg phosphate Ca, K and coenzymes lower leaves
Mg
3 Potassium K NPK fertilizer potassium i. NPK fertilizer Formation of cell Mottled or marginal
salts in the soil ii. from soil with membrane, chlorosis of leaves. Curl
nitrates and sulphates enzyme to or Crinkle of leaves.
of potassium activators cell
division and
osmotic regulation
4 Sulphur S Sulphates From soils containing Formation of some Stunted growth, young
sulphates protein leaves becomes yellow.
5 Calcium Ca Calcium salt in the soil, from soils containing Formation of cell Necrosis of
lime limes, salts of wall, enzyme meristematic
calcium nitrates and activators regions.Young leaves
calcium phosphate may be deformed.Root
may be brownish,shoot
highly branched.
6. Magnessium Mg From magnesium sulphate Magnesium salt in Formation of Chlorosis develops
the soil chlorophyll, from the base of the
enzymes formation leaves then proceeds
of respiration and upward.Necrotic spots
photosynthesis develops in leaves.
7 Iron Fe Ferric and ferrors salts Absorbed from soils Formation of Intravenous chlorosis in
containing dissolved chlorophyll, young leaves,leaves
ferric ferrous salts enzymes formation becomes white and
for photosynthesis chlorotic.
and respiration
8 Zinc Zn Salt of zinc Absorbed from soil Activation of some Reduction in intermodal
containing zinc salt enzymes growth,plant shows
rosette growth,reduction
in leaves size.
9 Manganese Mn Salts of manganese as Mn+ Salts containing Activation of some Intervenous chlorosis
+
ions dissolved manganous enzymes (as with necrotic
ios as Mn++ cofactors) spots .Both young and
old leaves are affected.
10 Boron B Salts of boron From soil containing Help in the Black necrosis of young
dissolved boron salts transport of leaves and terminal
as borate calcium and sugar buds.
11 Copper Cu Salts of copper From soil containing Use in respiratory Leaves with necrotic
copper salts enzymes spots,may be
twisted,abscission may
occur.
12 Molybdenum Salts of molybdenum Soil containing Nitrogen fixation Chlorosis between veins
Mo molybdenum and older
leaves.Flowers
abscission may occur.

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Methods of determining mineral nutrients deficiencies in plants
1. Visual method: These includes:
(a) water culture environment (hydroponic experiment)
(b) sand culture environment

(a). Hydroponic environment: this is the practice of growing plants in a medium other
than the soil using a mixture of essential elements dissolved in water. This method was
evolved by Sachs and Knop (1865) and was used by them to established the essentiality of N,
P, K, Mg and S.
Knop’s solution
Normal culture solution
Potassium nitrate (KNo3) – 1gm
Acid potassium phosphate (KH2SO4) – 1gm
Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) - 1 gm
Calcium nitrate Ca (NO3)2- 4 gms
Ferric chloride solution FeCl3 – a few drops
Water – 1, 000 C.C/litre

This is called the stock solution of 0.7% strength. To make 0.1% solution, that is
normally used for water culture experiment, add, 6, 000 Cc of water to the Stock solution.
Experiment
A series of bottles of the same size and shape are fitted with a split cork. A number of
seedlings of the same species are introduced into the bottles marked A, B, C, and D etc. filled
with culture solution. The bottles are wrapped with black paper and exposed to sunlight.

Solution used Observation

A. with normal culture solution normal growth
B. the same minus potassium salt & leaves lose colour
withers
C. the same minus calcium salts poor root development,
yellow leaves, poor growth
and spotted leaves
D. the same minus magnesium salt no chlorophyll, poor growth
E. the same minus iron salt chlorotic leaves
F. the same minus phosphorus poor growth and weak
compound seedlings
G. the same minus sulphur compound yellow leaves
H. the same minus nitrogen compound yellow leaves, poor growth

Disadvantages of hydroponic solution

1. Need for constant aeration
2. The solution may encourage the growth of micro-organisms on the plant
3. The need to darkened the container to prevent the growth of algae
4. The need for support to the plant in the solution
5. All the chemical must be pure to prevent wrong result from the experiments
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 (b). Sand culture experiment (vermiculite pellet)
This experiment uses vermiculite pellets or white wash quartz. The plants are grown
in this media. Nutrients are apply on the top of the media at intervals. Pellets of vermiculite is
far less inert than white wash quartz sand.
Disadvantages of vermiculite pellet
1. Some of the materials contain some amount of essential elements in low amount
2. It requires frequent watering
In the present days, the chemical analysis of the whole plant or parts of the plants such as
foliar, xylem, sap etc to determine their nutrient deficiencies.
METHODS TO OVERCOME MINERAL DEFICIENCY IN PLANTS
1. Soil application: Minerals elements are added in the soil by adding fertilizers e.g NPK.
2. Foliar application: Solutions of minerals is prepared and then sprayed over the young
leaves of plants.
3. Injection method: Solution of minerals is prepared by dissolving their salts and then
injected through different parts and organs of the plant such as apex, petiole, veins of
leaves, apex of stem and branches; and roots or any part of the plant.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
This is the sequence of reaction performed by green plants, algae and photosynthetic
bacteria, in which light energy from the sun is converted into the chemical energy and used to
produce carbohydrates. This reaction can be summarized as:
sunlight
6Co2 + 6H2O + light energy C6 H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll

Photosynthetic Pigments: Pigment is any substance that absorb solar radiation from the sun
to initiate photosynthesis. There are three (3) types of pigments:

I. Chlorophylls:- These are main pigments which plants use in photosynthesis. They
mainly absorb red and blue-violet light, reflects blue-green yellow and green light.
There are at least seven (7) types of chlorophyll: -
Chl a, Chl b, Chl c, Chl d, Ch, Chl, e.
i. Chl a: Occur in all photosynthetic eukaryotes and cyanobacteria.
ii. Chl b: Occur in vascular plants and algae.
iii. Chl c: Occur in brown algae and diatoms.

The Chlorophyll molecule has a flat light absorbing head which contains a
magnesium atom at its center. This explain the need for magnesium by plants and the
deficiency reduces chlorophyll production and causes yellowing. The Chlorophyll molecule
also has a long hydrocarbon tail which is hydrophobic (water-heating). The tail project into
the thylakoid membranes and act like anchors. The heads are hydrophilic and lie flat on the
membrane.

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II. Carotenoids:- Are yellow, orange, red or brown pigments that absorb strongly in
blue-violet range. They are called accessory pigments because they pass the light energy
absorb to Chlorophyll. They do not contain oxygen molecule in their structure. There are two
(2) types, carotenes and xanthophylls. The most important Carotene is B-carotene of Carrot.
A source of vitamin A.
III. Phycobilins:- This accessory pigments found in red and blue-green algae. They are
protein and water soluble.
There are two (2) types:
a. Phycoerythrins:- red coloured phycobilins.
b. Phycocyanin:- blue coloured Phycobilins.
Usually both these types occur together, but their proportion may vary according to species and
environments.

SUMMARY OF PHOTOSYTHETIC PROCESS.

There are two (2) distinct phases in photosynthesis:
1. Light (light dependent) Hill’s reaction.
2. Dark (light independent) Black man’s reaction.

1. Light (light dependent):- Takes places as follows:

i. Excitation of an electron of Chlorophyll by a photon of light:- The
Chlorophyll molecule absorb light energy and converts it into electrical
energy. The Chlorophyll becomes temporarily excited
ii. Photolysis of water:- Some of the energy trapped by the Chlorophyll is used to
split water, called photolysis.
4H2O 4OH +4H
iii. Release of Oxygen:- As a result of pholysis of water oxygen is released.
4OH 4-e 4OH
4OH 2H2O + O2
iv. Formation of NADPH2:-Hydrogen from water (released during photolysis)
combines with NADP+ the hydrogen carrier molecule forming
NADPH2.
v. Photophosphorylation:- Formation of ATP. Some of the energy from the
excited chlorophyll molecules are used to make ATP.
Chl
ADP + IP
ATP
Chl
These reaction takes place in the thylakoid membrane where Chlorophyll & Carotenoids are
located.
2. Dark reaction:- This reduces the carbon IV oxide to glucose or starch. These reaction
takes place in the stroma of Chloroplast. The energy required for the reduction of
carbon IV oxide is derived from ATP and hydrogen from NADPH 2 from the light
reaction.
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The reaction can take place under different conditions:
i. Calvin cycle or C3 cycle.
ii. Hatch and Slack cycle or C4 cycle.

II. C3 cycle:- This sis called Calvin cycle, name d after the scientist called Malvin Calvin
that worn a noble Prize for his work.
Ribulose Diphosphate (Ribulose biphosphate), a 5 carbon com pound present in the
stroma of the chloroplast accept the carbon IV oxide present in water to formed
phosphogyceric acid (PGA). An unstable 6-carbon compound that is reduced by NADPH
(Nicotine amide Adenine Dinucleotide) and ATP ( Adenosine Triphosphate). The PGA is
splits into two (2) molecules of Phosphogyceraldehyde (PGAL) called Triose Phosphate. This
is the first product of photosynthesis. The NADPH becomes NADP and ATP becomes ADP
and moves back to the grana to continue the cycle of events.

Ribulose 1,5 diphosphate (RUDP)

Accept
CO2 in H2O
Phosphoglyceric acid (PGA)
Reduction by
NADPH & ATP
Phosphogyceraldehyde (PGAL)
(Triose Phosphate)
The 1st Product of Photosynthesis
Glucose

Starch
Example of C3 Plants: tobacco, beans,
NOTE:
PGAL can be transformed into:
i. Amino Acid, Lipid, Chlorophyll
ii. Ribulose 1,5 diphosphate.
iii. Enter into cellular respiration to form ATP.
iv. Converted into glucose & Starch.
II. C4 Cycle (Hatch and slack cycle):- These scientists found that in certain plants the first
product of photosynthesis is a 4 – Carbon acid called Oxaloacetic acid. It is an unstable
compound and is quickly reduced either to Malic acid or transaminated to aspartic acid.

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Example of C4 plants: Maize, Sugarcane.

PHOTOSYSTEMS
The Chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules are located in two (2) types of
photosystem, known as photosystem I and II (PSI and PSII). Each contains an antenna
complex or light – harvesting complex. P700 is in PSI and P680 is in PSII. P stands for
pigment absorption peaks at wavelengths of 700nm and 680nm respectively.

Factors affecting Photosynthesis.

The factors includes:
1. External factor: (a). Carbon-dioxide (b). Wate (c). Ligh (d). Temperature (e). Mineral
Nutrients
2. Internal factors (a). Anatomy of the leaf. (b). Chlorophyll content. (c). Enzymes.
PRODUCTS OF CARBON ASSIMILATION
Monosaccharide sugar is the main product of Carbon assimilation. This can be built up into
protein for growth. It may be broken down into CO 2 and H2O for production of energy. Also
may be converted into starch for storage in the plant body. Oxygen is the major by-product
Importance of photosynthesis
1. Source of organic food
2. Oxygen as the byproduct helps in replenishing the atmosphere

Difference between Respiration and Photosynthesis

Respiration Photosynthesis
1. It is a catabolic process It is an anabolic process
2. Carbohydrates are oxidized Carbohydrates are
synthesized
3. Energy is liberated in the form of Light energy is stored in
ATP the form of glucose or
chemical energy
4. The amount of CO2 in the air The amount CO2 in the air
increases. decreases.
5. It takes place in all the living cells, It takes place only in
both green and non-green chlorophyllous cells
6. It occurs in light and dark It occurs only in light.
7. Dry weight of plant decreases Dry weight of plants
increases
8. Oxidative phosphorylation occurs Photophosphorylation
occurs
9. O2 is utilized and CO2 and H2O are CO2 and H2O are used
formed while O2 is evolved.

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Site of photosynthesis and the structure of the chloroplast
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast of plants. Chloroplast may be found on the
leaves and stems. Chloroplast are usually shaped like football, with a diameter of about 5 –
10 micrometers and a depth of about 3 -4 micrometers. Most photosynthesis cells have 40 –
200 chloroplast, with about 500,000 chloroplast per square millimeters of leaf area. It would
take about 2000 across the thumbnail.
Each chloroplast is surrounded by two membrane that enclose a gelatinous matrix
called stroma. The stroma contains ribosomes, DNA and enzymes that are used in
photosynthesis. Suspended in the stroma are neathy folded sacs of membranes called
thylakoids. In some chloroplast, 10 – 20 thylakoids are stacked into a grana. The thylakoids
contains the chlorophylls and accessory pigments where light is absorbed during
photosynthesis.(fig.3)

Fig. 3: Structure of Chloroplast

Factors affecting photosynthesis

The factors include:
1. External factors:
a. carbon-dioxide b. water c. light d. temperature e. mineral nutrients
2. Internal factors: a. anatomy of the leaf b. chlorophyll content c. enzymes

TRANSLOCATION OF SOLUTES
Translocation is the movement of dissolved food substance manufactured in the
leaves in the sieve tubes of the phloem to other parts of the plant body.
The following experimental evidences demonstrate that translocation of solutes takes
place through the phloem:
1. Exudation from incision in bark: if a cut is made in the bark of any deciduous tree,
especially in the late summer, liquid that exudates contains high concentration of sugar. This
shows that the liquids comes from the sieve tube elements.
2. Ringing or girdling experiment: a broad band of bark, completely encircling the stem, is
removed. This also removes phloem, leaving the xylem and pith intact. This girdling
interrupts transport in the phloem but has no effect on transport in the xylem. In the girdled
trees. Carbohydrates and other organic compounds slowly accumulates in the tissue just

178
above the girdle. Carbohydrates slowly decreases in the tissue below the girdle and would not
survive for long.

Mechanism of translocation
Many theories have been proposed to explain the mechanism of translocation of solutes in
higher plants. These includes:
i. Proplasmic streaming or cyclosis
ii. Contractile proteins
iii. Mass flow (pressure flow) hypothesis
iv. Electro-osmosis hypothesis

Nitrogen Metabolism
N2 is an important element of all living organisms. It is obtained from the soil in the form of
nitrate (NO3-),nitrite(NO2-) and ammonium (NH4+) salts. It is important for protein synthesis
and formation of protoplasm, nucleic acid, purines, and pyrimidine bases, chlorophyll,
alkaloids and many coenzyme etc.
Nitrogen in the soil is found in the form of organic and inorganic substances.

(a) Organic substances: Organic compound are mainly found in the form of humus. This
takes place by the decay of different organs of dead plants and animals. The formation of
humus takes place by the decay of different organs of dead plants and animals. The process in
which organic compound decompose into ammonia is called ammonification. The ammonia
liberated by the composition of organic compound is converted into NH 4+ ions. The
ammonium ions are directly absorbed by some green plants. The nitrifying bacterial are
found in the soil and natural water which covert ammonium ions into nitrites (HNO 2) and
water. This conversion is performed by Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus bacteria in the
presence of oxygen.

Nitrosomonas
2NH3 + 3O2 Nitrococcus 2HNO2 + 2H2O +158K.cal

Other types of nitrifying bacterial like Nitrobacter Oxidise the nitrites into nitrates in
the presence of oxygen.
Nitrobacter
2NHO2 + O2 2HNO3 + 38K.cal

Thus, the NH3 present in the soil is converted into nitrate. The process where NH 3 is
converted into nitrate is called Nitrification. The nitrate are soluble and absorbed the plant
through roots.
(b) In the form of inorganic substances: in inorganic substances, the nitrogen is found in
the form of ammonium (NH4-), nitrite (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-).

