HALL EFFECT:

<•>
When a piece of conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current is placed in a transverse
magnetic field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to both the current
and magnetic field. This phenomenon is caUed Hall Effect and the generated voltage is known as Hall-
voltage.
Let B be the applied magnetic field at right angle to the direction of the current flow. If the
material is N-type and vis the velocity of the electrons then the electrons will experience a force of Bev
due to magnetic field at right angle to both the direction and B. This causes the electron current to be
deflected causing a negative charge to accumulate on one face of the slab, a PD is therefore established

across the faces ( l) and (2).This field giving rise to a force eEH on electrons in the opposite directions.

At equilibrium eE11 =Bev

EH =Bv
J
But J =nev ⇒ v=-
ne
BJ
EH = -=RuBJ where R8 -
_!_ = EH
ne ne BJ
Since all the three quantities EH ,B and J are measurable then Hall coefficient RH and carrier

density can be calculated.

ForN-type material RH =-_!__

ne
For p-type material RH =-I
ne
Based on this we can identify the type of charge.

Determination of hall coefficient RH

If b is the width of the sample across the Hall voltage V11 is measured then

_ VH
EH -
b
 Hence R = EH = VH
H BJ BJb

VH =KHBJb

If t is the thickness of the sample then its cross section is ht and current density
I
J= -
bt
R Bib
Hence VH = ---"H__
I

.i.e. IRH -_VHt

IB l

VH Will be opposite for N-and P-type semiconductors.

Applications of Hall Effect

I . The sign of charge carriers can be determined.
2. The carrier density can be estimated.
3. The mobility of charge carriers can be measured directly.
4. It can be used to determine whether the given material is a metal, an insulator or a semiconductor.
5. The magnetic field can be measured by knowing the values of Hall voltage and Hall coefficient.

Drift current or conduction current in semiconductors:

In semiconductors the eleclri.cal conductivity is due to the concentration of electrons and holes.
When an electric field is applied across the semiconductor the applied electric field causes the free
electrons to drift towards positive direction and holes to drift towards negative diirection of electric field.
The total current due to holes and electrons in the presence of electric field is called drift current
or conduction current in semi conductors.

=/tlrctmns + / holu
Total drift current / dri/1
i.e. IJ,if• =neµ,EAI + peµHEA =eEA(nµ, + pµH)
in case of intrinsic semiconductors n = p =n,
I drift = n1eEA(µ, + µH )
J d rift =n;eE(µ, + µH )
Therefore electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor due to drifting action of electrons and
holes is given by

10' = n;e(µ , + µ n )I
tlrifr
Diffusion current in semiconductors:

The figure shows the variation of boles demity with distance in semiconductors. There exists a
. gradi
concentration ent -dp
dx
Thus the motion of charge carriers from the region of higher concentration leads to a current
called diffusion current.

Hole current density J a dp ooe

p dx
. dp
1.e. J P=-eDP dx

Electron current densityl,.a dn

dx
J. a e
dn
J =eD -
" n dx

The total diffusion current density 1 diffusion =1P + 1n

i.e. Jdiffwwn =-e(DP: +D. : )

Therefore current density in semiconductors J diffltSwn + J drift

le J =e{n.E(µ +µ8 ) - D dp +D dn}

I r p dx "dx

EINSTEIN REI .ATION:

Semiconductor devices in general operate under non-equilibrium conditions. For example when a bar of
n-type germanium acting as a photo detecting device, is illuminated with a light of sufficient energy,
excess charge carriers are produced in the exposed region of the material. Hence the semiconductor is not
in theanal equilibrium. This leads to a diffusion current creating an internal electric field and drift current
balances the diffusion component.
EINSTEIN RELATION:

Semiconductor devices in general operate under non-equilibrium conditions. For example when a bar of
n-type germanium acting as a photo detecting device, is illuminated with a light of sufficient energy,
excess charge carriers are produced in the exposed region of the material. Hence the semiconductor is not
in thermal equilibrium. This leads to a diffusion current creating an internal electric field and drift current
balances the diffusion component.

