Bryophytes, Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms
Bryophytes, Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms
and Gymnosperms
Marchantia
Systematic Position
of Marchantia (Source: USDA, NRCS.
2024. The PLANTS Database)
Kingdom- Plantae
Division- Hepaticophyta (Liverworts)
Subdivision- Hepaticae
Class- Hepaticopsida
Order- Marchantiales
Family- Marchantiaceae
Genus- Marchantia
Marchantia
• Habitat and Distribution of Marchantia
• It is one of the most
common liverworts found in moist,
shady, cool areas with abundant
moisture. It grows in large mats.
• Damp soil, streams, springs, wet rocks
are the favorable places for its growth.
• There are about 65 species
of Marchantia and are found all over the
world.
• The most common species of Himalayan
region are M. palmata, M. polymorpha
and M. nepalensis.
Marchantia
• The name Marchantia was given in
honour of Nicolas Merchant, director of
botanical garden of Gaston d’ Orleans in
Blois, France.
• In India, Marchantia is represented by
about 11 species (Chopra, 1943).
• Udar (1970) reported only 6 species
from different parts of the country.
• These species are commonly found
growing’ in the Himalayan region at an
altitude of 4000-8000 feet.
• Eastern Himalayan region particularly
supports the growth of these species.
Marchantia
• Some species are also found growing in
plains of Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh
and hilly regions of South India.
• Some of the common Indian species are M.
palmata, M. polymorpha, M. simlana etc.
• M. polymorpha is most widely distributed
species.
• M. polymorpha var aquatic grows
submerged in swampy meadows.
• The thalli with gemma cups are found
throughout the year whereas the thalli with
sex organs occur abundantly during
February to March in Himalayas and
October to November in hills of South India.
Marchantia
• External Structure of Marchantia:
• The gametophyte of Marchantia is a
dichotomously branched, prostrate,
dorsiventral thallus.
• The dorsal surface of the thallus shows
many regular rhomboidal or polygonal
areas.
• Each area has a pore at the center.
• A distinct median groove (midrib) is present
on the upper (dorsal) surface in each branch
of the thallus with a corresponding ridge on
the ventral surface.
• The branches grow indefinitely by means of
a growing point situated in the terminal
groove (apical notch).
Marchantia
• The ventral surface of the thallus bears
three to four rows of scales and rhizoids
on both sides of the midrib.
• The scales are membranous, one-layered
thick, usually violet in colour due to the
presence of anthocyanin pigments.
Morphologicaly, the scales are of two
types — appendiculate and ligulate.
• The appendiculate scales situated near
the midrib are larger and more elaborate
by the presence of an apical sub-
rounded appendage.
Marchantia
• The ligulate scales, on the other hand, are
relatively small, situated towards the
margin, which do not have any appendage.
• These scales protect the growing point of
the thallus from desiccation.
• Besides the scales, the ventral surface of the
thallus bears rhizoids between the scales.
• They are usually unicellular, colourless and
are of two types viz., smooth walled and
tuberculate as in Riccia.
• The rhizoids perform the functions of
anchorage to the substratum as well as
absorption of water and nutrients from soil.
Marchantia
• The sexually mature thalli bear
specialised erect branches called
gametophores or gametan- giophores
which bear sex organs.
• These branches are umbrella shaped and
arises from the apical notch.
• They are of two types viz.,
antheridiophore and archaegoniophore.
• The antheridiophore bears antheridia
and the archegoniophore, the
archegonia.
• Marchantia is dioecious or heterothallic,
therefore, a thallus bears either
antheridiophores or archegoniophores
Marchantia
• Reproduction in Marchantia:
• Marchantia reproduces by vegetative
and sexual methods.
• Vegetative Reproduction:
• In Marchantia it is quite common and
takes place by the follow ing methods:
• 1. By Gemmae:
• Gemmae are produced in the gemma
cups which are found on the dorsal
surface of the thallus.
• Gemma cups are crescent shaped, 3
m.m. in diameter with smooth, spiny or
fimbriate margins.