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NITRATE REDUCTION IN PLANTS
The nitrates are absorbed by the root of plants and directly transported to the leaves through it
transpiration stream. The nitrates are mainly reduced in leaves but their reduction has also
been reported in roots and shoots. The nitrates are not directly utilized by the plants. They are
first reduced to ammonia and water and then converted into organic form.
The reduction of nitrate to ammonia is completed in several steps mediated by specific
enzymes.
In such steps, the electrons are supplied by NADH and NADPH.

Thus,
+5 +3 +1 -1
- - -
NO3 2e NO2 2e H2N2O2 2e NH2OH 2e- NH3
Nitrate Nitrite (Hyponitrite Hydroxy amine) Ammonia.
The overall reaction may be written as:
HNO3 + 8(H) NH3 + 3H2O.
The entire process of nitrate reduction is completed into two steps:
2. Reduction of Nitrate to Nitrite: The reduction of nitrate to nitrite is catalysed by the
enzyme nitrate reductase which requires coenzyme NADH + H+ as an electron donor.
NO3 + NADH + H+ NO2 + NAD+ +H2O
Nitrate reductase

Nitrate reduced conenzyme Nitrite Oxidized coenzyme

3. Reduction of Nitrite to Ammonia: This step takes place in the presence of enzyme
nitrite reductase which calalyses the 6-e- reduction from NO2- to NH4+.
NO2- 2e- + 2H+ NOH 2e- + 2H+ NH2OH 2e- + 2H+ NH3
Nitrite -OH- Nitroxyl Hydroxyl- amine -H2O Ammonia

Note: the formation of intermediate compounds is quite unstable and toxic.

Nitrogen Fixation
The commonly used term ‘ nitrogen ‘ correctly refers to the nitrogen atom (N). The
molecular nitrogen, symbolized as N2 or N=N, is actually a dinitrogen.
The atmospheric nitrogen represents molecular nitrogen. It is an inert gas and cannot
be used directly by higher plants.
In nature, nitrogen fixation takes place by both non-biological (physico-chemical) and
biological means.
(a) Non-biological (physical): This is usually found in rainy season during lightning,
thunder storms and atmospheric pollution. During lightning the free nitrogen of
atmosphere combines with the oxygen to form nitric oxide. Nitric oxide is oxidized
into nitrogen peroxide (NO2) in the presence of excess oxygen. Now, NO 2 may react
with only water to form HNO2 and HNO3 or may react with the atmospheric oxygen
and rain water to form nitric acid which reaches to the soil with rain water and reacts
with the alkaline substances like Calcium and Ammonia present in the soil to form
Calcium and Ammonium nitrates which are absorbed by the plants as nitrates.
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 1. N2 + O2 lightning 2NO(Nitric oxide)
Thunder
2. 2NO + O2 oxideation 2No2
Nitrogen peroxide
3. 2NO2 + H2O HNO2 + HNO3
4. 4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 4HNO3
(Nitric acid)
5. CaO + 2H20 + O2 Ca(NO3)2 + H2O
(Calcium nitrate)
6. HNO3 + NH3 NH4NO3
(Ammonium nitrate)
7. HNO2 + NH3 NH4NO2
(Ammonium nitrate)
(2) Biological Fixation: This is done by micro organisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae.
This can be:
a. Non-symbiotic: This is performed by bacteria, fungi and blue green algae. They fix N 2
more actively under poor aeration, provided no H2 gas is being produced. Eg
i. Bacteria: The soil contains a special type of bacteria called nitrogen fixing bacteria,
they convert free N2 of the soil into soluble compounds which are absorbed from the
soil by plants. They may be classified into four:
a. Free living aerobic nitrogen fixing bacteria, eg. Azotobacter .
b. Free living anaerobic nitrogen fixing bacteria, eg. Clostridium
c. Free living photosynthetic bacteria, eg. Chlorobium, Rhodospirellum
d. Free living chemosynthetic bacteria, eg. Desulfovibrio.
ii. Free living fungi: eg Yeast
iii. Blue Green Algae: eg Nostoc, Anabaena, Calothrix, Oscillatoria .
b. Symbiotic: these may be grouped into three:
1. Nitrogen fixation through nodule formation in leguminous plants. Eg, Pisum, Glycine,
Arachis.
2. Nitrogen fixation through nodule formation in non- leguminous plants. Eg
a. Casuarina equisetifolia : contains bacteria Frankia
b. Alnus : contains Frankia
3. Nitrogen fixation through non-nodulation, eg.
a. Lichens : They show symbiotic association of fungi and algae.
b. Anthoceros: it is a bryophyte which contains blue green algae Nostoc.
c. Azolla: it is a term which contains blue green algae Anabaena.
d. Cycas: it is a gymnosperm which contain Anabaena or Nostoc.
e. Gunnera macrophylla: it is an angiosperms plants stem that contain Nostoc.
f. Digitaria, Maize and Sorghum: Their roots show symbiotic association with Spirillum
notatum.
g. Paspalum notatum: An angiosperms root that shows symbiotic association with
Azotobacter paspali.
h. Phyllosphere Association: Micro- organisms on the surface of leaves growing in
tropical humid condition and fix atmospheric nitrogen.

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Synthesis of protein
Amino acid are the initial stage leading to the production of protein. All protein are
constructed from about 20 amino acids include:
Alanine, valine, leucine, Isoleucine, Proline, Methionine, Phenylanine, Tryptophan
Glycine, Serine, Threonine, Cysteine, Asparagine, Glutamine, Tyrosine, Aspartic acid,
Glutamic acid, lysine, Argenin and Histidine.

RESPIRATION
Technically term called cellular respiration. This is the oxidative breakdown of food
substances within the cell of living organisms, resulting in the liberation of energy for
subsequent use in growth etc. the reaction involve occurs in two stages: (i) Glycolysis (ii)
Krebs circle.
When one molecule of glucose is completely broken down during respiration, 673
kilocalories of energy are released.
1 Glucose molecules Oxidation 673,000Calories of energy

Respiratory substrates
During respiration, high energy compound are oxidized. These are called respiratory
substrates, which includes: Carbohydrates, Fats and Proteins. Carbohydrates such as glucose,
fructose, sucrose etc are the main substrates.

Types of Respiration
There are two types:
i. Aerobic respiration: This is the oxidation of food in the presence of oxygen e.g
C6H12O6 + 6O26CO2 + 6H2O + 673Kcal

ii. Anaerorobic respiration: This is the oxidation of food in the absence of oxygen.
This occurs in two ways:
in plants: C6H12O6 oxidized 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 28kcal energy
(alcohol)
in animals: C6H12O6 oxidized CH3CHOHCOOH + CO2 + 28kcal
(Lactic acid)
The energy produced is smaller compared to aerobic respiration.

SITE OF RESPIRATION
Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are the main site of aerobic respiration. They
are of varying shapes and sizes. It has two layered membranes. The outer membrane is
smooth, while the inner membrane is thrown into finger-like fold called cristae.

Mechanism of Respiration
The mechanism of respiration occurs in two stages:
Glycolysis: a molecule of glucose is anaerobically degraded to two molecules of
Pyruvate. In the glycolysis of one molecule of glucose, 4ATP molecules are produced,
2ATP molecules are used , giving a net yield of two ATP molecules. Hyrogen atoms are

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 made available for use in the electron transport system. The enzymes of glycolysis are
located in the cytoplasm, the most important enzyme is phosphofructokinase.

Fig.4. Overview of glycolysis

i. Krebs cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle, TCA cycle, citric acid cycle): This occur in
the mitochondrion matrix. It takes place in the presence of oxygen. This is a cyclic
sequence of catalytic enzymatic reactions. The cycle was discovered by Kreb, H.A
(1943).
Acetyl CoA formed from the intermediate reaction enters the Kreb’s cycle.2ATP
molecules are formed.Normally,32ATP molecules are formed during electron transport
system. With the 4ATPs formed during glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle, a total of 36 ATP
molecules are formed in cellular respiration.(Fig5).

Fig. 5. Overview of the krebs cycle.

TOTAL ATP formed from complete oxidation of one molecule of glucose through glycolysis
and Krebs cycle = 38 ATP
Each ATP molecule on hydrolysis will give (7.28 Kcal) of energy. Thus 38ATP molecules
will give 38 x 7.28 K cal =276.64 Kcal of energy.

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 Each glucosemolecule contain 689 Kcal of energy of this 276.64 Kcal (about
40.37%) of energy is released during aerobic respiration (stored in 38 ATP molecules). The
rest of the energy (59.63%) islost.

Difference between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Anaerobic
1. Occurs in all living cell of higher plants It occurs in bacteria, certain fungi,
germinating seeds and fleshy fruits.
2. It requires oxygen Oxygen is not required
3. The end products are CO2 and H2O The end products are alcohol and CO2.
4. The oxidation of one molecule of glucose The number of ATP molecules produces
produces 38 ATP molecules is only 2.
5. All the reactions except glycolysis takes All the reactions take place in the
place inside the mitochondria cytoplasm
6. Organic compounds are completely Organic compound are incompletely
oxidized and high energy is released oxidized and very small amount of energy
is released.
7. Not toxic to plants Toxic to higher plants
GROWTH
Growth is a universal characteristic of living things. Plants are known to grow
continuously throughout their life. Growth is the sum total of the various physiological
process that combine to cause an increase in the dry weight of an organism and an
irreversible increase in size. Growth is irreversible (permanent) increase in mass, weight, or
volume of cells.

Measurement of growth in plants

In higher plants, growth is restricted to definite regions called meristems. According
to their positions, meristem may be classified into:
a. Apical meristem: they are located at the tip of the stem or root that gives rise to primary
tissues and is responsible for increase in length for plants.
b. Lateral meristem: they are situated along the side of stem and root. This is responsible
for thicknes in plants.
c. Intercalary meristem: Located at the bases of internodes and leaves. They may contain
mature cells. The main function is to promote increased in length of the organ.

Growth in plants can be measured in many ways. These include:

1. Measuring the fresh weight: over a period of time.
2. Measuring the dry weight: over a period of time, this is more reliable.
3. Auxanometer: this is an apparatus that measure the growth in length of plant organs.
The organ is attached by a taut piece of cotton to the end of the shooter arm of a
pivoted lever. Any growth results in the upward movement of the arm, and is recorded
by the longer arm of the lever as its tip moves across a calibrated scale.
Phases of growth
There are three phases during growth:
1. Cell division: this shows continuous mitotic cell division
2. Cell elongation: the cell undergoes enlargement
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3. Cell differentiation: the cells becomes mature

Growth curve
There are certain regular changes in rate and when growth of any parameter is plotted
against time, the curve obtained is characteristically S-shaped called sigmoid curve.(Fig8).It
has three phases:
1. Lag phase (initial phase): This is the initial stage of growth. This is very slow.
2. Log phase (exponential phase): This is the period of rapid growth.
3. Stationary phase: This shows decrease in growth rate. Here physiological decrease in
growth rate. Here physiological activities slows down and the organism begins to senesce.

Factors affecting growth of plants

These can be grouped into two:
1. Internal factors: these includes: Nutritional status of the plant, Hormonal factors,
Genetic factors, Age of the plante, organ of the plant concerned
2. External environmental factors: these includes:
i. Climatic factors: which includes temperature, light, water, oxygen and narcotic
conditions in the atmosphere.
ii. Edaphic factor (soil): these includes soil aeration, soil PH, soil spaces, soil mineral
content.
iii. Biotic factors: these includes: other plants, animals and pathogenic organisms.

PLANT MOVEMENT
In vascular plants movement often takes the form of bending, twisting, elongation of
certain parts etc. region. In some aquatic algae, motile spores and gametes swim in the
direction of the stimulus. Plant movement can be classified into:
A. Movement of locomotion: This is the physical or bodily movement of the whole
plant body or an organ from one place to another. It can be grouped into: 1. Autonomic 2.
Paratonic
i. Autonomic: This is the movement stimulated by internal factors It can be divided
into:
(a) Ciliary: Movement caused by cilia or flagella. Eg Chlamydomonas.
(b) Amoeboid: Movement of naked protoplasm. Eg Slime Molds.
(c) Cyclosis: Protoplasmic streaming movement. This can be grouped into:
 Rotation: The entire protoplasm moves in one direction. Eg Moss plant.
 Circulation: Protoplasmic units moves in different direction. Eg Staminal hairs of
Trandescantia plant.
2. Paratonic: This is the movement stimulated by external factors also called tactic. It
includes:
a. Photoatactic: Influenced by light eg Motile bacteria
b. Thermotactic: Influenced by heat(temperature). eg Motile bacteria.
c. Chemotactic: Influenced by chemicals. Eg Movement of Moss antherozoids
towards sugar secreted by Moss archegonia.
B. Movement of Curvature: This is the movement of plants and their organs fixed in
the soil. These includes:
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1. Movement of Growth: This is a permanent movements caused due to differential
growth. It can be grouped into:
(1) Autonomic: This is non –directional movement .Can be divided into:
a. Epinasty: This is due to more growth on upper surface causing opening of
vegetative and floral buds.
b. Hyponasty: This is due to more growth on lower surface causing of vegetative
and floral buds.
(2) Nutation: This is due to growth that is alternates on sides of organs. Eg shoot apex.
(3) Paratonic: This is directional response. It can be grouped into:
a) Phototropism: Influenced by light. Eg shoot tip.
b) Geotropism: Influenced by gravity. Eg root.
c) Hydrotropism: Influenced by water. Eg root of seedlings.
d) Chemotropism: Influenced by chemicals .Eg growth of pollen tube towards sugar.
e) Thigmotropism: Influenced by touch. eg Tendrils.

3. Movement of variation: This is due to temporary movement resulting into curvature. It

includes:
1. Autonomic: Movement of leaflets. eg Desmodium gyrens.
2. Paratonic: Divided as follows:
 Nyctinasty: This is sleep movements. Opening of vegetative and flowers in
response to diurnal rhythm. eg Oxalis plant.
 Thimonasty: This is closing of leaves due to touch. eg Drosera plant.
 Seismonasty: This is closing of leaves due to shocks as a result of change in
turgo at leaf base. eg Mimosa pudica plant.

Difference between Tropic and Nastic Movement

Tropic movement Nastic movement
1. Occurs in response to an unidirectional Occurs in response to diffused stimulus
stimulus

2. The stimulus acts on protoplasm from one The stimulus acts on protoplasm from all sides
direction only and the response is directly and response has no relation to the direction of
related to the direction of stimulus stimulus but with the organ.

3. They are movement of curvature caused These are movement of curvature but caused by
unilateral growth i.e. one side of an organ reversible turgor changes
grow faster than other causing curvature

4. They are paratonic movements They may autonomic growth movements or

paratonic variation movement.

5. The stimulus may be light, gravity, water, The stimulus may be touch, light, temperature,
touch, chemical, temperature, water current insect touch, change in humidity or chemicals
and oxygen concentration etc. etc.

6. The response is not affected by the difference The response is affected by differences in the
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 in intensity of external stimulating factors intensity of external factors.

7. Tropic movement may be phototropic, Nastic movement may be seismonastic,

geotropic, hydrotropic, thigmotropic, photonastic, thermonastic, hydronastic
chemotropic etc. chemonastic etc.

EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Several excretory materials are produced due to the various activities of plant cells.
There are two types of excretory products in plants.
1. Organic: these includes:
a. Alkaloids: These are nitrogenous compounds. They are bitter taste found in the
seeds, barks, and leaves etc. They are use in the preparation of medicines. For eg
 Nicotine is extracted from the leaves of Nicotiana tabacum,
 Quinine is extracted from the bark of Cinchona calisaya,
 Caffine is extracted from seeds of Coffea arabica,
 Morphine from fruits of Opium poppy plants,
 Narcotic from leaves of Erythroxylum coca.etc.
b. Tannins: They are found in the bark of plants, immature fruits etc. Uesd in the
preparation of ink, medicines and leather tanning.
c. Essential oils: They are volatile in nature found in special oil secreting glands. E.g
Leaves of Eucalyptus and flowers of Jasmine. They are used in the preparation of
medicine and soaps.
d. Latex: It is white, yellow or grey coloured milky substance produced in the
Laticiferous vessels. Used in Rubber production.
e. Resins: They are insoluble in nature in water but soluble in ether and alcohol. They
are used in preparation of paints, varnishes, terpine oil, and medicine.
f. Glucosides: They are produced by the hydrolysis of carbohydrate. They are used in
the preparation of medicines.
g. Gums: They are formed by the hydrolysis of cellulose. They are used in pasting,
medicinal and oral eating.
h. Organic acids: They are soluble in water and sour in taste. Eg Tartaric acid found in
the fruits of Tamarindus indica and grapes, Citric acid found in the fruits of orange,
Malic acid in Apple fruits.

2. Inorganic materials: These includes;

a. Calcium carbonate CaCo3: Found in the leaves of Ficus spp.
b. Silica: Are grains found in layers of cell-walls of some plants .Eg leaves of onion,
straw of wheat and stem of Equisetum.
c. Calcium Oxalate: These are needle-like crystals found in the leaves of some plants.
Eg Colocasia sp. The rounded crystals are found in Papaya and Opuntia.

Assignment
1) Write short note on plant hormones.
2) Write short note on C3 and C4 Plants.
3) Define enzyme and give the classification of enzymes.

187
Reference
Andus, L.J. (1959). Plant Growth Substance. Leonard Hill, London.
Bidwell, R.G.S.(1979). Plant Physiology Second (Ed). Macmilan Publishers, London.
James, W.O.(1953). Plant Respiration. Oxford University Press, London.
Mayer, A.M. & Poijak off-Mayber, A. (1963). The Germination of Seeds. Pergamon Press
Oxford.
Rutter, A.J. & Whitehead, F.H. (1963). The Water Relation of Plants. Oxford, Blackwell.
Verman, S.K. (2008). A Textbook of Plant Physiology, Biochemistry and Biotechnology. S.
Chand and Company Ltd. Ram, Nagar, New Dethi.

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 CHAPTER EIGHT
VERTEBRATE AND ANATOMY

By

Lawrence W. Biska

CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS IN VERTEBRATES

The blood systems of all vertebrates are made of the heart,(the heart lies in at the
ventral position in the frontal region of the animal, it is responsible for the pumping of blood
round the body),the arteries(this carries blood away from the heart)and the veins(that carries
blood to the heart from the body).The oxygen in the blood is carried in the hemoglobin in the
red blood cells.

The Functions of the Circulatory system,

1. Transport of oxygen, the blood transport oxygen with the aid of a pigment call
haemoglobin. The blood also transport digested food nutrients from the villi of the
small Intestine to all parts of cells and tissues. Excretory materials are transported by
blood too to areas where they are eliminated. Hormones are equally transported from
the areas of production to target areas. Water is also circulated by blood.
2. Defense against infection. The white blood cells are able to defend the body system
against infection by microbes.
3. Production of antibodies, they are produced by white blood cells and they help in
destroying harmful products.
4. Blood clotting, platelets in the blood are able to initiate the process of blood clotting
when an injury is sustained.
5. Temperature Lawrence, Wilfred Biology (Editor-in-Chief)
Joshua, Nehemiah Ndit
regulation, heat produced by the body is circulated round the body throughout by blood.
The blood is a tissue but in a fluid form. The structure of blood.
An estimated adult has about 5-6litres of blood. It is divided into main groups which are;
i) The blood cells or corpuscles that are solid in nature and
ii) The blood plasma this is in liquid in form.

BLOOD CELLS
There are three types of the blood corpuscles. These are
(a). Red blood cells (erythrocytes);
(b). White blood cells (leucocytes);
(c). Blood platelets (thrombocytes)

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Red Blood Cells; These are small, round and bi-concave o disc-like shape. Nucleus is absent
and has a life span of 120 days. There are about 5million of RB Cells. They are produced by
the bone marrow and the red color is from the iron compound called hemoglobin. It helps in
the transport of oxygen because the combine well to form oxyhaemoglobin in the lungs.
White Blood Cells; these are irregular and amoeboid in shape. They are larger in diameter,
colorless and have nucleus. They are fewer in number they are made from red bone marrow,
lymph nodes and the spleen. They stayed for very few months only and die off. They are into
two types 1).phagocytes and lymphocytes. They help to defend the body from germs and
diseases
The Blood Platelets; They are quite tiny in size, irregular and do not have nucleus. They are
also produced in the red bone marrow too.They are fewer in number than the RBC with about
245000-390000 per mm3.They are responsible for clotting of the blood.
Plasma is liquid pale yellow chiefly made of water .many substances dissolved in it. It helps
in the transport of dissolves substances.

THE HEART
The hearts of birds and mammals may be considered as having two parts (the right and left
sides) that act in series with one another though they are bound together as one organ. Each
of the two parts are further divided into auricle (upper part) and ventricle (lower part).The
auricles are having thin walled and the ventricles are thick-walled and quite muscular, and
these make up the pump.
The blood from the capillary systems is returned to the heart through the auricle which has
muscles that is responsible for raising the pressure in each circuit. The ventricles contract
almost simultaneously and the blood is forced into the aorta and the pulmonary artery from
the left and right side respectively.
During ventricular contraction (systole), blood cannot return to the auricles because of
the presence of auriculo-ventricular valves. The valves are made of flaps of tissue which
allows blood to pass from the auricle to the ventricle but the openings are close when the
pressure in the ventricle is greater than in the auricle. This is so because the aversion of the
valves into the auricle is prevented by fibrous strands (chordeatendinae) attached between the
valves of papillary muscles. The valve on the right side is called bicuspid or mitral valve. The
left ventricle is the largest and most muscular chamber of the mammalian heart. The left
ventricle is also very large in the bird heart but one interesting difference is that the right
auricle ventricular valve is muscular ridge which almost entirely circles the orifice and
function assphincter There are no chordate tendinae on the right side but the left side is the
same as a mammalian heart. The exit of the blood from thev entricles is protected by a series
of packet of semi-lunar valves which prevent the return of the blood to the ventricles on the
completion of systole.

Blood circulation in mammals

In mammals the heart lies in the thorax, and consists of four chambers’, the left and
right auricles and the left and right ventricles. Oxygenated blood leaves the lungs in the
pulmonary vein which opens into the left auricle. The auricle is slightly muscular and it
contracts and forces the blood into the left ventricle. Between the left auricle and the right
ventricle is the mitral valve which contains two membranous flaps. When the blood enters the
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left ventricle, its thick muscular walls contracts and thus the blood is pushed against the flaps
of the mitral valve so that the opening between the left ventricle and auricle are closed and
the blood leaves the left ventricle by only one way possible which is the aorta. The opening
between the left ventricle and the aorta contains three cup-shaped valves which prevent blood
flowing back into the heart. From the aorta the blood passes into other arteries, arterioles and
the capillaries, and carries oxygen to all parts of the body except the lungs.
The deoxygenated blood returns to the heart in the veins. Three large veins venae
cavae pour the blood into the right auricle of the heart. The auricle which is slightly muscular
contracts and drives the blood into the ventricle through an opening containing a valve made
of muscle, but not quite so thick as those of the left ventricle. The right ventricle (R.V)
contracts, forcing blood to close the tricuspid valve, so that it can only leave the ventricle by
opening into the pulmonary artery. Blood is prevented from returning to the heart by the three
cup-shaped valves in the pulmonary artery where it leaves the ventricle.The blood in the
pulmonary artery passes to the lungs where it sheds off carbon dioxide and takes up oxygen,
and then returns to the left auricle in the pulmonary veins.
The auricles contract at the same time and then when they relax, the ventricles
contract at the same time. This contraction is called the heartbeat. Note that the oxygenated
blood passes through the left side of the heart while the deoxygenated blood through the right
side of the heart and they never mix. The right auricle which is slightly muscular contracts
and drives the blood into the ventricle through an opening containing a valve made of three
flaps (the tricuspid valve). The walls of the right ventricle are made of muscle, but not quite
as thick as those of the left ventricle. The Right ventricle (R.V) contracts, forcing blood to
close the tricuspid valve, so that it can only leave the ventricle by the opening into the
pulmonary artery; Blood is prevented from returning to the heart by the three cup-shaped
valves in the pulmonary artery where it leaves the ventricle. The blood in the pulmonary
artery passes to the lungs where it sheds off carbon dioxide and takes up oxygen, and then
returns to the left auricle in the pulmonary veins. The auricles contract at the same time and
then when they relax, the ventricles contract at the same time. This contraction is called the
heartbeat. Note that the oxygenated blood passes through the left side of the heart while the
deoxygenated blood through the right side of the heart and they never mix.
MECHANISM OF BLOOD CLOTTING
When an injury occurs in order to reduce the blood flow and entry of pathogenic organisms
the blood will clot, these processes is called blood clotting.
a. The platelets mesh are formed as the vessels come in contact with air
b. Chemical is triggered from the platelets that makes the involuntary muscles
toconstricts thereby reducing the flow of the blood.
c. An enzyme thrombokinase or thromboplastin is released, the enzymes released
converts an inactive thrombin in the presence of calcium salt (Ca ++ ions) where the
thrombin further converts fibrinogen to fibrin.
d. The fibrin forms a mesh of fine threads that will trap white blood cells there by
forming a clot that will cover the wound.
e. The mesh of fibrin formed blocks the cut in the blood vessels to prevent further
bleeding while the entangled white blood cells prevents the germs from entry into the
body system.
The clot dries and forms a scab which much later drops off.
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NUTRITION
This is the process of acquiring energy and raw materials needed to maintain life. The two
basics nutritional requirements are for energy and building materials. These are supplied from
nutrients that are chemicals in nature which may be organic such as carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and vitamins or inorganic such as salts. Foods that we eat contain these nutrients.
The quantity and nature of the food we eat is the nutrients and how much of each is referred
to as diet.

CLASSES OF FOOD
There are different components of food and is referred to as the classes of food, such as
carbohydrates, protein, lipids, vitamins and mineral salts. Water is essential to living.

CARBOHYDRATES
They are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1.They
have a general formula of C x (H2 O)5 .This includes sugars and starch
(polysaccharides),Carbohydrates are a major source of energy, but sugars are also building
blocks for more complex molecules such as nucleic acid, nucleotides (e.g. ATP,NAD)and
glycogen, examples of carbohydrates food are: maize, yam, sweet potatoes etc. There are
three major types of carbohydrates.
a) Monosaccharide; these are regarded as simple sugars and have only one unit of sugar
with a formula C6H12O6. Examples are glucose, fructose and galactose.
b) Disaccharides, these are reducing sugars which contains two units of simple sugars and
are represented by the formula C12H22O11 these includes the sucrose, maltose and
lactose.
c) Polysaccharides; are regarded as complex sugars and consist of more than two simple
sugars joined together. They are represented by (C 6H16O5)n,where n represents a large
number. Examples are the starch, cellulose, chitin and glycogen (animal fat).Excess
carbohydrate is stored in the body in the form of glycogen mostly in the liver and the
muscles and converted into glucose during starvation.

Importance of carbohydrates
i). They are a source of energy needed by animals for its activities.
ii). It provides heat, during oxidation and help in maintaining body temperature.
iii). Helps to build certain body parts
iv). Mucus is made of carbohydrate

PROTEINS
These are complex molecules and are made of smaller units called amino acids used for body
building for growth and repairs. They are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
and sometimes phosphorous and sulphate. They can also be used as a source of energy if the
diet is deficient of carbohydrates and fats. Sources of proteins are the fish, meat, soya, cheese,
beans, etc.

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Importance of Proteins
i) Used for growth in young ones
ii) To repair and replace worn out cells.
iii) It aids reproduction
iv) Production of hormones and enzymes.
v) Used for tissue and cell formation (body building).

LIPIDS (FATS AND OILS)

Fats and oils are called lipids. Lipids are a major source of energy, they include fats which
are solid at room temperature and oils are liquid at room temperature. They are hydrolyzed
during digestion to fatty acids and glycerol which can be absorbed into the lymphatic
systems. Fats and oils are made of carbon, hydrogen and a little of oxygen. They are found in
the groundnuts, palm oil, butter, fish, margarine, etc. Fatty tissues forms a convenient long-
term energy store in the body, fats may also be a source of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E & K)
in the diet.

Importance of fats and oils

i) Provide energy more than carbohydrates
ii) Helps in the maintenance of body temperature
iii) Provide fats soluble vitamins.

VITAMINS
These organic compounds required in small quantities for good health i.e. growth and
development. Vitamins cannot be made within the body, so must be present in the diet. If a
given vitamin is lacking a characteristic set of symptoms will manifest known as deficiency
disease. Vitamins are grouped into two: Fats soluble vitamins are only in fats e.g. Vitamins A
(Retinol), D (Calciferol), E (Ergosterol) and K (Phylloquinone) and the rest are water soluble
fats that are only soluble in water e.g. vitamins B-complex examples of complex vitamions
are the B1 (Thiamine), B2 (Riboflavine), B3 (Niacin) B5 (Panthothenic acid), B6 (Pyridoxine),
B12 (Cyano-Cobalamine), Folic acid etc.

Minerals; Minerals are inorganic substances and are needed for a wide range of metabolic
functions within the body. They are needed in the human diet which includes Calcium,
Phosphorous, Phosphate, Sulphur, Potassium, Chorine, magnesium and Iron…..these are the
major or macro-minerals in order of total amount required in the body. Trace elements are
needed in small quantities in the body such as follows: Fluorine, Zinc, Copper, Manganese,
Chromium and Cobalt.

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Table showing the mineral salts, source, function and deficiency symptoms
Mineral Source Function Deficiency Symptoms
i. Calcium Milk, cheese, egg, I. Bone and teeth formation and i) Ricket
fish development ii) Osteomallacia
II. For blood clotting iii) Tooth decay
III. Normal functioning of heart,
nervous systems and muscles.

ii) Phosphorous Milk, cheese, egg, i) For strong development of i) Ricket

fish, and wheat bones and teeth ii) Osteomallacia
ii) Forms part of DNA and RNA iii) Tooth decay
iii) For respiration.
iii) magnesium Green vegetables, i. For muscle contraction i) Nervous disorder
milk, meat ii. Needed for utilization of iron
iii. Strengthen the teeth and the
bones.
iv) Potassium Fruits and other i. Functioning of the muscles i) It leads to muscles
natural food ii. Transmission of impulses in paralysis
nerves
v) Sulphur Beans, fish, meat, i. constituents of proteins, amino i) poor growth
eggs acids and vitamin B1
vi) Sodium and Table salts, fish, i. Transmission of nerve impulses i) Dehydration
Chorine fruits ii. maintenance of osmotic balance ii) Musclescramp
of the cells
(vii) Iron Eggs, liver, kidneys, i. Formation of hemoglobin in i)anemia
beans, vegetables RBC.
Required by the thyroid gland to make
viii) Iodine Sea food thyroxine i)Goitre

i. Required for normal growth.

ix) Manganese Eggs, milk, meat ii. Acts asco-factors in some
enzymatic reactions.

Green vegetables i. It catalyzes the use of iron.

eggs, milk, meat ii. For proper respiration in some
aerobic organisms.
x) Copper

i) Anaemia

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND THE DIGESTION IN MAMMALS-MAN.

