sensors

Communication
Process Monitoring Using Synchronized Path Infrared
Thermography in PBF-LB/M
Dennis Höfflin 1, *, Christian Sauer 1 , Andreas Schiffler 1 and Jürgen Hartmann 1,2

1 Institute of Digital Engineering, University of Applied Sciences Würzburg Schweinfurt,

97070 Würzburg, Germany
2 Bavarian Center of Applied Energy Research e.V., 97074 Würzburg, Germany
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Additive manufacturing processes, particularly Laser-Based Powder Bed Fusion of Metals
(PBF-LB/M), enable the development of new application possibilities due to their manufacturing-
specific freedom of design. These new fields of application require a high degree of component
quality, especially in safety-relevant areas. This is currently ensured primarily via a considerable
amount of downstream quality control. Suitable process monitoring systems promise to reduce
this effort drastically. This paper introduces a novel monitoring method in order to gain process-
specific thermal information during the manufacturing process. The Synchronized Path Infrared
Thermography (SPIT) method is based on two synchronized galvanometer scanners allowing high-
speed and high-resolution observations of the melt pool in the SWIR range. One scanner is used to
steer the laser over the building platform, while the second scanner guides the field of view of an
IR camera. With this setup, the melting process is observed at different laser powers, scan speeds
and at different locations with respect to the laser position, in order to demonstrate the positioning
accuracy of the system and to initially gain thermal process data of the melt pool and the heat-affected
zone. Therefore, the SPIT system shows a speed independent overall accuracy of ±2 Pixel within the
evaluated range. The system further allows detailed thermal observation of the melt pool and the
Citation: Höfflin, D.; Sauer, C.;
surrounding heat-affected zone.
Schiffler, A.; Hartmann, J. Process
Monitoring Using Synchronized Path
Infrared Thermography in
Keywords: SPIT; PBF-LB/M; additive manufacturing; process monitoring; SWIR; melt pool;
PBF-LB/M. Sensors 2022, 22, 5943. galvanometer scanner
https://doi.org/10.3390/s22165943

Academic Editor: Jose Antonino

Daviu
1. Introduction
Received: 25 July 2022 Since the earliest days of invention, the tremendous potential of metal processing
Accepted: 6 August 2022 additive manufacturing technologies has excited many researchers and industrial commu-
Published: 9 August 2022 nities. The PBF-LB/M process, which is currently the most widespread technology with
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral the highest degree of industrial maturity, plays a key role [1]. This technology enables the
with regard to jurisdictional claims in production of material- and weight-efficient innovative components without additional
published maps and institutional affil- tools or clamping devices. However, the layer-wise melting of metal powder via laser
iations. heating results in complex and time-dependent temperature profiles that decisively depend
on process and material parameters. The application of high scan velocities results in
exposure times in the range of milliseconds and, in combination with high laser powers,
induces extremely high heating and cooling rates, causing unique material properties and
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. microstructures [2]. The control of these extreme conditions, with the aim of ensuring the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
required component quality, is still the major challenge of this technique. The immense in-
This article is an open access article
crease in published research studies on this topic in recent years (cf. Figure 1) shows that the
distributed under the terms and
development is not yet complete, and there is still a need for dedicated research, especially
conditions of the Creative Commons
in the area of in situ process data acquisition and validated in situ process monitoring.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Sensors 2022, 22, 5943. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22165943 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2022, 22, 5943 2 of 11
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 11

