Hope, Optimism, Positivity

Snyder’s Hope Theory

● Hope is a goal-directed motivational process rooted in how people think about
and pursue their goals.
● People naturally think about goals throughout the day, whether consciously or
unconsciously.
○ Examples:
■ Academic goals (finishing a paper).
■ Career goals (getting a promotion).
■ Personal goals (improving fitness, building relationships).

Two Key Components for Goal Pursuit (Snyder’s Framework):

1. Pathways Thinking (WayPower):
○ Definition: Ability to generate and plan multiple strategies to reach goals.
○ Key Aspects:
■ Knowing how to reach the goal – planning and identifying routes.
■ Anticipating obstacles and developing alternative pathways ahead
of time.
■ Encourages flexibility and persistence in problem-solving.
■ Example: If one career plan fails, developing alternative job-search
strategies.
2. Agency Thinking (WillPower):
○ Definition: The motivational energy and determination to pursue pathways.
○ Key Aspects:
■ Having the drive and confidence to use the strategies.
■ Sustaining motivation over time and through challenges.
■ Reinforces perseverance even when facing setbacks.
■ Example: Staying motivated to complete a degree despite difficult
coursework.

Dealing with Obstacles:

Barriers naturally arise during goal pursuit, and the key question is whether individuals will
persist or give up when faced with obstacles. Hopeful individuals anticipate challenges and
prepare alternative routes in advance. Researchers recommend developing backup
pathways early to stay on track if initial plans falter.

Two Critical Components of Hopeful Individuals:

a) Positive Outlook on the Future:

● Hope involves expecting favorable outcomes and believing in progress.

b) Realistic Planning and Problem-Solving:
● Optimism is balanced with practical goal-setting and strategy development.
Characteristics of Goals in Hope Theory
In Snyder’s Hope Theory, goals are central to hopeful thinking, but only those with significant
personal value activate the motivational processes of hope. When individuals pursue deeply
meaningful goals, their engagement in pathways and agency thinking becomes stronger and
more sustained. This connection explains why some goals drive persistence, while others
are easily abandoned.

Temporal Variation of Goals

Short-term goals are achieved quickly, providing immediate feedback and reinforcing
momentary hope. Long-term goals, which span weeks, months, or years, require sustained
hope and involve developing strategies to overcome obstacles through pathways thinking.

Goal Orientation – Approach vs. Prevention

Approach-oriented goals focus on achieving positive outcomes, such as pursuing a
promotion, saving for a vacation, or fostering personal growth. These goals align with hope,
as individuals visualize progress and actively create pathways to reach their objectives.

In contrast, preventative goals aim to avoid negative outcomes or prevent undesirable

events. Goals such as avoiding debt, maintaining health to prevent illness, or staying out of
conflict require pathways and agency thinking driven by risk management and caution.
Hope is essential even in preventative goals, as it fuels confidence in one's ability to avert
setbacks through proactive planning.

Goal Attainment – Difficulty and Complexity

The complexity and difficulty of goals impact hopeful thinking. Easy goals provide quick wins
that build confidence, while challenging goals require perseverance. Hope sustains
motivation through setbacks, and high-hope individuals are better at adapting strategies and
generating alternative pathways to maintain progress despite difficulties.

Pathways Thinking in Hope Theory

Pathways thinking in Hope Theory involves creating multiple strategies to achieve goals,
emphasizing problem-solving and adaptability. It helps individuals view obstacles as
challenges to overcome, encouraging persistence through adjustments like acquiring new
skills. Positive self-talk, such as “I’ll find a way” and “I will keep going,” boosts confidence
and fosters creative problem-solving, maintaining momentum toward goals.

Agency Thinking in Hope Theory

Agency thinking is the motivational force behind goal-directed behavior. It reflects confidence
in one's ability to initiate and persist in actions toward goals. While pathways thinking
focuses on planning, agency provides the energy and determination to follow through.
Agency sustains commitment despite setbacks, with positive self-talk and small successes
reinforcing resilience and progress toward meaningful goals. Both pathways and agency are
essential for goal achievement.

High Hopers:
 ● Positive Emotional Sets: Approach goals with optimism and enthusiasm.
● Sense of Zest: Energy from past successes, boosting confidence for future goals.
● Goal Engagement: Positive emotions enhance persistence and creativity in
overcoming obstacles.

Low Hopers:

● Negative Emotional Sets: Experience doubt and discouragement when pursuing

goals.
● Emotional Flatness: Lack of excitement due to past failures, reducing motivation.
● Goal Engagement: Negative emotions lead to decreased effort and higher chances
of abandoning goals.

Collective Hope in Hope Theory:

Collective hope refers to the shared goal-directed thinking of a group of people working
together to achieve a common objective. This type of hope becomes especially important
when individuals combine their efforts toward a goal that would be impossible for one person
to accomplish alone. Unlike individual hope, collective hope emphasizes collaborative
problem-solving, where the collective determination and strategies of a group generate a
stronger force for change.