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Let /ln. be the number of charge carriers increased in a particular region then

flneEµ, =eD0
a&z
ax - ( l )
The force F on excess carriers restoring equilibrium is given by
eD. afln.
F = flneE = - - ----- (2)
µ, ax
According to kinetic theory of gasses increased press ure = fln.KT
a&r
i.e. Force =KT ax --(3)

from (2) and (3) we get

afln. _ eD. a!ln

KI - - ---- -
ax µ, ax
eD. =KT~
µ,
Iv. µ,KTI e

Similarly ID
P
µ,,KT I
e

These are called Einstein Relations.

 Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which impurities are not present and are
therefore called pure semiconductors. In these semiconductors few crystal defects may be present Fenni
level exists exactly at mid way of the energy gap. When a semiconductor is at O k.then it behaves as an
insulator and conduction occurs at high temparatures.due to thermal excitation of electrons from the
valence band to the conduction band.

Ex:-germanium, silicon etc.

In order to get in sight view of an intrinsic semiconductor, let us consider silicon, which has four
valence electrons. In order to gain stability it has to make four covalent bonds with four other silicon
atoms as shown in fig.

.........-· .......................----
•
•·• • --- ..
htwl IAftl
a..s
• • • • • • •
ValeQOe

I• • • • • •
•

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EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

In intrinsic (or) pure semiconductors the carrier concentration of both electrons and holes
at normal temperatures is very low. hence to get appreciabJe current density through the semiconductors,
a large electric field should be applied this problem can overcome by adding suit.able impurities into the
intrinsic semiconductors.

The extrinsic semiconductors are those in which impurities can be either m group
elements (or) V group elements. Based on the impurities present in the extrinsic semiconductors. They are
classified into two categories.

I. N-type semiconductor.

2. P-type semiconductor.

N-TTIJe Semiconductor:

When a pentavaJent impurities (or) V group element are doped into a intrinsic
semiconductor then four vaJance eJectrons of impurities atom make four covaJent bond with four intrinsic
atoms and fifth electrons is left free as shown in fig.

Ee
EF

Ev
For n - fype

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This electrons is free to move anywhere in the crystaJ and is known as conduction electron which is
donated by pent.avalent impurity. In this way how many donor impurities are doped into an intrins ic
semiconductor that many electrons are donated to the conduction band.

The no. of eJectrons is more than the number of hole in N-type semiconductor. Hence electrons are
majority charge carriers where as holes are the minority charge carrie.rs. So Fenni energy level shift
towards conduction band.
111..l lt.: I U , , , , ... .,...,.., • · • • •~ • -•·
semiconductor then trivalent impurity is known as acceptor. lmpllriry in lhU way bow many accc1
impuriiics arc doped into 1111 intrinsic semiconductor lhlll mny holes ore donated to D valence bond.

-
Si
- us;'i" - _,

Si 1
- Ee
- I
).@ - Eg
-
Si B-" 'd Si I EF ·····-··-· •••• ••·• --··-
-
Ev
Si \
Si
~
Si
- For p- type

The no. Of holes is more thDn 1he no. of electrons in !HYJ1C scmiconduc1ors. Renee holes an: the majc
charge carriers nnd electrons an: the minority charge carrias. So the Fermi energy level shifts tow.
volancc band.

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DIST[NCUISH RJo:TWt,:EN INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

INTRJNSIC SEMICONDUCTORS EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

I. 11 is pure kmi<anducting mn1criol and DO I. It Is prcpan,d by doping • sm:tll qwu,rity or

impurity UI UlllS arc added lo ii,, 11111,urity alums to the pUl'C >ClllKOndUcllng
nuucriul.

2. Eumrl<S: <l')"'lallinc forms or pure silicon anti 2.Eumplcs: , Ille,., "Si" and gcnn.anium "Cle"
gcrmanlum. crysmls ,.ith impurity atoms or As. Sb. P etc. or In
B.AI clc.

3. The numttr of free elcctmn., in lhc conduction 3. The number or rrcc ck'<I""'-< :md boles is never
bwld and lhc no. of holes in valcncc b;md is e>llCtly or
equal. lbcrc lS c~'--Cfli.S dcctrom in a.type semi-
equal Wld ,-cry small indeed. coodllC10f'5 and cxccs..'i of holes in p-lyp< ""mi-
cooduc1on.
4. Its electrical ronductitity ir- low. 4, Ii.. c.lcclricul conductivi1y is high.