The digestive system runs from the mouth to the anus i.e .It is made of the mouth,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus and the associate organs
such as the liver, gall bladder and pancreas.
Digestion and absorption occurs in the alimentary canal otherwise known as the gut.
Food can only be absorbed into the body after it has been ingested and broken down
physically by teeth and muscles of the gut wall(mechanical digestion).and chemically by its
enzymes into molecules of suitably small size to be absorbed through the gut wall(chemical
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digestion).The digested nutrients from the food entre the blood or lymph and are delivered to
the cells of the body tissues where they undergo assimilation. The undigested food is then
push through the anus known as egestion.
The gut as I specialized into different region, each region is designed to carry out a different
rolein the overall processes of digestion and absorption.

The Buccal Cavity

This is the region between the mouth and the oesaphagous. It is bounded by the palate at the
top and by the tongue at the base whiles the muscles of the cheeks at the sides. There three
pairs of salivary glands (the sublingual, submandibullar, and the parotid) in the buccal cavity
which together secrete the digestive juice and saliva. Posteriorly, the soft palate acts as a
valve preventing food getting into the back of the nasal cavity, while the entrance of the
windpipe or trachea, is provided with another valve, the epiglottis, which stops food passing
into it. The buccal cavity is provided with sensory apparatus (the tongue) to test the
substances passed into the mouth. There are teeth in the mouth and their function is that of
biting and grading of food particles. The teeth are made of incisors, canines, premolars and
the molars. Man has a dental formula of I2/2,C1/1,Pm2/2,M3/3x 2 gives a total of 32 teeth.

The Oesephagous
This is a long tube containing the buccal cavity to the stomach. Bolus of food passes through
it to the stomach. The movement of the bolus is aided by the peristalsis movement.

The Stomach
The stomach is a muscular bag that is capable of distension. It is divided into two parts,
cardiac and pyloric and leads into the duodenum via the pyloric sphincter. It stores food
temporarily after meals then releases it slowly into the rest of the gut. The stomach continue
with the process of digestion known as mechanical digestion through churning action as a
results of the possession of three layers of smooth muscles instead of two, namely the outré
longitudinal, middle circular and the inner oblique layers. Some chemicals are released like
the Hydrochloric acid is secreted in the stomach, to bring about hydrolysis of food substances
and to provide a favorable medium for the activity of the enzyme pepsin. Bacteria taken in
with food are also killed by the acid. Pepsin, an enzyme is released to digest protein through
the attack on peptide linkages within the protein molecule. Rennin is also found in the gastric
juice, particularly in young mammals to convert caseisonogens protein of milk to insoluble
casein. After about 4-5hrs in the stomach, the semi-digested matter called chime, begins to
pass via the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum. The opening of the sphincter is possibly due
to a change in the activity or osmotic strength of the stomach contents.

The Duodenum
Duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. It is short and 25cm long and the pancreatic
and the bile ducts open up into it. The duodenum leads to the ileum to the wall of the
duodenum is as seen in the stomach. With the outré layer consist of mesentery, longitudinal
and circular muscles followed by a nerve plexus and the sub-mucosa which distinguishes the
duodenum from other regions of the small intestine. The surface of the mucosa has many
folds called the villa which increases the surface area in contact with the food. There are
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enzymes secreted in the duodenum (small intestine0 and in addition to its own enzymes. The
small intestine receives alkaline from pancreatic juice and bile from pancreases and liver
respectively which neutralizes the chime from the stomach. The bile also emulsifies fat
globules into droplets which are acted upon more efficiently by the enzymes lipase. The
pancreas has within it groups of cells that produces a variety of enzymes that are poured into
the duodenum via the pancreatic duct and they include the following;
a. Amylase which convert amylase to maltose.
b. lipase converts lipids(fats and oils) to fatty acids and glycerol.
c. Trypsinogen converts trysin by enterokinase from the microvilli that digest proteins are
converted into Polypeptides and more trysinogen into pepsin.
d. Chrymotrysinogen is converted to chrymotrypsin that digest proteins to amino acids.
e. Carboxypeptides that converts peptides to amino acids.

The Ileum
The ileum is the second half of the small intestine and it is here that the bulk of assimilation
takes place. The absorption of the end-products of digestion occurs through the villi of the
ileum.
Monosaccharide, dipeptides and amino acids are absorbed either by diffusion or active
transport into the blood capillaries from the villi the blood capillaries join to form the hepatic
portal vein which delivers the absorbs food to the liver. Fatty acids and glycerol diffuse into
the columnar epithelial cells of the villi. Inorganic salts, vitamins and water are also absorbed
in the small intestine. The sphincter muscle between the ileum and the ceacum opens and
closes from time to time allow amounts of material from ileum to enter the large intestine.

The large intestine (colon)

In the colon there is no digestion. The colon and caecum remove about 90% of any remaining
liquid. Some metabolic waste and inorganic substances such as calcium and iron in excess in
the body are excreted in the large intestine as salts. Epithelial cells secrete mucus which
lubricates the solidifying ingested food remains known as feaces. The large intestine has a
rich Bacterial flora and these live on indigestible residues entering from the ileum. The
descending portion of the large intestine leads into the rectum and opens to the exterior by
means of the anus.

The liver and its functions

The liver is the largest organ of the body after the skin. It is found below the diaphragm in the
abdomen and make up to 3% to 5% of the body weight. It is basically an organ of
homeostasis. It controls many metabolic activities essential for maintaining a constant blood
composition. The liver carries out several hundred separate functions involving thousands of
different chemical reactions. All food materials absorbed from the alimentary canal pass
directly to the liver where they are stored or converted into other form as required by the
body at that time. It has the following functions,
1. Carbohydrate metabolism
2. Protein metabolism.
3. Manufacture of fats (Fats metabolism).
4. Mineral storage
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5. Vitamin storage &Storage of blood.
6. Production of red blood cells.
7. Haemoglobin breakdown.
8. Bile production.
9. Cholesterol production
10. Hormone breakdown
11. Detoxification.

In protein metabolism the liver plays an important role in—

 Deamination
 Urea formation
 Transamination
 Plasma protein synthesis.

ENZYMES
Enzymes are defined as biological catalysts. A catalyst is a substance which speeds up
chemical reactions but remains unchanged at the end of the reactions. They are proteins
molecules made by living cells in the body of organisms. It works on substrates. There are
two major types of enzymes. These are
i. Intracellular enzymes, these functions in the inside of the cells e.g. enzymes that
catalyse cell respiration inside the mitochondria.
ii. Extracellular enzymes carry out their functions outside the cells e.g. extracellular
enzymes of the digestive systems.
Classes of Enzymes
A new method of classifying enzymes have evolved, this is based on how the chemicals act
on the substrate. It is worthy to note that the earlier classification is based on the substance an
enzyme works on e.g. amylases for maltose, proteases for protein or lipases for lipids are no
longer correct or biochemically acceptable.
Classes of enzymes
S/ Class of Action on substrate
N Enzymes
1 Hydrolases Catalyzes the hydrolytic cleavage or breaking up of carbon-
oxygen, carbon-nitrogen or carbon-carbon bonds.
2 Oxido- Catalyses the joining together of two molecules with
reducers accompanying hydrolysis of a higher energy bond.
3 Transferases Catalyze a reaction of the general form:A+B+C …..A+B+C
4 Isomerases Work on isomers and usually change the special configuration
of a living cell.
5 Ligases Catalyzes the joining together of two molecules with an
accompanying hydrolysis of a high energy bond.
6 Lyases Catalyses the breaking up of bonds by elimination or addition
reactions.

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Properties of Enzymes
They have the following properties/characteristics
 They are all catalysts
 They are highly efficient
 They are specific
 Their reactions are reversible.
 They are coded for DNA being proteins.
 They are all globular proteins.
 Their presence does not alter the nature or properties of the end products of the
reactions.
 Their activity is affected by temperature, substrate concentrations, pH and enzyme
concentration.
 .Enzymes posses’ active sites where the reaction takes place, these sites have specific
shapes.
 .Enzymes lowers the activation energy of the reactions they catalyzed.
Mechanisms of Enzyme Action
Enzymes are very specific in nature Fisher,(1890) observed that enzymes have a particular
shape into which the substrate fits into it. This is often referred to as “lock and Key”
hypothesis. The substrate is seen as the key whose shape is complementary to the enzymes or
lock. The site in which the substrate binds with the enzyme is known as the active site.
Factors affecting the rate of reactions
The following factors affect the rate of reactions.
1. Temperature: The temperature that promotes maximum activity is referred to the
optimum temperature. If the temperature increases above the optimum temperature,
then a decrease in the rate of reaction occurs despite the increasing frequency of
collisions. They function best at 37oC.
2. Enzyme concentration; The higher the enzyme concentration, the higher the rate of
reaction and vice-versa, if the substrate concentrations is maintain at high level, and
other conditions such as pH and temperature are kept constant.
3. Substrate concentration, for a given enzyme concentration, the rate of an enzyme
reaction increases with increasing substrate concentrations. This is because at high
substrate the active sites of the enzyme molecules at any given moment are virtually
saturated with substrate.
4. pH, When temperature is constant, every enzyme functions most efficiently over a
particular pH range. Optimum pH is that which the maximum rate of reaction occurs.
When the pH is altered above or below this value, the rate of enzyme activity
diminishes. As pH value decreases, acidity increases and the concentration of H + ions
increase.
Prosthetic groups
This is a situation where in prosthetic groups; a co-factor is tightly bound to the enzymes on a
permanent basis. Prosthetic is a Greek word meaning ‘addition’. They are organic molecules
and assist in catalytic reactions. This is noticeable in Flavine Adenine Dinocloetide (FAD). It

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contains flavoflavine (vitamin B2), the function of which is to accept hydrogen. FAD is
concerned with cell oxidation pathways and is part of the respiratory chain in respiration.
AH2 enzyme/FAD BH2
Hydrogen donor reduced substrate

A enzyme/FADH2 B
Oxidized substrate hydrogen acceptor
The net effect is 2H ions are transferred from A to B. One enzyme acts as a link between A
and B. Both AH2 and B fit into the active site and FAD passes H2 from one to the other.

Co-enzymes
These are organic molecules that act as co-factors, unlike the prosthetic group they do not
remain attached to enzyme between reactions, and they are all vitamins derived.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF MAMMALS

The respiratory organs of the mammals are the lungs. The lungs are contained in a thin the
thorax where they are surrounded by the inner and external pleural membranes, mesodermal
in origin, which are normally closely opposed to each other. Air passes through the nostrils
which act as filters and warmed and moistened the air before it passes above the soft palate to
the back of the throat to the lungs. Posteriorly the nasal passage enters the pharynx into which
also opens the cavity of the mouth. Leading off from the pharyngeal cavity are several
passages, the most important of these are the esophagus which food passes down through it,
and the ventral to this is the opening to the respiratory tract proper which is protected by the
epiglottis that prevents entry through the larynx during swallowing. The epiglottis project
upwards from the floor or the pharynx and is stiffened by the elastic cartilage.
The larynx is supported by several cartilages and internally contains the vocal cords,
which may be vibrated by the air stream. From the pharynxthe trachea leads posteriorly and
bifurcates into the two primary bronchi which branch into the bronchioles and the
bronchioles into alveolar sacs or air sacs. The lungs forms a quite compact structure as it is
supported by the presence of a connective tissue with many elastic fibers. The oxygen in the
air in the alveoli diffuse into the capillaries and combines with hemoglobin in the red blood
cells to be carried around the body. At the same time carbon dioxide from the blood diffuse
into the air in the alveolus.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

Amphibians and reptiles lung structure is essentially similar to that of mammals. The
respiratory surface is much less, however, and in from there is only one fifteenth of the
surface area found in the lung of a man for each cubic centimeter CC of air that they contain.
The amphibians make great use of their skins for respiration but it is not important in reptiles.
Reptile’s lungs have greater surface areas than the frog and true bronchi supported by
cartilaginous rings are present. The single trachea leads off from the glottis, unlike the
amphibians where both lungs originate directly from the glottis. Buccopharyngeal
movements of the throat are present in both groups.

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 In frogs ventilation of the buccopharynx by these movements results in a certain
amount of gaseous exchange, but in reptiles they are more likely to be concerned with
olfaction. Ventilation of the lungs in reptiles is aided by the action of the ribs which are
absent in modern amphibians.

MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION
This involves two phases which are regarded as external and internal respiration.

Process of Inspiration or Inhalation in Man

The thoracic cavity increases in size and the diaphragm contracts and become flattened. The
intercostals muscles contract and the sternum moves out and forward. The ribs will move
upwards and outwards. This will lead to increase in the volume and an increase or a fall in the
pressure of the cavity. Then air is drawn from the outside and forced into the lungs through
the nose, trachea, bronchus, and bronchioles thus increase in the size of the lungs.

Process of Expiration or Exhalation in man

The thoracic cavity decreases in volume and the diaphragm relaxes and assumes a dome-
shape as the intercostals muscles relaxes. The sternum then moves inwards and the ribs
moved downwards and inwards, this result in the decrease in the pressure of the thoracic
cavity. Air containing waste and water vapor are expelled from the alveoli, lungs,
bronchioles, bronchus, trachea, and to the nose and finally to the outside.
Residual air is the air that is left in the lungs which is never completely exhaled, while tidal
air is the air that is exchanged at each breathing time.

Air component Inhaled air Exhaled air.

Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon dioxide 0.07% 4.1%
Nitrogen 79% 79%
Water vapor Variable Saturated (higher).

Gaseous exchange;
Hemoglobin in red blood cells binds to carbon dioxide and oxygen but not at the same time.
When the blood passes the oxygen rich alveoli in the lungs, the carbon dioxide leaves the
blood and enters the air sacs, while the oxygen does the opposite. The blood that leaves the
lungs and returns to the heart is full of oxygen. There is the diffusion of oxygen in the
inspired air into the blood capillaries of alveoli and carbon dioxide and water out of the blood
capillaries.

AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Aerobic respiration is respiration where which requires oxygen to break down glucose into
water, carbon and energy.(ATP).
C6H12O6+6O2 6CO2+6H2O+Energy
Anaerobic respiration; This is the type of respiration which does not require the presence of
oxygen to provide energy. Glucose is broken down to yield, carbon dioxide, alcohol and
energy.

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C6H12O6 2CO2+2C2H5OH +Energy
Glocuse alcohol ATP this process is called fermentation.

Significance of Respiration
1. It provides energy to organisms,
2. The end product of respiration carbon dioxide is used in photosynthesis,
3. It produces energy which helps in contributing in warm-blooded animals,

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN AMPHIBIANS

The male reproductive system of frog consists of the testes which are ovoid cream-colored
objects each suspended by a double fold of peritoneum, the mesorchium. They lie ventrally
below the front parts of the kidneys, and from them, a number of fine vas efferentia cross the
mesorchium to enter the anterior kidney tubules which convey the sperms to the wolfian
ducts. The vesiculae seminal are paired laterally diverticula of the wolfian duct, sperms are
stored there until breeding period occurs..
In the female, the ovaries lie in much the same position as the testes, each suspended by a
mesovarium. They irregularly lobed and flattened and numerous half-black and half white
eggs are visible through the epithelium. The oviducts are dilated in posterior region to form
an ovi-sac, where the eggs are stored until laying in the spring. The wolfian duct is used
solely as a urinary duct in females.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN MAN
The male reproductive system is always together with the urinary system and the two
together forms what is called the urino-genital system. The testes are two oval-shaped organs
which develop near the kidneys in embryo but they move backwards and downwards and
leave the abdominal cavity at or at birth. They become enclosed in two small sacs of skin
called scrotal sacs which hang from the public region on either side of the penis. One major
reason why they are found hanging is because of the body temperature which is high for the
survival of the sperms production and survival. The external scrotal sacs favored cool
ambient temperature that is why they are not found within the body proper. Sperms are
produced in the testes and pass through sperm ducts to the urethra, an opening in the penis.