Figure 1. Number of publications on the topic of in situ sensing and/or in situ monitoring of powder
Figure 1. Number of publications on the topic of in situ sensing and/or in situ monitoring of powder
bed fusion processes [3].
bed fusion processes [3].
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 11
Numerousininsitu
Numerous situmonitoring
monitoringapproaches
approachesfor forspecific
specificprocess
processparameters
parametersand andchar-
char-
acteristics have been investigated, with the aim of deriving indicators
acteristics have been investigated, with the aim of deriving indicators or key amounts for or key amounts for
the subsequent
the subsequent evaluation
evaluation of of process and component quality. Among other things, laser
Due to the complexity of process and component
the processes involved inquality.
PBF-LB/M, Among other things,
alongside the factlaser
that
power[4],
power [4], powder
powder coating
coating and and
powderpowderbed bed surface
surface [5], [5], powder
powder bed bed compaction
compaction [6],systems
smoke [6],
individual sensors are limited to detect specific characteristics only, multi-sensor
smoke plumes and spatter behavior [7], particle emissions [8],
plumes and spatter behavior [7], particle emissions [8], part distortion [9] and vibration part distortion [9] and vi-
have been used more frequently to increase the detection quality. Harbig et al. [27] inte-
brationpowder
during duringcoating
powder[10] coating
were [10] wereconsidered.
already already considered.
However,However, the main
the main focus focus of
of research
grated an additional on-axis high-speed camera (HSC1; plasmoEye) into the existing melt
research
efforts efforts
in the fieldinofthe
infield of in situmonitoring
situ process process monitoring is in the investigation
is in the investigation of the spatialof theand
spa-
pool monitoring system of an EOS M290, in order to detect defects based on process anom-
tial and temporal
temporal temperature temperature
distribution distribution
in and around in andthe around the melt
melt pool, i.e., pool, i.e., the laser–
the laser–material
alies. The used melt pool monitoring system consisted of an on-axis and an off-axis pho-
material interaction
interaction zone [11,12]. zone
The[11,12].
systems The
usedsystems
for thisused for this
purpose are purpose are mainly
mainly designed for designed
measur-
todiode, collecting the intensity data of the process in a range from 400 nm to 900 nm,
forthermal
ing measuring thermal
radiation, radiation,
and are based andonare based on non-contact
non-contact measurement measurement
devices such devices such
as diodes,
while a high-speed camera provided a spatially resolved 2D intensity distribution of the
as diodes, pyrometers
pyrometers and cameras and camerasatsensitive
sensitive differentatwavelength
different wavelength ranges Based
ranges [13–15]. [13–15]. onBased
the
melt pool at a wavelength of 900 nm ± 50 nm. Using a new methodology for the data
on the arrangement
arrangement of the optical
of the optical path, these path,systems
these systems
can becan be divided
divided into off-axis
into off-axis and on-
and on-axis
fusion enabled a significant increase in the sensitivity of defect detection by up to 20%.
axis systems
systems (cf. Figure
(cf. Figure 2) [16].2) [16].
In off-axis systems, the field of view of the sensor unit is arranged at a fixed angle to
Laser
the working plane, independently of the processing optics. This allows measurements in
on-axis
broad wavelength ranges within the visible [17,18] as well as the IR range (SWIR [19],
off-axis
MWIR [20], LWIR [21]). Off-axis Scanner monitoring systems of commercial PBF-LB/M systems,
Sensor Unit
in which
Sensor Unit
the whole processing area isBeamto be considered, focus either on a high recording
Splitter
speed or a high spatial resolution due to limited hardware properties [22,23]. Zhang pre-
sented an investigation based on an off-axis setup with a limited viewing area of 12 mm ×
12 mm, using high frame rate and high spatial resolution [7]. Emitted radiant intensity
was measured to investigate various process-specific features as indicators for evaluating
manufacturing quality. The single-track scenarios were detected with an image acquisi-
tion rate of 2000 fps and spatial resolution of 12 µ m per pixel, in a wavelength range from
350 nm to 800 nm.
In on-axis systems, thermal process emissions are directed through the optical path
of the laser onto the sensor unit. The field of view follows the beam of the laser over the
Figure 2. Schematic
2. Schematic representation of differently
representation the differently arranged sensor units of on-axis and
entire processing surface, whichofisthe why these systems arranged
aresensor units of
particularly on-axis
suitable and off-axis
for observ-
systems.systems.
off-axis
ing and characterizing the region in and around the melt pool. The small measuring field
allows
In high image
off-axis acquisition rates and high spatial resolution, with no limitations in the
In order to systems,
achieve athe field
sufficiently of view
high of the
signal, sensor unitfor
especially is arranged at a fixed angle
narrow-wavelength band
overall
to viewing
the working plane, area. To avoid
independently imaging errors caused by the optical path, the observation
measurements, the selected sensitivityofrange the processing
of the processoptics. This allows
monitoring measurements
system for thermal
wavelength
in broad wavelengthis in the ranges
range ofwithinthe wavelength of the processing laser [24]. Using an on-axis
radiation measurement is important.the visible [17,18] as well as the IR range (SWIR [19],
setup consisting
MWIR [20], LWIR of a high-speed camera andsystems a photodiode, BerumenPBF-LB/M
et al. [25] succeeded
Therefore, the[21]). Off-axis
spectral monitoring
characteristics of the material of commercial
under investigation aresystems,
of great
in
in capturing
which the the
whole melt pool
processing during area processing,
is to be with
considered,a resolution
focus of
either10onµ m
a per pixel
high and an
recording
interest. Here, the emissivity is probably the most important factor to be determined.
acquisition
speed rate spatial
or a ishigh of 16.666 fps. The camera
resolution observed the melt properties
pool dimensions, while the
Emissivity the ratio of the thermal due to limited
radiation hardware
an object emits compared to [22,23]. Zhang
that of a perfect
diode detected
presented an the average based
investigation emittedonthermal an radiation.
off-axis setup Based
with on
a the quantitative
limited viewing measure-
area of
black body at the same temperature (a black body is defined by reflectance ρ = 0, trans-
ment
12 mm data,
× τ12=amm, closed-loop control system and was implemented to stabilize the melt pool. Clijst-
mittance 0 andusing high
absorptance frame
α = 1)rate
[28]. high spatial resolution [7]. Emitted radiant
ers et
intensityal. [26] adopted a similar arrangement, which is under development for real-time
Withwas knownmeasured to investigate
emissivity, the radiance various process-specific
of a real body can befeatures
determined as indicators
via Planck’s for
monitoring
evaluating and detection
manufacturing of when
quality. Themelt breakage
single-track or material
scenarios werediscontinuity
detected withoccurs
an in the
image
law, given in Equation (1). It describes the emitted thermal power per wavelength and
process.
area, represented by the radiance Lb,λ of a black body, as a function of temperature T and
wavelength λ.
−1
2ℎ𝑐 2 ℎ𝑐
𝐿𝑏,𝜆 (𝜆, 𝑇) = (𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − 1) (1)
Sensors 2022, 22, 5943 3 of 11