Marchantia
• V. S. passing through the gemma cup
shows that it is well differentiated into
two regions:
• Upper photosynthetic region and inner
storage region.
• The structure of both the zones is similar
to that of the thallus.
• Mature gemmae are found to be
attached at the base of the gemma cup
by a single celled stalk.
Marchantia
• Intermingled with gemmae are many mucilage
hairs.
• Each gemma is autotrophic, multicellular,
bilaterally symmetrical, thick in the centre and
thin at the apex.
• It consists parenchymatous cells, oil cells and
rhizoidal cells.
• It is notched on two sides in which lies the
growing point.
• All cells of the gemma contain chloroplast except
rhizoidal cells and oil cells.
• Rhizoidal cells are colourless and large in size.
• Oil cells are present just within the margins and
contain oil bodies instead of chloroplast.
Marchantia
• Dissemination of Gemmae:
• Mucilage hairs secrete mucilage on
absorption of water.
• It swells up and presses the gemmae to
get detached from the stalk in the
gemma cup.
• They may also be detached from the
stalk due to the pressure exerted by the
growth of the young gemmae.
• The gemmae are dispersed over long
distances by water currents.
Marchantia
• Germination of Gemmae:
• After falling on a suitable substratum
gemmae germinate. The surface which
comes in contact with the soil becomes
ventral surface.
• The rhizoidai cells develop into rhizoids.
Meanwhile, the growing points in which
lies the two lateral notches form thalli in
opposite directions. Thus, from a single
gemmae two thalli are formed. Gemmae
which develop on the male thalli form
the male plants and those on the female
thalli form the female plant.
Marchantia
• Sexual Reproduction:
• Sexual reproduction in Marchantia is
oogamous. All species are dioecious.
• Male reproductive bodies are known as
antheridia and female as archegonia.
• Antheridia and archegonia are produced
an special, erect modified lateral
branches of thallus called
antheridiophore and archegoniophore
arpocephalum) respectively.
Marchantia
• Internal structure of Antheridiophore or
Archcgoniophore:
• Its transverse section shows that can be
differentiated into two sides: ventral side
and dorsal side.
• Ventral side has two longitudinal tows
with scales and rhizoids.
• These grooves, run longitudinally
through the entire length of the stalk.
• Dorsal side shows an internal
differentiation of air chambers.
Marchantia
• Antheridiophore:
• It consists of 1-3 centimetre long stalk and a
lobed disc at the apex.
• The disc is usually eight lobed but in M.
geminata it is four lobed.
• The lobed disc is a result of created
dichotomies.
• L.S. through disc of Antheridiophore:
• The disc consists of air chambers alternating
with heridial cavities. Air chambers are
more or less triangular and open on upper
surface by n pore Called ostiole. Antheridia
arise in acropetal succession i.e., the older
near the center and youngest at the
margins.
Marchantia
• Mature Antheridium:
• A mature antheridium is globular in
shape and can be differentiated into two
parts stalk and body.
• Stalk is short multicellular and attaches
the body to the base of the antheridial
chamber.
• A single layered sterile jacket encloses
the mass of androcyte mother cells
which metamorphosis into antherozoids.
• The antherozoid is a minute rod like
biflagellate structure
Marchantia
• Mature Archegonium:
• A mature archegonium is a flask shaped
structure.
• It remains attached to the archegonial
disc by a short stalk.
• It consists upper elongated slender neck
and basal globular portion called venter.
• The neck consists of six vertical rows
enclosing eight neck canal cells and large
egg.
• Four cover cells are present at the top of
the neck.
Marchantia
• Fertilization in Marchantia:
• Marchantia is dioecious. Fertilization takes
place when male and female thalli grow
near each other.
• Water is essential for fertilization.
• The neck of the archegonium is directed
upwards on the dorsal surface of the disc of
the archegoniophore.
• In the mature archegonium the venter canal
cell and neck canal cells disintegrate and
form a mucilaginous mass. It absorbs water,
swells up and comes out of the archegonial
mouth by pushing the cover cells apart. This
mucilaginous mass consists of chemical
substances.