Female Reproductive System (Human)

In females, eggs cell develop in the reproductive organs called ovaries. The ovaries are two in
number located at the dorsal region of the abdomen. They are about 3cm to5cm long and 2cm
to 3cm wide. The ovaries are connected to the uterus by the fallopian tubes which are about
12cm long and carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus. The uterus(womb) is about 7.5cm
long and 5cm wide. It lies behind the bladder .The embryo implants in the wall of the uterus
and grows there until birth. The cervix is a narrow entrance to the uterus from the vagina. It is
normally blocked by a plug of mucus and a ring of muscles can close it. Vagina is a muscular
tube about 8-10cm long whose wall contain elastic tissue. The lining is folded. It stretches
during child birth to allow passage of the baby and during sexual intercourse when the penis
is placed in it. The clitoris is small structure which when touched during sexual intercourse
excites and motivates the female to further engage in sexual intercourse.
Having known the organs of reproduction in both male and female human it is
important to discuss on how reproduction takes place, coition or copulation must take place
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to bring the male and female gametes together. The male produces sperms while the female
produces ova(ovum).Before coition, blood enters the spaces within the male penis to make it
turgid or stiff to facilitate insertion into the vagina of the female and discharges the sperms.
This is called ejaculation. The sperm then swims upwards into the uterus and the oviducts. In
females each ovary contains ova at various stages of development. If copulation has taken
place and sperms reached the oviducts the ovum May be fertilized. The fertilized ovum will
then pass in to the uterus where further development into the embryo or fetus will take place.

Differences between male and female reproductive systems

S/N Male Female
1 They have two testes There are no testes
2 No ovaries are present Have two ovaries
3 Have vas deferens or sperm duct There is no vas deferens
for the passage of sperms cells to
the urethra
4 No fallopian ducts present Have fallopian tubes for the passage
of eggs to the uterus.
5 The urethra serves as passage for Have separate passage for urine and
both sperms and urine reproductive passage to the outside.

6 There is the presence of the penis Have no penis

7 There is no vagina There is vagina
8 There is no uterus(womb) They have uterus

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeletal system is made of up bones. All vertebrates have skeletal system in them. Your
body contains 206 bones of various shapes and sizes. Bones protect your internal organs and
support your body as you stand, sit, walk, and run.

The skeleton has the following functions

1. Protection: it gives protection to the delicate organs of the body, e.g. the skull protects
the brain eyes, ears. The thoracic bones protect the heart and lungs. The vertebral
column protects the spinal cord.
2. Support: the rigid framework of the skeleton gives support to the body. The cervical
vertebrate supports the head and the bones of the hind-limb support the upper parts of
the body.
3. Muscle attachment: Skeleton provides places for attachment of muscles.
4. Movement: The movement of certain parts of the body is brought about by the bones
when muscles act on them. The contraction and relaxation of the muscles of the legs
bring about motion.
5. Manufacture of white and red blood cells: The white and red blood cells are
manufactured in the bone marrow of the long bones.
6. Breathing: The thoracic bones aid breathing movement.
7. Shape: Skeleton gives the body shape.

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8. Transmission of sound waves: the three small, soft and light bones found in the
middle ear malleus or hammer, incus or anvil, stapes or stirrups) vibrates and transmit
sound waves from the middle ear to the inner ear.
The mammalian skeleton is made up of axial and appendicular skeleton.

The Mammalian Skeleton

The axial skeleton is made of the skull, vertebral column and the ribcage while the
appendicular skeleton is made up of limbs (fore and high limbs) and the girdles (Pectoral and
pelvic girdles).
The axial skeleton
Skull
The skull consists of two major parts which are the cranium (brain box) and the facial bones.
Cranium is made of flat and curved bones firmly fixed into each other by saw-like edges
called sutures. The main bones making of the cranium are frontal, parietal, temporal and
occipital bones. The frontal bones are the bone of the forehead. The parietal is that of the top
and side walls of the cranium. The temporal bones are that of the sides while the occipital
bone forms the base of the cranium. At the base of the cranium is the foramen magnum which
is a large hole through which the brain connects the spinal cord. It protects the brain. Facial
bones are the cheek, nasal and the jaw bones. They are fitted together by the suture joints.
The jaw bones are into the upper jaw (maxilla)and the lower jaw(mandible).The upper jaw is
fused with the base of the cranium and the lower jaw hinged to the cranium which enable the
mouth to open and close.

The vertebral column (Backbone)

This is also called the backbones and they are made up of 33 short bones and each is called
vertebra (plural: vertebra).
The bone of the backbone is having a common feature irrespective of location.
1. Neural canal; this is a short and fairly with a wide hole for the passage of the spinal
cord.
2. Neural arch which forms the neural canal protects the spinal cord. It provides surface
for the attachment of muscles.
3. Cervical ribs or transverse processes on the sides of the neural arch. These also
provide surface area for the attachment if muscles and provide articulation point for
ribs in the thoracic region.
4. Neural spine increases the surface area for the attachment of muscles and it is a part of
the neural arch.
5. Centrum is the thickened and reinforced base of the vertebra. It carries the main
weight of the body and articulates with one another in the vertebral column (spine) by
intervertebral discs.
6. Prezygapophyses are a polished part on the neural arch at the anterior view of the
vertebra. There are two prezygapophyses on each vertebra through which they
articulate with the vertebra in front of it.
7. Postzygapophyses are equally a polished part of the neural arch at the posterior end of
the vertebra. There are two postzygapophyses on each vertebra through which
articulation is made with the other vertebra behind it.
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The vertebrae are a hollow and are attached end to end in a string form through which the
spinal cord passes through. They are separated by intervertebral disc which is a tough fibro-
cartilage tissue.

Table showing the distribution of vertebrae in some mammals

Name of vertebrae Man Rabbit Rat Location
Cervical vertebra 7 7 7 Neck region
Thoracic vertebra 12 12-13 13 Thorax
Lumber vertebra 5 6-7 6 Abdomen
Sacral vertebra 5 3-4 4 Hip
5. Caudal vertebra 4 16 27-30 Tail
Total 33 44-47 57-60

Cervical vertebrae
There are seven vertebrae in the neck region of all mammals irrespective of the type of the
mammals.

Characteristics features.
1. Presence of transverse process…cervical ribs.
2. Vertebraterial canal on each side.
3. Small neural spine.

Functions
1. Give form to the neck and support the head
2. Helps in nodding and rotational movement of the head
3. Provide protection to the blood vessels most especially the arteries through provision of
holes for the passage.

Atlas and axis vertebra

Atlas is the first bone of the cervical vertebrae. It articulates with the skull on its anterior end
and to the axis on the posterior. It has a ring like appearance and has no centrum and no
prezygapophyses. It has reduced neural spine with a round and wing like transverse
processes. There is a pair of vertebrarterial canal for passage of blood vessels to the head.
Axis is the second cervical vertebra. It has a well-developed centrum that projects
anteriorly as odontoid process, which forms a pivot joint and the atlas. Its neural spine is
laterally flattened and the transverse process is tiny and peg-leg.

Thoracic vertebrae
Characteristics features
1. Long neural spines
2. Transverse processes have articular facets for all movement against the capitulars facets
and the tubercles of the ribs
3. Demi-facets on centrum for articulation with the capitulum of the ribs

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Functions
They help in the formation of the thoracic cage with the ribs and the sternum which protect
the lungs and the heart. Their reduced and rounded transverse processes form articulating
facets for the ribs. They support the ribs and make it possible for intercostals muscles to
contract against them in the process of breathing in and outs.

Differences between cervical and thoracic vertebrae

Cervical vertebra Thoracic vertebra
Less prominent neural spine The neural spine is prominent
There is prominent and bifurcate transverse The prominent transverse process is less
processes prominent
There is the presence of vertebrarterial canal There is the absence of vertebrarterial canal

Lumbar vertebrae
Characteristics features
1. It has stout vertebra
2. The transverse processes is large
3. Neural spine is broad and massive
4 The centrum and the neural arch are massive
5. There is the presence of extra process, anapophysis for attachment of muscles.
6. Metapophyses flank the neural spine on both sides for attachment of muscles.

Functions
1. Lumbar vertebrae bear the great weight of the body as they occupied the centre of gravity
of the body.
2. They maintain the right and proper gait of the body
3. Well-developed lumbar vertebrae prevent sagging in old age.
4. They support pregnancy in the females

Difference between cervical and lumbar vertebrae

Cervical vertebra Lumbar vertebra
Reduced transverse process Long and large transverse processes
Small neural spine Neural spine is broad and Massive
Wide neural canal Narrow neural spine
Vertebrarterial canal absent No vertebrarterial canal
Centrum is absent Centrum present and well developed
Facets are few Facets are more

Sacral vertebrae
Man has five sacral vertebrae in man. They are fused to form a structure called sacrum. They
have much reduced Centrum bearing tiny holes for the passage of blood vessels and nerve
fibers.

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Functions
They fused into one piece and helps to the right and the left ileum together at the back. The
holes there provide passage and protection for nerves fibers and blood vessels serving the
lower limb.

The Caudal vertebrae

The bones here are fused, there are four in man and rat has 27-30.They fused to form the
coccyx. They are also greatly reduced to Centrum only and is tucked in between the ischium
in man hence man has no tail.

Functions
It help in the stabilizing the rigid pelvic girdle
It houses and protects the blood vessels and the nerve fibers

MECEHANISM OF MUSCULAR CONTRACTION.

Muscles are long, thin and contractile cells found inside a sheaths of connective tissues. They
are found attached to bones at two points called the point of insertion and point of origin. The
point of origin is where the muscles are attached to non-movable or rigid bone e.g. shoulder
blade. The point of insertion is where the muscles are attached to a movable bone e.g. radius.
The muscles are attached to the bones through tendons which are non-elastic, tough, whitish
cord that are fibrous in nature .Muscles have the ability to contract and relax but cannot
lengthens or expand. When it contracts it becomes shorter and thicker and a pulling force is
exerted on the bone thereby pulling it. When muscles relax, it lengthens and becomes thinner.
They act in an antagonistic pairs so that while the other is contracting the other is relaxing.
The extensor extends or strengthens a limb as it contracts, the flexor, relaxes and bends or
flexes the limb.

THE HORMONES
These are chemicals or biochemical substances produced by the body in quite minute
quantities from one part of the body to where they are needed. They are produced by the
ductless glands (endocrine glands).There secretions diffused directly into the blood stream
and carried to the target areas which control growth, sexual reproduction, development,
response to crises and other bodily processes. The main endocrine glands are
(i) Pituitary gland
(ii) Thyroid gland
(iii) Parathyroid gland
(iv) Adrenal gland
(v) Pancreas
(vi) Glands of the gonads

General functions of the Hormones.

1. Circulation of blood, they partly regulate blood circulations.
2. Coordinates organs activities by making them to meet certain specific conditions and
functions.

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3. Changes in cell which enables the cells to absorb food and prepare them for excretion
too.
4. Sexual development through long term growth and development of characteristics of
sexual maturity.
5. Controls growth by stimulating many growths related development activities.
6. Homeostasis by regulating the internal environment.

Major hormones, glands location and their effects.

1. Pituitary gland is located at the base of the mid-brain Produces
i) Prolactin, It stimulates and controls milk production by mammary gland.
ii) Oxytocin, It controls the flow of milk and contraction of uterine walls.
iii) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), It stimulates the kidney tubules to reabsorb water from
the kidney.
iv) Somatropin, It promotes the growth of bones and muscles.
v) Tropic hormones. It controls other endocrine glands in the body; hence pituitary gland
is referred as master glands.

2. Thyroid gland, is found at the anterior region of the neck,

(i) It produces thyroxin; it regulates the rate of metabolism, especially respiration.
(ii) It stimulates mental and physical development in young ones.
(iii) It controls metamorphosis in tadpoles.

3. Parathyroid gland is found at the anterior part of the neck near the thyroid gland,
produces parathormone and it controls the level of calcium components in the blood.

4. Pancreas group of cells (Islets of Langherhans) located at the loop of the duodenum
produces;
(i) Insulin which controls blood level sugar
(ii) Glycogen it increases blood sugar level through reconversion of glycogen to glucose.

5. Adrenal gland, is located at the top of the kidneys and produces adrenalin which as
follows;
(i) It increases the heartbeat and respiration;
(ii) Increases sugar level
(iii) Aids in dilation of the pupils, responsible for shivering of the muscles during cold,
prepares body for emergency, is associated with fear and anxiety.

6. Stomach hormones are found in the epithelium and produces gastrin of the stomach
which activates gastric juice.
7. Testes are found in the scrotal sac produces testosterone; this stimulates sexual
secondary in males, production of spermatozoa and development of male organs.
8. Ovaries are found in abdomen and produces Estrogen, this stimulates development of
female secondary sexual characteristics and Progesterone, prepares the uterus for
attachment of the embryo and maintains fetus during development in the uterus.

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Effects of over secretion and under secretion of some animal hormones.
1. Pituitary growth hormone (Somatropin) when over secreted it leads to gigantism in
children but in adults it leads to acromegaly (big head, hand, body, legs etc.) but when
under-secreted in children it leads todwarfism retarded growth.
2. Adrenaline, when over secreted it leads to increase in excitement and over
anxiety ,raises blood pressure, dilation of the pupils, leads tom heavy breathing, and
profuse sweating, when under-secreted it leads to blood pressure, low heartbeats, and
slow response to emergency.
3. Insulin, when over secreted it leads to fall in sugar level, results to hypo-glycemia, and
incessant hunger, When under-secreted it leads to diabetes, high blood pressure and
less appetite and great thirst and weakness of the body.
4. Thyroxin, when over secreted results to hyperthyroidism (increase in metabolic rate),
over anxiety, bulging of eye balls and loss of weight. Under secretion leads to
hypothyroidism (low metabolic rate), sluggishness, and in infants leads to cretinism and
results in goiter.
5. Testosterone, leads to excessive development of sexual of sexual organs and secondary
sexual characters abnormal urge for sex in males. Under secretion poor sexual
development reproductive system and delayed secondary sexual maturity.
6. Oestrogen, over secretion leads to abnormal urge in sex in females and early maturity,
while under secretion it leads to delay in sexual maturity and development.
7. Parathormone, when over secreted causes softening of bones and increased in
phosphate in under secretion it leads to tetany (muscles spasm and death).

References

Koptal, R.L. (2006) Modern textbook of Zoology: Vertebrates meerat: Rastogi Publications
Ltd.

VerMa, P.S. & Jordan, E.L. (2006) Chordate Zoology. Ram Wagar New Delhi: S.Chad &
Company Ltd.

Sylia, S.M. (2004) Biology 8th Ed. New York McGraw-Hill.

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 CHAPTER NINE
EVOLUTION
By
Udeozo, Francis C.

THE CONCEPT OF EVOLUTION – organic evolution

The evolution of living organisms is known as organic evolution or biological evolution.
Organic evolution is the process by which different kinds of living organisms are believed to
have developed from earlier forms during the history of the earth. It explains the process by
which new species or population of living things develop from pre-existing forms through
successive generations.
Organic evolution simply means descent of new organisms from pre-existing forms
with modification. This definition encompasses small-scale evolution (changes in gene
frequency in a population from one generation to the next) and large-scale evolution (the
descent of different species from a common ancestor over many generations). Evolution
helps us to understand the history of life.
Organic evolution is not simply a matter of change over time. Lots of things change
over time: trees lose their leaves, mountain ranges rise and erode, but they aren't examples of
biological evolution because they don't involve descent through genetic inheritance.
The central idea of organic evolution is that all life on Earth share a common ancestor, just as
you and your cousins share a common grandmother. Through the process of descent with
modification, the common ancestor of life on Earth gave rise to the fantastic diversity that we
see documented in the fossil record and around us today.
Broadly speaking, evolution is a change in the genetic makeup (and often, the
heritable features) of a population over time. Biologists sometimes define two types of
evolution based on scale:
 Macroevolution, which refers to large-scale changes that occur over extended time
periods. Given enough time and enough accumulated changes, natural selection can
create entirely new species and groups. It can turn dinosaurs into birds, amphibious
mammals into whales and the ancestors of apes into humans.
 Microevolution, which refers to small-scale changes that affect just one or a few
genes and happen in populations over shorter timescales. Natural selection can change
a species in small ways, causing a population to change colour or size over the course
of several generations.
Microevolution and macroevolution aren’t really two different processes. They’re the
same process – evolution – occurring on different timescales. Microevolutionary processes
occurring over thousands or millions of years can add up to large-scale changes that define
new species or groups

Some questions that can be answered by evolution.