acquisition rate of 2000 fps and spatial resolution of 12 µm per pixel, in a wavelength range
from 350 nm to 800 nm.
In on-axis systems, thermal process emissions are directed through the optical path
of the laser onto the sensor unit. The field of view follows the beam of the laser over
the entire processing surface, which is why these systems are particularly suitable for
observing and characterizing the region in and around the melt pool. The small measuring
field allows high image acquisition rates and high spatial resolution, with no limitations
in the overall viewing area. To avoid imaging errors caused by the optical path, the
observation wavelength is in the range of the wavelength of the processing laser [24]. Using
an on-axis setup consisting of a high-speed camera and a photodiode, Berumen et al. [25]
succeeded in capturing the melt pool during processing, with a resolution of 10 µm per
pixel and an acquisition rate of 16.666 fps. The camera observed the melt pool dimensions,
while the diode detected the average emitted thermal radiation. Based on the quantitative
measurement data, a closed-loop control system was implemented to stabilize the melt
pool. Clijsters et al. [26] adopted a similar arrangement, which is under development for
real-time monitoring and detection of when melt breakage or material discontinuity occurs
in the process.
Due to the complexity of the processes involved in PBF-LB/M, alongside the fact
that individual sensors are limited to detect specific characteristics only, multi-sensor
systems have been used more frequently to increase the detection quality. Harbig et al. [27]
integrated an additional on-axis high-speed camera (HSC1; plasmoEye) into the existing
melt pool monitoring system of an EOS M290, in order to detect defects based on process
anomalies. The used melt pool monitoring system consisted of an on-axis and an off-axis
photodiode, collecting the intensity data of the process in a range from 400 nm to 900 nm,
while a high-speed camera provided a spatially resolved 2D intensity distribution of the
melt pool at a wavelength of 900 nm ± 50 nm. Using a new methodology for the data
fusion enabled a significant increase in the sensitivity of defect detection by up to 20%.
In order to achieve a sufficiently high signal, especially for narrow-wavelength band
measurements, the selected sensitivity range of the process monitoring system for thermal
radiation measurement is important.
Therefore, the spectral characteristics of the material under investigation are of great
interest. Here, the emissivity is probably the most important factor to be determined.
Emissivity is the ratio of the thermal radiation an object emits compared to that of a
perfect black body at the same temperature (a black body is defined by reflectance ρ = 0,
transmittance τ = 0 and absorptance α = 1) [28].
With known emissivity, the radiance of a real body can be determined via Planck’s
law, given in Equation (1). It describes the emitted thermal power per wavelength and
area, represented by the radiance Lb,λ of a black body, as a function of temperature T and
wavelength λ.
 −1
2hc2
  