Marchantia
• The antherozoids are splashed by rain
drops. They may fall on the nearby female
receptacle or swim the whole way by
female receptacle. It is only possible if both
the male and female receptacles are
surrounded by water.
• Many antherozoids enter the archegonial
neck by chemotactic response and reach up
to egg.
• This mechanism of fertilization is called
splash cup mechanism. One of the
antherozoids penetrates the egg and
fertilization is effected. The fusion of both
male and female nuclei results in the
formation of diploid zygote or oospore.
Fertilization ends the gametophytic phase.
Marchantia
• Sporophyte develop in the same place as
archaegonium after its fertilization.
• Therefore capsules are seen in a disc of
mature archaegoniophore, on the lower
side.
• Only one sporophyte develops in one
involucre.
• The sporophyte is enclosed by three
coverings: calyptra, perigynium(perianth)
and perichaetium (involucre).
Marchantia
• A mature sporogonium can be
differentiated into three parts, viz., the
foot, seta and capsule.
• Foot: It is bulbous and multicellular. It is
composed of parenchymatous cells. It
acts as anchoring and absorbing organ. It
absorbs the food from the adjoining
gametophytic cells for the developing
sporophyte.
• Seta: It connects the foot and the
capsule. At maturity, due to many
transverse divisions it elongates and
pushes the capsule through three
protective layers viz., calyptra,
perigynium and perichaetium.
Marchantia
• Capsule: It is oval in shape and has a single
layered wall which encloses spores and elaters.
• It has been estimated that as many as 3, 00,000
spores may be produced in single sporogonium
and there are 128 spores in relation to one
elater.
Marchantia
• Alternation of Generation in
Marchantia:
• The life cycle of Marchantia shows
regular alternation of two
morphologically distinct phases.
• One of the generations is Haplophase
and the other is diplophase.
• Haplophase or Gametophytic Phase:
• In Marchantia this phase is dominant
and produces the sex organs. Sex organs
produce gametes to form a diploid
zygote.
Marchantia
• Diploid Phase or Sporophytic Phase:
• Zygote develops into sporophyte. In
Marchantia sporophyte is represented by
foot, seta and capsule. The sporophyte
produces the spores in the capsule. The
spores on germination produce the
gametophyte.
• So, in Marchantia two morphologically
distinct phases (Haplophase and
Diplophase) constitute the life cycle.
• The life cycle of this type which is
characterised by alternation of generations
and sporogenic meiosis is known as
heteromorphic and diplohaplontic.
Funaria
Class : Musci
Family : Funariaceae
Species : hygrometrica
Division : Bryophyta
Funaria
• Funaria, also known as 'cord moss', is a moss genus
with about 210 known species worldwide, 18 of
which are found in India.
• The name Funaria is derived from the Latin term
‘Funis’, translating to 'rope'.
• This moss genus is a cosmopolitan bryophyte that
thrives in both tropical and temperate regions
globally.
• It prefers moist, shady locations and often grows in
dense patches of bright green.
• You can find it thriving on river banks, damp walls,
crevices in rocks, humid soils, and even on tree
trunks.
Funaria
• Funaria is the most common moss found throught
the world.
• There are 120 species recorded in the world. In
India, more than 15 species have been reported.
• It grows on moist grounds in close tufts and also on
damp and shady moist rocks, wells, crevices, tree
trunks and other similar surroundings.
• Funaria hygrometrica is cosmopolitan and best
known among other Funaria species.
Funaria-Morphology
• The Funaria plant is divided into two distinct stages:
the leafy gametophyte and the sporophyte.
• The gametophyte is the main body of the plant,
represented by both a juvenile and an adult stage.
• The haploid plant body comprises a stem, leaves, and
rhizoids.
• The stem is erect, branched, green, and
photosynthetic.
• The leaves are arranged spirally along the stem.
• They are scattered towards the base and crowded at
the apex.
• They are sessile, almost ovate in shape, and have a
distinct midrib.