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 Why do so many different animals have the same structures, the arm bones in a
human are the same bones as a flipper in a whale?
 Why do organisms have structures they no longer use, like the appendix in human,
Non-functioning wings in penguins?
 Why are there bones and fossil evidence of creatures that no longer exist? What
happened to these creatures?
 Why do so many organisms’ morphology and anatomy follow the same plan?
 Why is the sequence of DNA very similar in some groups of organisms but not in
others?
 Why do the embryos of animals look very similar at an early stage?

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
In science, the term theory is used to represent ideas and explanations
that have been confirmed through tests and observations. Theories of
evolution are theories explaining the appearance of new species and
varieties through the action of various biological mechanisms, such as
natural selection, genetic mutation or drift and hybridization.

Lamarck’s Theory of the Inheritance of Acquired Character (published 1809)

Lamarck thought that you would gain or lose features if you overused or didn’t use them, and
you could pass these new traits onto your offspring. This was known as theory of the
Inheritance of Acquired Characters.
Lamarck explained how evolution operated by proposing two ideas:
1. The use and disuse of body parts; and
2. The inheritance of acquired characters.
Lamarck postulated that a body part that is constantly used develops and becomes
efficient, while one that is not becomes small, weak and under-developed. Through this type
of use and disuse of body parts, an organism acquires certain characters during its life-time.
Lamarck thus thought that these acquired characters could be passed on from parents to
offspring; making him belief that new species of organisms evolved after several generations
of acquiring new characters and losing old ones.
Lamarck cited examples to support his idea:
 A lizard that didn’t use its legs would eventually not have legs and its offspring
wouldn’t have legs
 A giraffe stretched its neck to reach higher leaves, and this stretched neck would be a
trait inherited by its offspring
Lamarck was correct by noting that characters could be acquired and developed
through use or disuse of body parts, but was however wrong when he concluded that such
acquired characteristics are inheritable. His theory of evolution was, therefore criticized and
proved to be wrong, as characteristic features acquired during life are not passed on to
children.

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection (published 1858)

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Darwin was a naturalist who observed many species. He is famous for his trips to the
Galapagos Islands, his observations of the finches (and other animals) and the book he wrote
(The Origin of Species) wherein he proposed a new theory that replaced
Lamarck’s theory. This was known as theory of Natural Selection.
Darwin’s Finches:
Darwin noted that all the finches on the Galapagos Island looked about the
same except for the shape of their beak. His observations led to the conclusion
that all the finches were descendants of the same original population. The shapes of the beaks
were adaptations for eating a particular type of food (e.g. long beaks were used for eating
insects, short beaks for eating seeds)
Darwin’s theory was based on four observations:
a. Most organisms produce large number of offspring than can be expected to survive
and reproduce.
b. Variation exists among individuals in a species.
c. Individuals of a species will compete for resources (food and space). Some
competitions would lead to the death of some individuals while others would survive
(survival of the fittest).
d. Individuals that had advantageous or more favorable variations are more likely to
survive and reproduce. They are naturally selected.
Three major deductions were made from his observations:
 All living organisms are constantly involved in a struggle for existence.
 Individuals that survive and reproduce are those whose variations gave them
competitive advantage over others. They are the fittest and best adapted to the
environment.
 These favorable variations they possess are passed on to their offspring.
This process he described came to be known as ‘Natural Selection’,
and the favorable variations are called Adaptations. He, thus, identified environmental
pressures as the main cause of natural selection. They cause favorable variations to
accumulate sufficiently over generations to give rise to new species from ancestral ones,
while the unfavorable variations are weeded out. Darwin thus concluded that natural
selection, acting through environmental pressures, is the driving force behind evolutionary
change.

Modern Theories of Evolution (Neo-Darwinism)

Darwin didn’t know anything about genetics. He observed the pattern of evolution,
but he didn’t know about the mechanism. This was one of the main criticisms against his
theory. It was Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, who first outlined how inheritance works in
1867, with his publication. That came with his discovery of how genes encode different
biological or behavioral traits and how genes are passed from parents to offspring. The
incorporation of genetics and Darwin’s theory is known as Modern Evolutionary Synthesis.
Thus, modern theories of evolution make use of present-day knowledge of genes and
chromosomes to explain the source of genetic variation upon which natural selection works.
But natural selection is not the only mechanism by which organisms evolve. Though natural
selection is the only force that regularly produces adaptive evolutionary change, other forces
like mutations play a part. Also, genes can be transferred from one population to another
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when organisms migrate or immigrate, a process known as gene flow. And, the frequency of
certain genes can change at random, which is called genetic drift.
Mutations
Mutation is a change in DNA that alters genetic information, and so introduces new
characteristics. An organism's DNA affects how it looks, how it behaves, and its physiology
— all aspects of its life. So a change in an organism's DNA can cause changes in all aspects
of its life. Consequently, the physical and behavioral changes that make natural selection
possible happen at the level of DNA and genes. Such changes are called mutations. They can
occur by random errors in DNA replication or repair, or by chemical or radiation damage.
They may occur in body cells (somatic mutation) or during gamete (germ cell) formation
(germ line mutation).
Not all mutations matter to evolution.
Somatic mutations occur in non-reproductive cells and won't be passed onto
offspring. For example, the golden color on half of this red apple was caused by a somatic
mutation. The seeds do not carry the mutation, and so will not pass on to the offspring. The
only mutations that matter to large-scale evolution are those that can be passed on to
offspring. These occur in reproductive cells like egg cells and sperm cells, i.e. gametes.
A single germ line mutation can have a range of effects:
1. No change occurs in phenotype.
Some mutations don't have any noticeable effect on the phenotype of an organism.
This can happen in many situations: perhaps the mutation occurs in a stretch of DNA
with no function, or perhaps the mutation occurs in a protein-coding region, but ends
up not affecting the amino acid sequence of the protein.
2. Small change occurs in phenotype
3. Big change occurs in phenotype.
Some really important phenotypic changes, like DDT resistance in insects are
sometimes caused by single mutations. A single mutation can also have strong
negative effects for the organism. Mutations that cause the death of an organism are
called lethal — and it doesn't get more negative than that.
A mutation could cause parents with genes for bright green coloration to have
offspring with a gene for brown coloration. That would make genes for brown coloration
more frequent in the population than they were before the mutation. This is the case of
albinism in man.

Gene flow
Gene flow involves the transfer of genes from one population to another when organisms
migrate or immigrate – a process also known as migration. When members of a population
interbreed, genes are recombined in various ways and spread in the population. Different
populations of the same species can also interbreed. When this happens, there is gene flow
between the populations. Populations of different species cannot interbreed, so there is no
gene flow between them. Gene recombination is responsible for genetic variations observed
in the individuals of a population. This recombination occurs during meiosis, when gametes
are formed, and during fertilization, when gametes of two different individuals fuse. Genetic
variations are important because evolution act through them. The total gene content of a

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species is known as its gene pool. Big changes in the gene content of a gene pool gives rise to
new species.

Genetic drift
This is a change in the frequency of an existing gene variant (allele) in a population due to
random sampling of organisms. The alleles in the offspring are a sample of those in the
parents, and chance has a role in determining whether a given individual survives and
reproduces. Genetic drift may cause gene variants to disappear completely and thereby
reduce genetic variation. Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution in which allele
frequencies of a population change over generations due to chance (sampling error). Genetic
drift occurs in all populations but its effects are strongest in small populations.
All of these mechanisms can cause changes in the frequencies of genes in populations, and so
all of them are mechanisms of evolutionary change. The four (natural selection, mutation,
gene flow, genetic drift) act alone or in combination. However, natural selection and genetic
drift cannot operate unless there is genetic variation — that is, unless some individuals are
genetically different from others.

SOME EVIDENCES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

1. Vestigial Structure
It is commonly observed that there are certain degenerated parts of plants and animals,
which do not serve any useful purpose. They are known as vestigial structures. It is
assumed that in the early ancestry of the organism concerned, such parts were functional
and in the course of evolution these parts have degenerated after ceasing to function.
Examples of vestigial structures in humans include the:
 Appendix, which functions as the caecum in herbivores
 Rudimentary tail, well developed in many other mammals
 Sparse body hair, usually seen as thick furry of coat in most mammals
 External ears, usually large and capable of movement in most mammals
Vestigial parts in animals include:
 Degenerated leg and pelvic bones in snakes, probably remains from four-legged
ancestors.
 Degenerated toe bones of horses, probably left over parts from four-legged ancestors

2. Embryological Evidence
The study of nature and development of embryo reveals that embryo of an organism
resembles the embryos of its ancestors during certain very transitory stages of its
development. For instance, a very young human embryo looks very similar to the very
young embryos of other vertebrates. Human embryo has gill slits like a fish at an early
stage of its development; later it has a tail. In fact, all embryos of land vertebrates pass
through a gill-slit stage. These features indicate that:
 All land vertebrates had aquatic ancestors
 Vertebrates share a common ancestry
 Vertebrates’ development has evolved by modifying and enlarging existing genetic
material.

3. Biochemical Similarities
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 The chemical make-up and biochemical processes of all organisms are very similar,
suggesting a common ancestry for all organisms. For example, all organisms:
 Use the same materials and processes for storing, expressing and transmitting
genetic information.
 Use ATP as the immediate source of energy for metabolic reactions.
 Are built-up of the same types of complex molecules – carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins and nucleic acids.
4. Molecular Records
All organisms store hereditary information in nucleic acids, mainly DNA, found in the
nuclei of all cells. Studies have revealed that the DNA of closely related species shows
more similarities than those of distant species. For example, the DNA of humans and
chimpanzees is 98% alike, supporting existing postulations of a probable close
relationship between them.
5. Radioisotope Dating
This a process done by measuring the degree of decay of certain radioisotopes in earth’s
rocks, radioisotopes decay at a constant rate that is not affected by temperature or
pressure. They, therefore, act like internal clocks, measuring the time, since the rock
layers were formed, and providing estimates of their age.
6. Taxonomic Evidence
Based on similarities and differences plants and animals are classified into well marked
groups, with members of each group resembling each other more closely. These
similarities can only be conceived of in the light of evolutionary relationships between
the organisms. In addition, it is seen that between two or more species of a particular
genus there are intermediate forms linking such species.
7. Fossil Records or Geological Evidence
Actual remains of ancient animals and plants or impressions left by them in rocks are
called fossils. They bear strong evidence regarding the existence of different types of
animals and plants in different geological ages and periods of the earth, and help us to
trace the facts correlated with their origin (first appearance on earth) and evolution,
climax of development, relationship, increasing complexity and specialization, extinction
of certain groups, etc. By arranging the fossils according to their age, from the oldest to
the youngest (the most recent), they have been able to show an unmistakable
evolutionary trend from very simple life forms to complex ones. Scientist can determine
the age of the rocks in which fossils occur by using radioisotope dating. Thus, earlier
formed rocks show fossils of simpler types of animals and plants, while later formed
ones show fossils of more complex and advanced forms. These records, in many cases,
maintained definite relationship between different groups of animals and plants which
existed through the successive stages of the earth. These records are, however,
incomplete for various reasons and as such they reveal wide gaps (missing links) in the
evolutionary history of animals and plants.
8. Comparative Anatomy
All vertebrates show a basic body plan with a skull, a vertebral column and a pair of
girdles to which limbs are attached, except fishes. The structural similarities of roots,
stems, leaves, flowers and other morphological characters among certain groups of
plants, and of bones and other organs among certain groups of animals, and the
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 successive stages in the development of such organs from simpler to more complex
forms, evidently show the evolutionary tendencies of plants and animals towards
perfection. Example is seen in the heart of vertebrates which evolve from a simple two-
chambered one in fishes to a complex four-chambered structure in mammals. Along with
the changes in the structure of the heart, the circulation of blood changed from a single
system in fishes to a perfected double system in mammals.

Evidence for Evolution in Action

 Hybridization, through selective breeding programmes carried out on economically
important plants and animals.
 Genetic engineering.

CAUSES OF EVOLUTION
1. Mutation
Mutations are alterations of genetic material. They occur
frequently during DNA duplication in cell division. This should not be surprising
considering the fact that mitosis and meiosis are essentially mechanical processes with many
complex operations that must be precisely completed in order for duplicate DNA molecules
to be created. There are four common categories of mutations:
1. DNA base substitution, insertion, and deletion
2. unequal crossing-over and related structural modifications of chromosomes
3. partial or complete gene inversion and duplication
4. irregular numbers of chromosomes
Substitutions, insertions, and deletions of single bases are common. For example, an
adenine can be accidentally substituted for a guanine in a sequence of bases. Such small
errors in copying DNA are referred to as point mutations. There is a self-correcting
mechanism in DNA replication that repairs these small errors, but it does not always find
every one of them.

What Causes Mutations to Occur?

Structural modifications of chromosomes generally occur as a consequence of the crossing-
over process during cell division. Normally, there is an equal exchange of end sections of
homologous chromosomes. Occasionally, there is a reunion of an end section onto a
chromosome that is not homologous. Likewise, there can be an orphaned end section that
does not reattach to any chromosome. The genes on such orphans are functionally lost.
Sometimes, extra copies of one or more genes are produced when a DNA molecule is
replicated. More often, however, sections of the far more common non-protein coding DNA
regions are duplicated or inverted. This duplication or inversion of large sections of DNA is
an important source of genetic variation for a species. Spare copies of genes or inactive
genes can mutate and change their function over time thereby producing a new variation that
natural selection can favor or reject. Large-scale evolutionary changes in a species line
generally occur in this way. Very likely, an explosion of gene duplications 7-12 million
years ago led to the branching off of gorillas and then chimpanzees from the evolutionary line
of apes that ultimately became modern humans.

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 Irregular numbers of chromosomes can occur as a consequence of errors in meiosis
and the combining of parental chromosomes at the time of conception. Such is the case when
there are three instead of two autosomes for pair 21 (i.e., trisomy 21). This specific error is
characteristic of Down syndrome.