hc
Lb,λ (λ, T ) = 5 exp −1 (1)
λ λkT
Here, h is the Planck’s constant, c is the speed of light and k is the Boltzmann constant.
Wien´s displacement law further shows that the wavelength λmax , at which the radiation
power has its maximum value in the black-body spectrum, displaces to the side of the
shorter wavelengths with increasing temperature T [29].

λmax T = 2897 µm K (2)

Figure 3 shows the spectral radiance distribution of a black body according to Planck,
as well as the maximum wavelengths according to Wien for temperatures between 100 ◦ C
and 1500 ◦ C. The picture depicts that the most relevant temperature regions of solidified
surface temperatures have their maximum intensity in short- and mid-wavelength infrared
(SWIR, MWIR).
Sensors 2022, 22,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 4of
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11

Spectral range off-axis Spectral range on-axis Spectral range SPIT Laser Wavelength

Spectral radiance Lb, λ (λ,T) [W/m3]

Wavelength λ [µm]

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Visual
Visualrepresentation
representationofofthe
the spectral
spectral radiance
radiance distribution
distribution of aofblack
a black
bodybody (Planck
(Planck spec-
spectrum)
trum) and Wien’s displacement law for temperatures between 100
◦ °C and 1500◦
and Wien’s displacement law for temperatures between 100 C and 1500 C [20]. The common °C [20]. The common
spectral range of on-axis (light green area) and off-axis (light red area) systems, as well as the spec-
spectral range of on-axis (light green area) and off-axis (light red area) systems, as well as the spectral
tral range of the SPIT system (yellow bar) and the laser wavelength (red bar) are highlighted. The
range of the SPIT system (yellow bar) and the laser wavelength (red bar) are highlighted. The melting
melting range of the material used in this investigation (AlMg3) is between 595 °C and 645°C [30].
range of the material used in this investigation (AlMg3) is between 595 ◦ C and 645 ◦ C [30].
In this work, a novel system for in situ process monitoring is presented (Synchro-
In this work, a novel system for in situ process monitoring is presented (Synchronized
nized Path Infrared Thermography―SPIT) based on two separated Galvanometer scan-
Path Infrared Thermography—SPIT) based on two separated Galvanometer scanners.
ners. With this setup, it is possible to reliably detect a roaming melt pool with a sensor
With this setup, it is possible to reliably detect a roaming melt pool with a sensor unit
unit whose
whose movement
movement can can be controlled
be controlled independently
independently of of
thethe laser.The
laser. Theadditional
additional optical
optical
path is
path is designed
designedfor
forwavelength
wavelengthranges favorable
ranges for process
favorable monitoring
for process in additive
monitoring man-
in additive
ufacturing (SWIR).
manufacturing (SWIR).