Funaria-Morphology
• The stem is attached to the substratum by rhizoids,
which resemble root hairs and are branched and
multicellular.
• The gametophytic plants are monoecious and
homothallic. The male reproductive organ or
antheridium and the female reproductive organs or
the archegonium are found on different branches of
the same plant.
• Both the antheridium and archegonium are produced
in clusters at the end of antheridial and archegonial
branches, respectively.
• The sporophyte, attached to the archegonium in a
parasitic manner, is divided into a foot, seta, and
capsule.
Funaria-Morphology
• The gametophyte shows a prostrate underground protonema and an erect
leafy gametophore.
• The gametophore that arises from protonema is differentiated into (i) rhizoids,
(ii) axis or 'stem‘ and (iii) leaves.
• Many rhizoids are present at the base. These are slender, branched, and
multicellular. The septa are oblique.
Funaria-Morphology
• Young rhizoids are colourless while mature are coloured brown.
• They also develop chloroplast and become green if exposed to sunlight.
• The axis is erect and branched. It is 1-3 cms high.
• The branches arise below a leaf and are thus extra-axillary.
Funaria-Morphology
• The stem and branches are covered with small, simple, sessile and spirally arranged leaves
with 3/8 phyllotaxy.
• The leaves at the apex of the gametophore are crowded to form a bud-like head.
• Each leaf is nearly ovate in shape and bears a clear midrib except when young.
• Sex organs are borne at the apices of the axis.
Funaria
• Vegetative Reproduction in Funaria:
• Vegetative propagation in Funaria is performed by
the following methods:
• (a) Fragmentation of Primary Protonema:
• The primary protonema is developed through the
germination of the spore.
• Under certain circumstances, it breaks into several
fragments.
• Each detached fragment bearing buds may grow into a
new plant.
Funaria
• (b) Secondary Protonema:
• The protonema developing from any part of the plant
other than spores are called secondary protonema.
Generally, they are formed on injured rhizoids, stems,
leaves or reproductive structures. They bear buds that
are capable of growing into a new plant (Fig. 6.48B).
• (c) Bulbil:
• The bulbils are multicellular, brown, bud-like
structures that develop on the rhizoidal branches. The
bulbils are useful for propagation during unfavourable
environmental conditions by detaching them from the
parent plants.
Funaria
• (d) Gemmae:
• Gemmae (Fig. 6.48B) are multicellular green bodies
formed from the terminal cells of the protonema. They
remain dormant throughout the unfavourable
condition. However, on return of favourable condition,
a gemma detaches from the parent plant body and
later germinates into a new plant.
• (e) Apospory:
• Apospory is the condition in which the haploid (n)
gametophyte is developed from the diploid (2n)
sporophyte without the formation of spores. In case of
Funaria, gametophytic protonema may develop from
any unspecialised cells of the sporophyte.
Funaria
• This protonema later, gives rise to gametophyte
plant body. Though aposporously develop,
gametophytes are normal in appearance, but are
diploid (2n).
• Subsequently, the tetraploid sporophyte develops
from the fusion of diploid gametes (2n) are sterile.
• Sexual Reproduction in Funaria:
• Funaria is autociously monoecious, because the
male (antheridium) and female (archaegoni-um)
reproductive structures develop on separate
shoots of the same plant. Funaria. L.S. apex of the male branch
showing antheridia
• Antheridia are borne on the main shoot of the
plant.
• The female branch develops as a side shoot ,
which grows more vigorously and becomes longer
than the male branches.
Funaria- antheridial branch and antheridium
• The paraphyses have swollen tips (capitate)
and contain chloroplasts. Besides their
photosynthetic function, paraphyses protect
the young antheridia against desiccation.
• The paraphyses assist in the liberation of
antherozoids.
• The sex organs are present at the apices of
branches.
• These are enclosed by a/ group of leaves at
the apex. Funaria. L.S. apex of the male branch
• At the tip of the stem, is an antheridial branch showing antheridia
Rhizome
Pteris - Morphology
• Roots arise at the base of the leaf
or all over the rhizome.