5. Its electrical conductivhy is

1empcrn1urc olonc.
• £unction or 5. hs cloctricol cooductivity depends upon the
tempcrnturc us well as on 1hc quunlily o( impurity
umm.< dol""I 1he <truaurc.
CARRIER CONCENTilAT1ON IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Let do be the number of electrons available between energy interval E and £ + dE in the conduction band
dn=Z(E)F(E)dE - - - - - ( 1)
Where Z ( E)dE = density of states in the energy interval E and £ + dE and F(E)=probability of an
electron occurring in an energy state E.
4
But we know that Z(E)dE = ~ (2m, )i E; dE
h
Since E starts from the bottom of the conduction band Ee
J I
4
K (2m, )1 ( £ - E,. ) 1d £ - - - - - - - ( 2 )
Z (E)dE = h)

Probability of an electron occupying an energy state Eis given by

I
F(E)= £- £
I +exp( 1)
KT
£-£1
For all temperatures £ - £ 1 >> KT then exp( ) >> I
KT
£ - £
:. F (E)= £-£ =exp( ~ )--(3)
exp( 1)
KT
From ( I ),(2) and (3)

• 4Jr -3 -I I £, - £ I
n = dn=
f f
£,
-.l(2m, ) 2 (£-Er Pe KT dE
h

.!. .!. .!.

dE=KTdtand (£-£,)2 =x 2 (KT)2
4;r !· !. !.
f
n = h3 (2m,)2 x 2 (KT )2e-' dx
0

4x
:.n=-
! .er £, 1 .!.2
(2m,KTFe KT x e-'dx
·I
3
h o
Using gamma function it can be shown that
4Jr _! 1£,-£, I Ji
:.n=-3
(2mJ(T)2e KT -
h 2
2.Jrm KI ! cc,-c, 1
i.e. 11 = 2( ; )2e KT
h

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CALCULATION OF DENSITY OF HOLES:

Let dP be the number of boles in the energy incerval E and E+dE in the valence band

dP = 2(£)(1- F(E))dE
We know that

E-E, E-£ 1 E-£1

c- - ) (- -) (- -)
1- F(E) =1- - -
I
cE--£-,-, 1- (l+e CT r• =1 - (1- e rr )= e CT
l+e CT
Therefore the number of boles in the valence band per nnit volume is given by

41C -J
3 E.,

p = hJ (2mh)2 _ (Ev -E) 2 e

- (--)dE
I E-Er

CT

41C IE, .!. 1...£.1 ( .:.:£.)

= -
P h) (2m
h
) 2
-
(EJ- E)1e
V
rr e KT dE

41C I <-Ei > E.,

L
.!. c..£.,
p = h 3 (2mh)2e CT (E,, -E) 1 e KT dE

E - E
Let .....a.•- - x ⇒ EV - E = xKT
KT
i.e. ⇒ dE =- KTd:c
Ev E E E,
---=x ⇒ -=- -x
KT KT KI KT

3 E.,-E1 '-
- 41C (2 KT)' <--;;->v ,r
p - hJ mh -e 2
 2Jr .! / • -Erl
P =2(-h3mh KT) 2 e rr

Since n = p = n;

3 3 -E
2JrKI -2 - t - 'i
⇒ n., =2(---)
h2 (mh m, ) 4 e 2 "7

Show that in an intrinsic semiconductor Fenni level is at middle of vaJance band and conduction

In an intrinsic semiconductor
n= p

3 J E1 -E, 3 3 E.,-Er
m ;- (27rKT)- - m KI);- e<---;;::;->
- - - ze<---;;::;->=m-, (2Jr
M A•
, hl h Jz2 h

! E -E -E +E - 2 E, -E., -Ec )
(-
mh ) -=
' exp( __._, _ _c _ _ 1) -
,. _.._ exp( KI
m, KT

Ta.king logarithm on both sides we get

3 m 2£ -E -E
h=
-log- t " c
2 m, KT

3 fflh
⇒ 2Et = E +Et· +-
2 KTloo-
C
V
,n,
E +E 3 m
i.e.E1 '' c +-KT log-•
2 4 m,

But m,. =m,

i.e. Fermi level is located half way between valance band and conduction band and the position is
independent of temperature.
CONDUCTIVl'IY IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCl'ORS:

Since n = p =n 1

] -£
• 2Jr:KT ] - ,-•,
n~ - ) (m4 m, ) 2 e 17
, = np = 4(-h2

2JrKT -3 -l ,_-£. >

⇒ n. = 2(- - ) 2 (m m )4 e icr
I ,,1 ~ ,
Whe.re E, is the energy gap and it is equal to E, = E, - E,,

Therefore electrical conductivity a = 11eµ, + peµ4 =n1e(µ, + µ 4 )

lo-= Ae1~ 1 1And as T increases a increases.