2. Materials
2. Materials and
and Methods
Methods
2.1. SPIT Setup
The experimental setup was designed to represent the basic processes taking place
in the PBF-LB/M
PBF-LB/Mprocessprocess(components
(components are
are given
given only
only forfor clarity,
clarity, which
which doesdoes
notnotmeanmean
the
the
usedused component
component is the
is the best
best or or
thethe only
only applicableone).
applicable one).AAYb-fiber
Yb-fiberlaser
laserfrom
from JPTJPT (JPT
Opto-electronics
Opto-electronics Co., Co., Shenzhen,
Shenzhen,China)
China)operating
operatingatata awavelength
wavelength ofof
1080
1080nmnm was used
was as
used
the energy source. The laser output can be adjusted in the range from
as the energy source. The laser output can be adjusted in the range from net 61 W to 458 net 61 W to 458 W,
as
W,continuous
as continuous wavewaveor orpulsed,
pulsed,with
with a frequency
a frequency ofofupuptoto2020kHz.
kHz.After
Afterbeing
being collimated
collimated
and
and widened,
widened, the the laser
laser was
was guided
guided into
into aa SCANLAB
SCANLAB intelliSCAN
intelliSCAN III III 20
20 galvanometer
galvanometer
scanner
scanner (SCANLAB
(SCANLABGmbH, GmbH,Puchheim,
Puchheim,Germany)—the
Germany)―theso-calledso-called laser scanner.
laser scanner.The scanner
The scan-
directed the emitted radiation through an F-θ-Lens optimized for a
ner directed the emitted radiation through an F-θ-Lens optimized for a wavelength rangewavelength range from
1030 nm to 1080 nm.
from 1030 nm to 1080 nm.
The
The lens
lens focused
focused the the laser
laser beam
beam ontoonto aa platform
platform placed
placed 421 421 mmmm below
below inin aa sealed
sealed
aluminum
aluminum containment box. The approximated spot size at the focal point had aa diameter
containment box. The approximated spot size at the focal point had diameter
of 65 μm,
of 65 with aa Rayleigh
µm, with Rayleigh length
length of 1.5 mm.
of 1.5 mm. The
The laser
laser and
and scanner
scanner unitunit could
could bebe controlled
controlled
using
using aa laserDESK
laserDESK software
softwareinterface.
interface.TheTheplatform
platformitself
itselfwas
was movable
movable along
along thethe Z-axis
Z-axis to
to
adjust the different thicknesses of the processed parts. To control the status inside the
adjust the different thicknesses of the processed parts. To control the status inside the
sealed
sealed box,
box,an anadditional
additionaldiodediodewaswasused to monitor
used to monitorthe radiation emission
the radiation occurring
emission while
occurring
the laser was activated.
while the laser was activated.
To make the measuring point independent from the position of the processing laser, the
To make the measuring point independent from the position of the processing laser,
SPIT setup was fitted with a second scanner unit—the so-called sensor scanner. A schematic
the SPIT setup was fitted with a second scanner unit―the so-called sensor scanner. A
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 11