Snyder and Feldman (2000) expanded the concept of collective hope to include larger
societal issues, where individual efforts may not be sufficient to address complex challenges.
They applied collective hope to global and communal goals, such as disarmament,
environmental preservation, health insurance reform, and government initiatives.

Hope and Temporal Orientations in Current Times:

Hope in current times is influenced by how individuals relate to their past, present, and
future. This temporal orientation shapes their mindset, goal setting, and overall motivation,
significantly impacting their life satisfaction.

Past-Negative:
Individuals with a past-negative orientation focus on past regrets, failures, and losses, which
can hinder progress and make it difficult to move forward. This negative outlook often
diminishes hope, as past experiences cloud their belief in future possibilities.

Past-Positive:
Those with a past-positive orientation reflect on past successes and positive experiences,

drawing strength and confidence from these memories. This orientation fosters a strong
sense of hope, motivating individuals to face future challenges with optimism.

Present-Fatalistic:
A present-fatalistic orientation involves the belief that life outcomes are controlled by fate
rather than personal action. Individuals with this perspective may feel powerless, resulting in
weak hope and a lack of motivation to pursue future goals.

Present-Hedonistic:
Individuals with a present-hedonistic orientation prioritize immediate pleasure and
gratification, often neglecting long-term goals. While they may experience short bursts of
happiness, their hope is unsustained, especially when it conflicts with future aspirations.
Future:
A future-oriented mindset focuses on long-term goals and the belief that current efforts will
lead to a better tomorrow. This orientation is closely tied to ambition and planning, fostering
strong hope and optimism about overcoming obstacles and achieving goals.

Hope Mapping Process

1. Identify Your Personal Goal

2. Visualize the Outcome
3. Outline Pathways
4. Identify Potential Obstacles and Solutions
5. Reflection

Hope Enhancement: Goal Development

1. Clarify your goal: Ensure the goal aligns with your values and desires for sustained
motivation.
2. Reflect on decision-making: Be aware of why you set goals to stay committed to your
priorities.
3. Generate diverse goals: Explore goals across different life domains for a holistic
approach.
4. Prioritize goals: Rank your goals to focus on what truly matters.
5. Focus on 2-3 key goals: Narrow down your focus to avoid overwhelm.
6. Set stretch goals: Challenge yourself to push beyond current capabilities.
7. Set clear markers: Establish concrete milestones to track progress.
8. Allocate time: Dedicate specific time for working on important goals.
9. Minimize interruptions: Create an environment that minimizes distractions.

Hope Enhancement: Pathways Thinking

1. Create multiple routes: Regularly brainstorm alternative strategies for achieving

goals.
2. Mentally rehearse steps: Visualize the actions needed to reach your goal.
3. Anticipate setbacks: Plan solutions for potential obstacles in advance.
4. Break down goals: Divide long-term goals into manageable steps.
5. Reframe failure: View setbacks as learning opportunities and adjust strategies.
6. Learn new skills: Identify and acquire skills needed for goal success.
7. Build supportive relationships: Cultivate friendships for advice and feedback.
8. Seek help: Don’t hesitate to ask for assistance when needed.

Hope Enhancement: Agency Thinking

1. Avoid over-checking progress: Trust the process and avoid stress from constant
evaluations.
2. Use positive self-talk: Reinforce confidence and motivation with affirmations.
3. Embrace mistakes with humor: Maintain a healthy perspective by laughing at
setbacks.
4. Pivot to new goals: Adjust your goals when necessary to maintain momentum.
5. Enjoy the process: Focus on the journey, not just the outcome.
 6. Mind small moments: Stay grounded and motivated by appreciating everyday
moments.
7. Reduce stimulants: Cut back on substances like caffeine, alcohol, and cigarettes.
8. Exercise regularly: Boost physical and mental energy to sustain motivation.
9. Prioritize rest: Ensure adequate sleep and relaxation to avoid burnout.
10. Reflect on past successes: Recall previous achievements to reignite confidence and
motivation.

High Hopers vs. Low Hopers in Navigating Stressors

High Hopers:

● View Barriers as Challenges: They see obstacles as temporary setbacks to

overcome and maintain optimism.
● Resilient and Adaptive: High hopers generate alternative strategies, staying
motivated and focused on solutions.

Low Hopers:

● They feel defeated and struggle to find solutions, often feeling overwhelmed by
challenges.
● Lack of Motivation: Negative emotions and past failures make it harder for them to
adapt or persist, increasing the likelihood of giving up.

MacArthur Study of Successful Aging

1. Low Risk of Disease and Disability:
Maintaining good physical health and minimizing chronic diseases through regular health
check-ups, exercise, and a balanced diet.

2. High Cognitive and Physical Functioning:

Preserving cognitive abilities and physical strength through activities like mental stimulation,
exercise, and social interaction.