In order for a mutation to be inherited, it must occur in the genetic material of a sex
cell. It is likely that most sex cells contain gene mutations of some sort. It is now thought
that the frequency of new mutations in humans is about 1 for every 10,000 genes per
generation. If this number is correct, every individual would be expected to have 2-3
mutations on average. Complicating the picture is the fact that mutation rates for different
genes and chromosomes apparently vary. Mutations are common occurrences even in
healthy people. The majority of them probably does not confer a significant advantage or
disadvantage because they are point mutations that occur in non-gene coding regions of DNA
molecules. They are relatively neutral in their effect. However, some mutations are
extremely serious and can result in death before birth, when an individual is still in the
embryonic or early fetal stages of development.
Mutations can occur naturally as a result of occasional errors in DNA
replication. They also can be caused by exposure to radiation, alcohol, lead, lithium, organic
mercury, and some other chemicals. Viruses and other microorganisms may also be
responsible for them. Even some commonly prescribed drugs are thought to
be potential mutagens. In this group are
1. androgens (steroid hormones that control the development and maintenance of
masculine characteristics)
2. ACE inhibitors (a class of blood pressure medication)
3. Streptomycin and tetracycline (two classes of antibiotics)
4. Vitamin A
Mutations appear to be spontaneous in most instances. That does not mean that they
occur without cause but, rather, that the specific cause is almost always unknown.
Subsequently, it is usually very difficult for lawyers to prove in a court of law that a
particular mutagen is responsible for causing a specific mutation in people. With the aid of
expert scientific testimony, they can often demonstrate that the mutagen can cause a
particular kind of mutation. However, that is not the same thing as proving that a plaintiff's
mutation was caused by that mutagen instead of some others.
In order for a mutation to be subject to natural selection, it must be expressed in
the phenotypes of individuals. Selection favors mutations that result in adaptive phenotypes

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and eliminates nonadaptive ones. Even when mutations produce recessive alleles that are
seldom expressed in phenotypes, they become part of a vast reservoir of hidden variability
that can show up in future generations. Such potentially harmful recessive alleles add to
the genetic load of a population. Even mutations that have a neutral effect can become
advantageous or harmful if the environment changes to select for or against them.
The great diversity of life forms that have been identified in the fossil record is evidence that
there has been an accumulation of mutations producing a more or less constant supply of both
small and large variations upon which natural selection has operated for billions of years.
Mutation has been the essential prerequisite for the evolution of life.

Types of mutations
There are many different ways that DNA can be changed, resulting in different types of
mutation. Here is a quick summary of a few of these:

Substitution

A substitution is a mutation that exchanges one base for another (i.e., a change in a single
"chemical letter" such as switching an A to a G). Such a substitution could:
1. Change a codon to one that encodes a different amino acid and cause a small change
in the protein produced. For example, sickle cell anemia is caused by a substitution in
the beta-hemoglobin gene, which alters a single amino acid in the protein produced.
2. Change a codon to one that encodes the same amino acid and causes no change in the
protein produced. These are called silent mutations.
3. Change an amino-acid-coding codon to a single "stop" codon and cause an incomplete
protein. This can have serious effects since the incomplete protein probably won't
function.

Insertion

Insertions are mutations in which extra base pairs are inserted into a new place in the DNA.

Deletion

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Deletions are mutations in which a section of DNA is lost, or deleted.

Frameshift

Since protein-coding DNA is divided into codons three bases long, insertions and deletions
can alter a gene so that its message is no longer correctly parsed. These changes are called
frameshifts.
For example, consider the sentence, "The fat cat sat." Each word represents a codon.
If we delete the first letter and parse the sentence in the same way, it doesn't make sense.
In frameshifts, a similar error occurs at the DNA level, causing the codons to be parsed
incorrectly. This usually generates truncated proteins that are as useless as "hef atc ats at" is
uninformative.
There are other types of mutations as well, but this short list should give you an idea of the
possibilities.

Adaptive Radiation
The process of evolution of different species starting from a point in an geographical area and
finally radiating to other areas of geography is called adaptive radiation.
Examples of adaptive radiation are:

1. Darwin’s Finches:
Darwin observed an amazing diversity of creature in Galapagos Islands. They represented
one of the best examples of adaptive radiation. Of all the varieties of finches, which were
observed in the same island, he found that all of them had evolved from original seed-eating
finches.
He explained that after originating from a common ancestral seed-eating stock, the
finches must have radiated to different geographical areas and undergone adaptive changes,
especially in the type of beaks. Therefore, due to the alternation in beaks gradually, some
became insectivorous and some vegetarian. Living in isolation for long, the new kinds of
finches emerged that could function and survive in the new habitat.

2. Marsupials of Australia:
These are another examples of adaptive radiation. A number of marsupials (pouched
mammals) each evolved differently from an ancestral stock but all within the Australian
continent.
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3. Placental Mammals in Australia:
Placental mammals in Australia also exhibit adaptive radiation in evolving into
varieties of such placental mammals each of which appears to be ‘similar’ to a corresponding
marsupial. For example, placental wolf and Tasmanian wolf.
When more than one adaptive radiation appear to have occurred in an isolated geographical
area (representing different habitats) and two or more groups of unrelated animals come to
resemble each other for similar mode of life or habitat, it is called convergent evolution.

2. Isolating Mechanisms
An isolating mechanism is any property of two species that stops them from
interbreeding. They are fundamental to the biological species concept. Isolating mechanisms
are particularly important in the biological species concept, in which species of sexual
organisms are defined by reproductive isolation, i.e. a lack of gene mixture. Two broad kinds
of isolating mechanisms between species are typically distinguished, together with a number
of sub-types:

1) Pre-mating isolating mechanisms. Factors which cause species to mate with their
own kind (assortative mating).
a) Temporal isolation. Individuals of different species do not mate because they are
active at different times of day or in different seasons.
b) Ecological isolation. Individuals mate in their preferred habitat, and therefore do not
meet individuals of other species with different ecological preferences.
c) Behavioral isolation. Potential mates meet, but choose members of their own species.
d) Mechanical isolation. Copulation is attempted, but transfer of sperm does not take
place.

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2) Post-mating isolating mechanisms. Genomic incompatibility, hybrid inviability or
sterility.
a) Gametic incompatibility. Sperm transfer takes place, but egg is not fertilized.
b) Zygotic mortality. Egg is fertilized, but zygote does not develop.
c) Hybrid inviability. Hybrid embryo forms, but of reduced viability.
d) Hybrid sterility. Hybrid is viable, but resulting adult is sterile.
e) Hybrid breakdown. First generation (F1) hybrids are viable and fertile, but further
hybrid generations (F2 and backcrosses) may be inviable or sterile.

THEORIES ON ORIGIN OF LIFE

Some of the ancient theories on the origin of life on earth
1. Theory of Special Creation
According to this theory, life was created by supernatural power. All the different
forms of life that occur today on planet earth have been created by GOD, the Almighty.
Adam and Eve were, according to the Bible (Book of Genesis) and Quran the first man and
woman to be created by GOD. Life on earth began from them according to Christians,
Muslims and Jews. The three religions have a common agreement on the fact that God
created the universe within six days. On the seventh day GOD rested and established the
holiness of the Sabbath. On the first day GOD made the heaven and the earth. On the second
day, He separated the sky from the water. On the third day, He made dry land and plants; on
the fourth day, He formed the sun, the moon, and the stars. On the fifth day, He created the
fishes and the birds. On the sixth day, He created the land animals and human beings. GOD
formed man from the dust and blew the breath of life into his nostrils, then placed him in the
garden of Eden. GOD brought the animals to the man for him to name. GOD the caused the
man to fall into deep sleep and created a woman from a part of his body (his rib)
According to Hindu mythology, the world was created by God Brahma – Brahma is
considered the God of creation. He created the whole universe with His desire the first man
was Manu and the first woman was Shradha.
Protagonists of this theory of special creation argue that it lacks scientific evidence on
account of which it was not accepted.

2. Theory of Spontaneous Generation (Abiogenesis or Autogenesis)

This theory states that life originated from non-living things in a spontaneous manner.
This view was held by early Greek philosophers like Thales, Empedocles, Plato, Aristotle,
etc. In ancient Egypt, it was believed that the mud of Nile could give rise to frogs, toads,
snakes, mice and even crocodiles when warmed by the sun. According to Aristotle, it was a
readily observable truth that aphids arise from the dews which fall on plants, flies from putrid
matter, mice from dirty hay, crocodiles from rotting logs at the bottom of water bodies, and
so on. Until the early 19th century, people generally believed in the ongoing spontaneous
generation of certain forms of life from non-living matter. This was paired with the belief in
heterogenesis, e.g. that one form of life derived from a different form (e.g. bees from
flowers).
These beliefs have no scientific grounds and hence were discarded. The theory was
disproved by many scientists of 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. They proved that new organisms
can be formed from pre-existing ones, i.e., omnis vivum ex ovo or vivo. Notable scientists
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who experimentally challenged the theory were Francesco Redi (1626-1697), Lazzaro
Spallanzani (1729-1799) and Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). It explained that life comes from
pre-existing life but failed to say the origin of life.

3. Theory of Panspermia or Cosmozoic theory or Spore Broth Theory

Panspermia is the theory that life exists through the universe, distributed by
meteoroids, asteroids and planetoids. It was proposed by Richter (1865). According to this
theory, protoplasm reached the earth in the form of spores or germs or other simple particles
from unknown part of universe, with cosmic dust, and subsequently evolved into various
forms of life. Helmholz (1884) speculated that “protoplasm” in some form reached the earth
with falling meteorites. Arrhenius postulated the theory and states that organisms existed
through the universe and their spores, etc., could freely travel through space from one star to
the others. Evidence against the theory, however, showed that living matter cannot survive
the extreme cold, dryness and ultra-violet radiation from the sun required to be crossed before
reaching the earth.

4. Theory of Eternity of Life

This theory was proposed by Preyer in 1880. According to this theory, different types
of living things have always existed on earth and shall continue to exist forever, changing
only in form. Evidence against the theory, however, is that if life is eternal, where did it exist
before this planet was formed – knowing that the earth had not always existed.

5. Theory of Catastrophism
The chief advocates of this theory were Georges Cuvier (1769-1832), Father of
“Modern Palaentology” and Orbigney (1802-1837). According to this theory, cataclysms
(great destruction) or catastrophic (disastrous event) revolution occurs upon earth from time
to time which completely destroys all living beings. New organisms, then, suddenly form
from inorganic matter. Each new organism consists of life quite different from that of the
previous one. The theory was not accepted. It was merely a modification of the theory of
special creation.

6. Theory of Endosymbiosis
The endosymbiotic theory was first articulated by a Russian botanist Konstantin
Mereschkowski in 1905. According to this theory, certain organelles originated as free-living
bacteria were taken inside another cell as endosymbionts. Mitochondria developed from
Proteobacteria (Rickettsialles or close relatives, in particular) and chloroplasts from
Cyanoorm bacteria. It suggests that multiple forms of bacteria entered into symbiotic
relationships, and thus many separate organisms may have contributed to building what has
been recognized as the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) of modern organisms.

FOSSIL and HUMAN EVOLUTION

Humans are Homo sapiens, a culture-bearing, upright-walking species that live on the
ground and very likely first evolved in Africa about 315,000 years ago. Humans are now the
only living members of what many zoologists refer to as the human tribe, Hominini, but
there is abundant fossil evidence to indicate that humans were preceded for millions of years
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by other hominins, such as Australopithecus. Also, human species lived for a time
contemporaneously with at least one other member of his genus, Homo neanderthalensis
(the Neanderthals). In addition, humans and their predecessors have always shared the earth
with other apelike primates, from the modern-day gorilla to the long-extinct Dryopithecus.
That humans and the extinct hominins are somewhat related and that humans and apes, both
living and extinct, are also somehow related is accepted by anthrpologists and biologists
everywhere. Yet the exact nature of human evolutionary relationships has been the subject of
debate and investigation since Darwin published his great books on ‘the Origin of Species’
(1859) and ‘The Descent of Man’ (1871). Darwin never claimed that man was descended
from the apes; modern scientists would view such a statement as a useless simplification, just
as they would dismiss any popular notions that a certain extinct species is the missing link
between man the apes. There is theoretically, however, a common ancestor that existed
millions of years ago. This ancestral species does not constitute a missing link along a lineage
but rather a point of divergence into separate lineages. This ancient primate has not been
identified and may never be known with certainty, because fossil relationships are unclear
even within the human lineage, which is more recent. The human ‘family tree’ may better be
described as a ‘family bush,’ within which is impossible to connect a full chronological series
of species, leading to Homo sapiens, which experts can agree upon.
Fossils were crucial to resolving this debate. Over the years, naturalists had uncovered
a few stone tools lying alongside the fossils of extinct mammals. But even in the 1800s, these
relics were considered to be only a few thousand years old, and to have been made by lost
tribes of savages. When the first part of a human fossil came to light in 1857, naturalist had
hard time recognizing it for what it truly was. A skullcap was dug up by German miners
working at the Feldhofer Grotto in the Neander valley that looked somewhat human, but
remarkably thick and sported a massive brow ridge. In 1886, the Neanderthal fossils were
found again from ancient rocks, this time in Spy, Belgium. They included the jaw and other
parts of the skeleton.
Eugene Dubois, a young anatomist from Holland travelled to Indonesia in the hope of
finding fossils of early man. After four years of digging and searching, it paid off when he
dug a pit in Solo River in eastern Java. He found fossil remains of something not quite
human, but not quite ape. It stood upright, but its brain was far too small to qualify as human.
It became known as Pithecanthropus erectus, meaning upright ape-man. As more fossils
were uncovered in Asia relating to those already excavated, scientists came to recognize that
Dubois had indeed found the first representative of the ancient species, Homo erectus.
The twentieth century brought a great many more fossils of humans and hominids. Today,
twenty hominid species have been identified, the oldest of which dates back six million years.
They point to African origin, as Darwin had proposed. Hominid evolution produced a
network of branches, with several species co-existing at any given time except for the last
30,000 years or so. Added to this wealth of data is the knowledge gathered from comparisons
of DNA from humans, apes, and even Neanderthals. While many questions remain to be
answered about evolution, scientists have array of evidence at their disposal.

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It is important to remember that:
1. Humans did not evolve from chimpanzees. Humans and chimpanzees are
evolutionary cousins and share a recent common ancestor that was neither
chimpanzee nor human.
2. Humans are not "higher" or "more evolved" than other living lineages. Since our
lineages split, humans and chimpanzees have each evolved traits unique to their own
lineages.

Model of bushy path of human evolution

The letters correspond to the following species:

A - Ardipithecus ramidus
B - Australopithecus anamensis
C - Australopithecus afarensis
D - Australopithecus africanus
E - Paranthropus aethiopicus
F - Paranthropus robustus
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G - Paranthropus boisei
H - Australopithecus garhi
I - Homo rudolfensis
J - Homo habilus
K - Homo ergaster
L - Homo erectus
M - Homo heidelbergensis
N - Homo neanderthalensis
O - Homo sapiens

The Age of the Earth

With the use of Radioactive dating methods, knowledge of the ages of various rocks become
more precise. The oldest rock on earth that has been dated includes rock from South Africa,
Southwestern Greenland and Minnesota that are approximately 3.9 billion years old.
Meteorites have been dated at about 4.6billion years. Recently, rocks brought back to earth
from the moon have been dated from 3.3 to 4.6billion years. These pieces of evidence
suggest that the earth and the moon, mostly formed from the same processes at the same time,
are about 4.6billion years. So what significance does the age of the earth hold for the theory
of evolution?
By the time Darwin first began working on "the species problem," data from the
young science of geology had challenged a factor of the Theory of Special Creation. Special
Creation stated that the earth was only about 6,000 years old. Geologists were finding
evidence that proved that the earth was ancient; much older than 6,000 years described in the
Judeo – Christian Bible. This time would not allow time for the process of evolution to take
place. In fact Isaac Newton (1642-1727) calculated that it would take 50,000 years just for
the earth after its formation to cool to a temperature that would sustain life. Not until the
present techniques of radioactive dating were developed could scientist begin to solve the
‘time problem’ of evolution and accurately measure the geological age of the earth, its rocks
and its fossils.