• The rhizome gives out adventitious
roots on its underside. These are
small and branched.
• The leaves arise from the upper
surface of the rhizome and have a
long rachis.
• The young leaves are circinately
coiled.
Pteris - Morphology
• When young the leaves are spirally
coiled and show circinate vernation
that is typical of true ferns.
• The leaves are unipinnately or
multipinnately compound or
decompound with a long rachis.
• The leaves are simply pinnate (P.
vittata), bipinnate (P. crenata) or
bi-or tripinnate (P. boivini).
Pteris - Morphology
• The pinnae are small near the base
as well as towards the apex, while
they are large towards the middle.
• The pinnae are very often
coriaceous.
• All leaves are fertile, bearing sori
along the ventral margin of pinnae,
except the apices of the segments.
Pteris
• Reproduction in Pteris:
• Spore-Producing Organ:
• Pteris is a homosporous fern. The sorus of
Pteris is called coenosorus. Coenosori are
marginal, borne continuously on a vas-
cular commissure connected with vein
ends.
• Thus the sporangia of Pteris form a
continuous linear sorus along the margin,
hence the individuality of sori is lost.
• The coenosori are protected by the
reflexed margin (false indusium) of the
pinnae.
• Sori are of mixed type intermingled with
many sterile hairs in between the
sporangia
Pteris
• Reproduction in Pteris:
• Spore-Producing Organ:
• Pteris is a homosporous fern. The sorus of
Pteris is called coenosorus. Coenosori are
marginal, borne continuously on a vas-
cular commissure connected with vein
ends.
• Thus the sporangia of Pteris form a
continuous linear sorus along the margin,
hence the individuality of sori is lost.
• The coenosori are protected by the
reflexed margin (false indusium) of the
pinnae.
• Sori are of mixed type intermingled with
many sterile hairs in between the
sporangia
Pteris
• A mature sporangium has a long stalk
that terminates in a capsule
• The jacket of the capsule is single-
layered, but with three different types
of cells
• (1)A thick walled vertical annulus
incompletely overarches the sporan- Sporophyll
gium,
• (2) A thin-walled radially arranged
stomium, and
• (3) Large parenchymatous cells with
undulated walls. Indusial flap
Pteris
• The stalk of the capsule is made of
three rows of cells. It is long and
slender.
• The capsule is ovate or biconvex.
• The sporangial jacket is single
layered thick.
• A ring of thick walled cells formed
the annulus.
• A few thin walled cells of the ring
form the stomium.
• The capsule wall encloses spores. Pteris: Mature sporangium (front and side view)
Pteris cadieri
Pteris: Mature sporangium (front and side view)
Pteris
• In Pteris all spores are alike; they
are nearly triangular in shape
(0.03 mm in diameter), haploid
and uninuleate.
• Usually they have trilete
aperture and can be
distinguished by the perine
ornamentation.
• The spore wall is differentiated
into an outer dark and relatively
thick exine and an inner thin
intine.
Pteris
• The prothallus is a gametophyte
formed as a result of spore
germination.
• The cells of the filamentous
prothallus divide repeatedly and
eventually form a flat green cordate
(heart-shaped) prothallus.
• The prothallus is made up of
parenchymatous cells which are
single-celled thick towards the
margin and many-celled thick
towards the centre.
Pteris
• The growing point are located in
the apical notch.
• Rhizoids are formed over the
ventral surface.
• The antheridium is surrounded
by the cells of the prothallus.
• Each antheridium consists of wall
of three rings of cells.
• It encloses 30-40 multiflagellate
antherozoids at maturity.
Pteris
• The prothallus is monoecious,
protandrous.
• Antheridia appear first and are
confined to the basal central or
lateral regions among the rhizoids.
• Archegonia develop near the apical
notch.
• Each is made of neck and venter.
• The neck is 5-7 celled high with a
single bi-nucleate neck canal cell.
• The venter has a small venter canal
cell and a large egg.