3. Active Engagement with Life:

Staying socially connected and participating in meaningful activities, fostering a sense of
purpose and life satisfaction in older adulthood.

Types of Support in Successful Aging

1. Socioemotional Support:
This involves emotional connections and bonds, such as love and care from family and
friends. It reduces stress and enhances emotional well-being, leading to greater resilience
and life satisfaction.

2. Instrumental Support:
Practical assistance, such as help with daily tasks, transportation, healthcare, and finances.
This type of support ensures older adults can maintain independence and continue engaging
in life despite physical or health challenges.
Gender Differences in Social Support
1. Men and Emotional Support:
Men tend to rely primarily on their spouses for emotional support, often having smaller and
more focused support networks.

2. Women and Emotional Support:

Women typically have a broader network, including friends, family, and children, which
provides more emotional resilience and security.

Vaillant’s Study of Adult Development: Lifestyle Predictors of

Healthy Aging
1. Not Smoking, or Stopping Smoking While Young:
2. Coping Adaptively, with Mature Defenses:
3. Not Abusing Alcohol:
4. Maintaining a Healthy Weight:
5. A Stable Marriage:
6. Some Exercise:
7. Being Educated:

Types of Optimism

1. Explanatory Style of Optimism (Learned Optimism)

● Pessimistic Thinking (Before Distancing):

Negative events are seen as permanent, personal, and universal (e.g., "I'll never be
promoted," "I'm not good enough").

● Optimistic Thinking (After Distancing):

Setbacks are viewed as temporary and specific, with an opportunity to learn from
them (e.g., "This is just a setback, I can improve").

● Role of Parenting:
Optimistic parents foster positive explanatory styles in children by making external
attributions for failures. Conversely, parental divorce can lead to a more pessimistic
outlook in children.

2. Dispositional Optimism
Dispositional optimism is a stable personality trait, where individuals generally expect
positive outcomes and maintain this mindset across various situations.
● Stable Tendency:
● Favorable Personal Future Expectations:
● Problem-Solving Approach:
● Acceptance in Uncontrollable Situations:
 ● Knowing When to Persist or Let Go

Do Optimists Have an Advantage Over Pessimists in Life

Outcomes?
1. Academic Outcomes:
Optimists are more likely to pursue higher education and excel in their studies, as
their belief in success drives motivation and helps them overcome challenges.

2. Medical Outcomes:
Optimists engage in health-promoting behaviors and recover better from medical
treatments. They tend to have stronger immune systems and improved recovery
rates, especially after major surgeries.

3. Occupational Outcomes:
Dispositional optimism predicts stronger job performance and career success, as
optimists approach work challenges with a solution-focused mindset, leading to
better productivity and relationships.

4. Traumatic Areas:
Optimists show better resilience in traumatic situations, such as missile attacks,
caregiving for Alzheimer’s patients, and coping with illnesses like cancer or AIDS.

What Dispositional Optimism Predicts

● Starting College: Optimists are more likely to enroll and stay motivated through
academic challenges.
● Work Performance: Optimists perform better and pursue career advancement with
a positive, problem-solving mindset.
● Traumatic Events: Optimists show better resilience and coping skills, even during
stressful events like missile attacks.
● Caregiving: Optimistic caregivers experience less emotional strain and manage
challenges better.
● Medical Recovery: Optimism leads to better recovery outcomes after surgeries like
coronary bypass and bone marrow transplants.
● Coping with Illness: Optimists have better emotional well-being and coping
strategies when facing life-threatening diseases like cancer and AIDS.

How to Increase Optimism

● Cognitive Techniques: Challenge negative thought patterns (e.g., "I'm not good
enough") and replace them with optimistic beliefs that encourage success and
resilience.

● Positive Visualization: Rehearse positive outcomes for challenging situations by

imagining successful scenarios, which boosts self-efficacy and expectations of
success.
 ● Practice and Persistence: Consistently applying these techniques helps build
optimism and improves overall life satisfaction over time.

Treatment – Attributional Retraining

Attributional retraining helps individuals shift from pessimism to optimism by altering how
they attribute causes to events in their lives.

The Process:
The process uses the ABC Model:
● A (Activating Event): The negative situation that triggers emotions.
Example: A poor grade on an exam.
● B (Beliefs): The interpretation of the event, often negative or pessimistic.
Example: “I’m not good enough to succeed in this subject.”
● C (Consequences): The emotional and behavioral outcomes, often negative.
Example: Feeling hopeless and giving up on future efforts.

Example of Attributional Retraining – ABC Analysis:

● Activating Event (A): Sarah receives a poor grade on an exam.
● Beliefs (B): “I’m terrible at this subject. I’ll never succeed.”
● Consequences (C): Sarah feels hopeless and discouraged, possibly giving up
studying.

Reframing:
● Reframed Beliefs: “This grade doesn’t define my abilities. I can improve with more
study.”
● Reframed Consequences: Sarah feels motivated to study harder and seeks help,
improving her performance.