The Geological Time Scale

The history of life:
When discussing the history of life on earth, scientist divide the time from the formation of
the earth until the present day into 5 major time periods or eras
 The Archean era, which extends from the formation of the earth 4.6 billion to 2.5
billion(2500million) years ago
 The Proterozoic era, which extends from 2500 to 590 million years ago
 The Paleozoic era, which extends from 590 to 250 million years ago
 The Mesozoic era, which extends from 250 to 65million years ago
 The Cenozoic era, which extends from 65 million years ago to the present.
The eras are further subdivided into shorter time units called periods. The periods of
the cenezoic era are subdivided into epochs. However, each time unit (such as an era or a
period does not stand for a consistent length of time because early geologist defined and
named these time units as they discovered them and because of the distinctive events that
mark the beginning and end of a time unit occurred over varying amount of time.
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Era Period Epoch Mya Major Bio and Geo Events
Cenozoic Quatenary Pleistocene 1-2 First human
Tertiary Pliocene 7 Origin of 1st human-like form
Miocene 26 Monkey the primates appear
Oligocene 38
Origin of eohippus insect
Eocene 54
Paleocene 65 Small mammals under radiation
Mesozoic Cretaceous 130 Major ectinction of dinosaurs &
210 flowering plants appear
250 First Birds
285 1st Mammals, rats, rabbits
370 Connifers appears
410 Reptiles, plants, seed plants
Age of the fishes, amphibians
Plants invade land

Jurassic 430
Triassic 500
Paleozoic Permian
Carboniferous
Devonian 590

1st vertebrates appear

Siluvian
Ordovician Origin of the inveterbrate phyla
Cambrian Multicellular, eukaryotes appear
Proterozoic
Archaea 250 Earth is born, chemical evolution
resulting to the formation of 1st cells,
stromatolites, first rock formed

 January 1 (4600mya) origin of earth

 February 10 (3800mya) oldest dated rocks
 April 16 ( 3500mya) first known life
 October 1(1000mya) normal oceans and atmosphere
 November 1 (800) primitive higher animals
 November 12 (600mya) Beginning of well-known geology
 November 28 (410mya) first land plants
 December 10 (200mya) super continent
 December 26 (65mya) end of dinosaurs
 December 31 6pm (2mya) humans appear
 December 31 80sec to midnight (1500ya) end of last glacial age
 December 31 14sec to midnight (200ya) birth of Christ

225
There is another kind of time division used - the "eon". The entire interval of the existence of
visible life is called the Phanerozoic eon. The great Precambrian expanse of time is divided
into the Proterozoic, Archean, and Hadean eons in order of increasing age. The names of the
eras in the Phanerozoic eon (the eon of visible life) are the Cenozoic ("recent life"), Mesozoic
("middle life") and Paleozoic ("ancient life"). The further subdivision of the eras into 12
"periods" is based on identifiable but less profound changes in life-forms. In the most recent
era, the Cenozoic, there is a further subdivision of time into epochs.

Conclusion
The central ideas of evolution are that life has a history — it has changed over time — and
that different species share common ancestors.
It is important to remember that:
1. Humans did not evolve from chimpanzees. Humans and chimpanzees are
evolutionary cousins and share a recent common ancestor that was neither
chimpanzee nor human.
2. Humans are not "higher" or "more evolved" than other living lineages. Since our
lineages split, humans and chimpanzees have each evolved traits unique to their own
lineages.

References
Curry, J.R. (2008). Children of God: Children of Earth. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse.

Darwin, C. (1981). [Originally published 1871, London: John Murray]. Descent of man,
selection in relation to sex. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Freeman, S. and Herron, J. C. (2007). Evolutionary analysis. (4 th ed). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Heng, H. Q. (2009). The genome-centric concept: resynthesis of evolutionary theory.

BioEssays. 31 (5): 512 – 525.

https://www.google.com.ng/imgres?imgurl

Maxwell, M. (1984). Human evolution: A Philosophical Anthropology. New York: Columbia

University Press.

Strickberger, M. W. (2000). Evolution (3rd ed). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlet Publishers

226
 CHAPTER TEN
BIOLOGY PRACTICAL IV

By
Filshak M. Luka
and
Lawrence W. Biska

This chapter deals with the practical on general biology

Photosynthesis
This is defined as the process by which green plants manufacture their food (organic
compounds) making use of carbon (iv) oxide and water in the presence of sunlight with the
chlorophyll of leaves and oxygen is evolved as by product. Photosynthesis occurs in all green
parts of plants.

There are Five Experiments that can be Demonstrated Under Photosynthesis.

1. To demonstrate that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.
2. To demonstrate that carbon (iv) oxide is necessary for photosynthesis.
3. To demonstrate that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.
4. To demonstrate that starch is in the end product of photosynthesis.
5. To demonstrate that oxygen is evolved during photosynthesis.

Materials Needed for all the Experiment Listed Below are as Follows:
1. Green/ variegated leaf from a plant either potted or outside the laboratory.
2. Beaker (pyrex), conical flask, glass funnel, boiling (test) tube.
3. Water
4. Sunlight
5. Alcohol (ethanol)
6. Bunsen burner, splinter
7. Tripod stand/retord stand
8. Lighter/matches
9. Iodine solution
10. Watch glass/white tile
11. Dropper/dropping pipette
12. Black paper, clips, cupboard
13. Split cork, Vaseline
14. Caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) solution
15. A water plant (spirogyra, elodea)

A. EXPERIMENT 1: Procedures for Starch is Green Leaves.

i. Pluck fresh leaves from out door plants.
ii. Boil the leaf in water for 4 – 6 minutes to kill the cells or protoplasm, in activate the
enzymes and burst starch grains present.

227
iii. Dip the boiled leaf into a text tube containing 70% alcohol to decolourise or remove the
chlorophyll the leaf.
iv. The decolourised leaf is dipped into a beaker containing hot water to soften it.
v. Place the leaf on a watch glass or white tile.
vi. Add or pour few drops of iodine solution to cover the leaf.
vii. A blue – black colour is observed on the leaf, indicating presence of starch.

B. EXPERIMENT 2: To Show that Sunlight is Necessary for Photosynthesis

Procedure
i. A potted plant is de-starched by putting it in a dark cupboard for 1-2 days to remove all
traces of starch formed in the leaves.
ii. The middle of a leaf is covered by a strip of black paper on both sides with the aid of
clips.
iii. The whole plant is then placed under sunlight to allow photosynthesis to take place on
the uncovered part of the leaf.
iv. After about 3 – 5 hours, the black paper is removed.
v. The leaf is plucked and tested for starch.

C. EXPERIMENT 3: Demonstrate that Procedure to Carbon (iv) Oxide Necessary

for Photosynthesis
i. A leaf attached to a potted plant is enclosed in a flask containing sodium hydroxide
(caustic soda) solution to absorb the carbon dioxide inside the flask.
ii. The flask opening is corked and smeared with grease or Vaseline all round it to make it
airtight.
iii. The whole experiment is then exposed to sunlight for 6 – 12 hours.
iv. The leaf s then plucked and tested for starch.

D. EXPERIMENT 4: demonstrate that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

i. A fresh leaf from a variegated potted plant which has been exposed to sunlight for
about 3 -5 hours is plucked.
ii. The leaf is then tested for starch.

E. EXPERIMENT 5: to Demonstrate that Oxygen is Evolved or given out During

Photosynthesis
i. Fill up a beaker with water.
ii. Place water plant (e.g spirogyra) at the bottom of the beaker.
iii. Fill a test tube with water.
iv. Invert funnel over the water plant inside beaker.
v. Invert the test tube with water over the stem of the glass funnel inside the beaker.
vi. Place the whole set up under the sunlight for 5 – 6 hours.
vii. Tiny bubbles of gas will start to appear on the surface of the leaves and break off and
accumulate at the top of the test tube.
viii. The gas collected is tested with a glowing splinter.
Note: all diagrams for the demonstration will be done in the class.

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Tropism – Types
Tropism is the directional growth of a plant organs in response to an external
stimulus, such as:
i. Light
ii. Phototropism
iii. Gravity – Geotropism
iv. Water – hydro-tropism
v. Chemical – chemotropism
vi. Temperature – thermo-tropism
vii. Magnetic fields – magne to tropism
viii. Touch or contact – thigmotropism
ix. Humidity – hygrotropism
x. Electric field – Electrotropism etc.

F. EXPERIMENT 6: Transpiration
Aim: To demonstrate transpiration in plants.
Materials: Bell jar, leafy plants or twig, polythene bag, plastic sheet, oil layer, droplet of
liquid, pot or beakers, glass sheet and Vaseline paste.

Procedure/Steps
1. Tie a piece of polythene around a potted plant to prevent water lost from the pot or the
soil.
2. Place the potted plant under a bell jar on a glass plate to give firm support.
3. Smear Vaseline at the rim of the bell jar where it makes contact with the glass plate to be
airtight (prevents the passage of rapour into or out of the space covered by the jar).
4. Leave the set up for four hours.
A control set up can also be placed side by side the experiment set up, but without the
shoot (the shoot should be cut off).

Note: drop of liquid are seen on the walls of the experimental set up while that of the control
has none.
- The liquid is shown to be water because it turns anhydrous copper sulphate blue.

S/No Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

1. Production of sperm cells in the testis. Production of ova in the ovary
2. It stage is spermatogonium Pt stage is oogonium
3. Has primary spermatocyte Primary oocyte
4. Has 20 spermatocyte Secondary oocyte
5. Has spermatid Has none
6. Has none Has 1st and 2nd polar bodies
7. Has spermatozoa (mature sperm cells) Has mature ovum

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Sampling Technique
The population size or total population in an area can be sampled in different ways or
methods. That is the process of taking a sample or unit to represent the whole population. It
could be through probability or non-probability sampling method. Examples of few methods
are:
a. Quadrat & transect
b. Direct observation
c. Capture – receptive
d. Removal method
e. Photographic

The following procedure can be used for Quadrat method of sampling in a terrestrial habit as
an example.
1. Choose and locate the sample plot.
2. Identify the species to be studied in the plot.
3. Measure the area with a measuring tape to know the area of the habitat.
4. Throw or toss the quadrat randomly at intervals for up to ten and above.
5. Record the number of species within the area of the quadrat for each throw.
6. Analyse the data and record the result.
7. The density of species is calculated by dividing the average number of times the species
occur within the quadrat by the area of the quadrat e.g. no of throw = 100
8. No of times the organism occurred (frequency) = 50
50
9. Average frequency = = 0.5 if area of quadrat = 1m2
100
average frequency 0.5
Density of organism = =
area of quadrat 1m 2

Definition of Animals
Dental Formulars
1. Herbivores e.g sheep, rabbit, cow
2. Omnivores e.g man
3. Cormwres e.g dog
1 0 0 3
Rat – i C , pm , m = 16
1 0 0 3
0 0 3 3
Sheep – i , C , pm , m = 28
4 0 3 3
2 0 3 3
Rabbit – i , C , pm , m = 28
1 0 2 3
2 1 2 3
Man – i , C , pm , m = 32
2 1 2 3
3 1 4 2
Dog – i C , pm , m = 42
3 1 4 3

230
 0 0 3−4 3
Horse – i , C , pm , m = 32 or 34
3 1 3 3
0 0 3 3
Cow – i C , pm m = 28
4 0 3 3
3 1 4 3
Pig – i , C , pm , m = 42
3 1 4 3

Dissection
This is the cutting apart and separation of the body tissue along the natural divisions
of the organs and different tissues in the course of an operation. This is done with the aid of
dissecting kit or set which contains the following instruments/materials.

S/N Items Functions

1 Surgical blades/scalpel blades This is used for making
incisions/on the skin.
2 Forceps – blunt & sharp edges Used to hold firm parts of the
organs for sectioning.
3 Scalpel handles Used for mounting scalpel blades.
4 Scissors – blunt and sharp Used for cutting organ parts.
edges
5 Bone cutters Used for cutting bones of
specimens.
6 Seekers Used for locating organs.
7 Section ligter Used for lifting or raising up
sections or organs.
8 Blow pipe Used to blow air into organ to
expose its shape well.
9 Needles Used for pinning organs or
sections.
1 Dissecting pins Used for pining peeled skin
0
1 Thread Used for tying veins to avoid blood
1 leakages
1 Hand lenses To magnify or enlarge tiny tissues
2 and cells.

The specimens that are mostly used at this level are the amphibians and mammals, for
example frog, toad, rat and rabbit and the systems under study are:
a. The viscera (general) organs
b. The digestive system
c. The urinogenital system (reproductive)
d. The circulatory system

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Procedure/Steps for Dissecting the Frog (An Amphibian).
1. The frog is caught from its habitat and brought to the laboratory.
2. The caught specimen is put inside a desiccator containing chloroform to make it loose
its senses/feelings (Anaesthetising the specimen).
3. The anaesthetized specimen is removed and placed on the dissecting board/tray
4. The hind and fore limbs are pinned in a slanting position with dissecting pins to hold it
firm.
5. The abdoninal skin is lifted up with the force and an incisions made to create a slit.
6. Insert one blade of the scissors into the slit.
7. Cut the skin forward to the level of the lower jaw.
8. Cut transversely at the level of the arms as for as the elbows.
9. Cut the skin back to the level of the pelvic girdle and down each thigh to the knee.
10. Pin back the skin and note the positions of muscles, the xiphisternum, the pelvic girdle,
the linea alba and the anterior abdominal and musculo-cutaneous veins.
11. With scissors make two small incisions (1 inch) in the abdominal wall one on either
side of the mid-ventral line and about half way between the xiphisternum and the pelvic
girdle.
12. Insert forceps through the slits so made.
13. Grip a loop of thread between their points and tie very strong above and below the slit.
14. Hold the loose piece of the abnormal wall well up.

Note: notice the anterior abdominal vein entering the liver.

15. Cut across the centre of the xiphisterum.
16. Turn the dissecting tray so that the legs are directed away from you.
17. Cut the body wall on either side of the mid-line back to the pelvic region, being
careful not to cut the pelvic veins.

DO NOT CUT DEEPLY.

18. Holdthe loose piece of the abdominal wall up and cut across posterior to the pelvic
veins.
19. Remove the portion of the body wall from the anterior abdominal veins.
20. Cut the body wall transversely at the level of the pelvic veins.
21. Restore or turn the tray to its original position.
22. Pin back the abdoinal/body wall firmly in a slanting position.
23. Pour water to cover the frog completely to avoid dryness, and wash off all particles
covering organs or tissue.
24. Pin out the ileum to your right.
25. Display all organs and use seeker to locate the hidden parts.

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The frog – the Viscera (general)

233
234
The frog – the Urinogenital system

235
The frog – the Venous system

236
Procedure for Dissecting a Rat (Mammal)
1. A rat is caught and brought to the laboratory.
2. It is placed inside a desiccator containing an anaesthesia (either ether or
chloroform) to make it insensitive.
3. The anaesthetised rat in removed placed dorsally (on its back) on the
dissecting board/tray.
4. The fore and hind limbs fully extended are pinned using dissecting pin in
a slanting position firmly.
5. Slit the skin along the mid-ventral line up to the level of the lower jaw
and down to the anal opening.
6. Cut round the urinogenital orifices in the female and the scrotum in the
male.
7. Carefully loosen (peel) the skin and separate it from the abdominal
muscles.
8. Stretch it out and pin it on the board/tray.
9. Lift the abdominal wall (muscle) with forceps and cut upward and down
ward.
10. Unfold and pin aside the abdominal wall.
11. Display examine and identify the contents or structures within the
abdomen in situ (in their natural positions without any part being
displaced).
12. Draw and label fully the dissection.

237
 Diagram of the Abdominal Cavity

References
Duyilemi, B.O. and Duyilemi, A.N. (2006) Practical Biology for Schools and Colleges.
Jordan, E.T. and Verma, P.S. (2006) Invertebrate Zoology S. Chad and company Ltd.
Reprinted edition by Rajendra Rauindra printers.
Iloeje S. O. (1996) Practical Biology Longman Nigeria Plc. Reprinted Edition by Academy
press Plc Lagos.
Tayor, D.J. Green N.P.O and stout, G.W. (1997) Biological Science. Third edition
Cambridge University Press.

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