Pteris: Gametophyte
Pteris tremula
Pteris
• Fertilisation:
• The antheridium at maturity absorbs
water and swells. Due to the increase
in pressure within the antheridium the
cover cells split apart releasing the
antherozoids in a thin film of water
present on the surface of the
prothallus.
• At the same time the ventral canal cell,
the neck canal cell and the neck cells
at the top disintegrate forming an
open passage for the antherozoids to
come towards the egg and, eventually,
one of the antherozoids fuses with the
egg to form the zygote.
Pteris
• New Sporophyte (Embryo):
• Like other leptosporangiate ferns, in
Pteris the first division of the zygote
is vertical followed by a second
transverse division resulting in the
formation of a quadrant .
• Further a 32-celled embryo is formed
due to further divisions of the
quadrant.
• The differentiation of embryo begins
at this 32-celled stage.
Pteris
• No suspensor is formed; the hypobasal
cells form stem apex and foot, while
epibasal cells form cotyledon and root.
• With the development of embryo, the
venter of the archegonium forms a
protective layer, called catyptra, around
the embryo.
• In the young embryo the root and
cotyledon grow more rapidly than the
shoot.
• The root pierces the prothallus and
establishes the sporeling in the soil.
• Later, the first leaf develops.
Pinus – Morphology
Pinus - Morphology
• PINUS
• Division: Coniferophyta
• Class: Coniferopsida
• Order: Coniferales
• Family: Pinaceae
• Genus: Pinus
• Widely distributed in the Northern
Hemisphere, mostly in temperate areas.
• Of the 90 species, 6 species are Indian- P.
excelsa, P. longifolia, P. gerardiana, P.
insularis, P. armandi, forms dense evergreen
forests in hilly regions (Himalayas).
Pinus - Morphology
• Pinus is a large, perennial, evergreen plant.
• Branches grow spirally and thus the plant
gives the appearance of a conical or
pyramidal structure.
• Sporophytic plant body is differentiated into
roots, stem and acicular (needle-like) leaves.
• It is a tall conical tree and, therefore,
commonly grouped under conifers.
• The plant body is differentiated into root,
stem and leaves.
• Underground root system is formed by tap
roots which disappear early and only lateral
roots persist later on.
Pinus - Morphology
• The younger roots are generally surrounded by
fungal hyphae- the ectotrophic mycorrhizae.
• Aerial branch system consists of cylindrical, rough
(being covered with scaly bark) and branched
stem.
• The branching is monopodial and the branches
are arranged in whorls.
• The branches are dimorphic (of two
types)branches of unlimited growth or long
shoots and branches of limited growth or dwarf
shoots.
• Branches of unlimited growth or long shoots are
present on the main trunk.
• These are produced at regular intervals.
Pinus - Morphology
• Foliage leaves are green, acicular and needle
like.
• They are borne only by the dwarf shoots.
• A dwarf shoot with a group of needle-like
foliage leaves is known as a foliar spur.
• P. monophylla has a single leaf and spur is
known as monofoilar, while in P. sylvestris,
two leaves are present and spur is called as
bifoiiar.
• In P. longifolia and P. gerardiana, they are
three in number, the spur being called as
trifoliar.
• Quadrifoilar spur occurs in P. quadrifolia and
pentafoliar in P. excelsa.
Pinus - Morphology
• The shape of the needle varies, according to
their number in a spur.
• In P. sylvestris (with bifoliar spur), single
needle is semi-circular in T.s. while in P.
longifolia (with trifoliar spur), ingle needle is
almost triangular in shape.
• Pinus is monoecious. Plant bears male and
female reproductive parts in cones on the
same plant.
• The male cones are borne on lateral branches
of unlimited growth.
• They are produced in clusters and replace the
dwarf shoots.
Pinus - Morphology
• Also, they are formed earlier in the season
than the female cones.
• The female cones are borne terminally on
branches of unlimited growth.
• They are produced singly and replace the long
shoot.
• The female cone appears after every three
years.
• Generally male and female cones are not
formed on one and same branch.