.....r

CARRIERCONCENTRATON INN-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS.

IUE"\~cA-.~ 'lco.."t'\d
~ ~da"'t"\o..-C' e.~...-~ l1t.~

IVo.."1t~Ct..~ IE Ii
The energy level diagram of an N-type semiconductor is shown in the fig. At very low
temperatures all the donor levels are filled with electrons . With increase of temperature more and more
atoms get excited and the dens ity of electrons in the conduction band increases.
Density of electrons in the conduction band
2.Jrm KT 1. 1c, - £. 1
n, =2( hz' ) 1 e AT - - - - ( I) but the number of vacancies per unit volume in the donor

le"'I i, giveo by N, (I- F( £) = N, [ I

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www . Inti 1f~~h inrl~tp_c; r.nm

 But the number of electrons in the conduction band is equaJ to the number of vacancies in the
donor level.

Talcing log on both s ides

"-m.KT 3 £ -£ E -E
log2( LJ' 2 )2 + 1 ' logNd + d I
h KT KT

2JrmKT ~2
log Nd - log2( )
h2

2,rm KT l / r E,,
DENSITY OF ELECTRONS IN CONDUCTION BAND: We know that n = 2( h; )2 e ,..,-

On substituting the value of £ 1 from equ. (3) In the above equation we get

(£,:£, ) ~
- 2
log N,
2:z..xr -
> ]-£,
3 :?t---;;,->'
n = 2c21Cm,KT )!et KT ,
hl

11 = 2( 2am,2KT)¾- exp-~~-+
((E, +EJ)
-1 1og NJ
3
£, )
h 2KT 2 Z(2,rmKT) 2 2KT
h2

2,rm, KT)f ((EJ- E, ) 1 NJ )

11 = 2( 2
- exp · + - 1og 3
h 2KT 2 2amKT )2
2( h2
 n = (2N )½(2;rm, KI )¾exp (EJ - E, )
J h2 2KT

CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS:

The energy level diagram of a p-type semiconductor is shown in the fig.

Na is the acceptor concentration i.e. the number of acceptor atoms per unit volume of the

material and Ea is the acceptor energy level. At very low temperatures all the acceptor levels are empty.

With increase of temperature the electrons move from valance band and occupy the vacant sites in the
acceptor energy level, thereby leaving holes in the valance band.
The density of holes in the valance band is given by

2;r -J ,£ ~
-£
,
,,.
p=2(- , mhKT)2 e u - - (I )

Since EI lies below acceptor level then dens ity o f ionized acceptor is given by

E,-£.
(- -)
NaF(E) = Nae KT

Since the density of holes in the valance band is equal 10 the dens ity of ionii.ed acceptor
2,r I t £.-£, 1 / ,-£. 1
i.e. 2( 1,2 mhKT)2 e KT = Nae KT

E - E - E +E N
exp( ,. ' ' a) = a J

KT 2( ~ mhKI)2
h
 Taking logarithm on both sides we get
E. -E 1 -E1 + E. N.
--~ - ~ - - - log 3
KT 2(2x m KT) I
h2 •

.
1.e. £ , = E• + Ea KT
log
N 0
3
- - - - - 12)
2 2 2
2( ~ m,.KT) 2
h-

At OK E
1
= E, +Ea
2
i.e. at OK Fermi level will be exactly at the middle of acceptor level
The density of holes in the valance band is given by
2JC ! I £.,-Er I
p =2( h2 m,.KT)2e er

On substituting the value of E1 from equation (2) we get

2,r ¾ £ l £ +E KT N.
p = 2( hi m, KT ) - ex p( KT - KT ( • 2 • -
2
log 3
)

2( 2 .IC m KT )2
h1 •

2Jr !
p =2( h 2 m,.KT)l [ 2Jr
N2
a ~y· )exp(
E - E
;KT
a)
2(-m KT) 2
h2 "

..!. 2;r ! E - E0
P =(2N 0 )2 (-m
4
2
KT) exp( •· )

h " 2KT