Sensors 2022, 22, 5943 5 of 11

schematic representation of the setup is shown in Figure 4. The additional sensor scanner
is, in principle, equivalent to the laser scanner, but with its optical components optimized
representation of the setup is shown in Figure 4. The additional sensor scanner is, in
for wavelengths
principle, equivalentin to
thethe
SWIR
laser range
scanner,(1940 nm to
but with its 2050 nm).
optical To adjust
components the slightly
optimized for longer
focal distance, an aluminum plate with a thickness of 16 mm was placed
wavelengths in the SWIR range (1940 nm to 2050 nm). To adjust the slightly longer focal underneath the
sensor
distance,scanner. This sets
an aluminum upwith
plate a second optical
a thickness path
of 16 mmwhich is controlled
was placed by the
underneath thesame
sensorsoftware
interface as the
scanner. This main
sets up ascanner.
second To superimpose
optical path which the
is zero point by
controlled of the
the coordinate systems of
same software
interface as the main scanner. To superimpose the zero point of the
the two scanners, a basic offset was added, respectively subtracted from the coordinate systems of X-axes
the two scanners,
Within a basicoperating
the maximum offset was parameters
added, respectively subtracted
of the scanner fromthe
units, the arrangement
X-axes. Withinresulted
the maximum operating parameters of the scanner units, the arrangement resulted in an
in an intersection area of 125 ×2 218 mm . Additionally, ScanLab provided correction pa-
2
intersection area of 125 × 218 mm . Additionally, ScanLab provided correction parameters
rameters for each F-θ-Lens regarding the different refraction angles between the center
for each F-θ-Lens regarding the different refraction angles between the center and the outer
and
zones.theThese
outer zones.increased
datasets These datasets increased
the precision of the the precision
positioning of the positioning
significantly, and were signifi-
cantly, and were
implemented implemented
as correction factors.as correction factors.

B C
D

A: Infrared Camera
B: Sensor Scanner
C: Laser Scanner
D: Laser

laser direction

4.Schematic
Figure 4.
Figure Schematicsetup
setupof of
Synchronized
SynchronizedPathPath
Infrared Thermography
Infrared (SPIT). (SPIT).
Thermography The measuring field
The measuring field
of the
of the camera
camera(A)
(A)isismoved
moved bybythethe
sensor galvanometer
sensor galvanometerscanner (B) synchronously
scanner with thewith
(B) synchronously working
the working
galvanometer scanner
galvanometer scanner (C)(C)
of the laser
of the (D).(D).
laser

To gain infrared thermal radiation information about the melting process, an InfraTec
To gain infrared thermal radiation information about the melting process, an InfraTec
IR 8300 camera (InfraTec GmbH, Dresden, Germany) was placed in front of the aperture of
IR
the8300
sensor camera
scanner.(InfraTec
The camera GmbH,itself Dresden,
used a 50 mm Germany) was placed
lens, resulting in front
in an optical of the aperture
resolution
of
of the complete path of 135 µm for each pixel. Since the setup allows the measuring optical
the sensor scanner. The camera itself used a 50 mm lens, resulting in an field of resolu-
tion of theto
the camera complete
be movedpath of 135 μmtofor
synchronously theeach
laser,pixel.
even aSince
smallthe
imagesetup allows
section the measuring
is sufficient
field of capture
to fully the camera to be of
the region moved
interestsynchronously
during the process. to theTolaser, eventhe
maximize a small
possibleimage
framesection is
rate, the field of view was therefore set to (40 · 40) pixels in the center
sufficient to fully capture the region of interest during the process. To maximize the pos- of the image. This
corresponded
sible frame rate, to anthearea of about
field of view (5.5was mm2 . With
·5.5) therefore setthis
to configuration,
(40·40) pixels including
in the center an of the
integration
image. Thistime of 89 µs, the to
corresponded camera
an areaprovided
of about a framerate
(5.5·5.5)ofmm 2000 fps. The
2. With extraction
this of
configuration, in-
the raw data was realized via a customized interface based on the Software Development
cluding an integration time of 89 µ s, the camera provided a framerate of 2000 fps. The
Kit (SDK) provided by InfraTec. After defining a region of interest, the software surveilled
extraction
this area forof the raw data
temperatures wasa realized
above via a customized
certain threshold and recorded interface basednumber
a predefined on theofSoftware
Development
pictures when triggered. The integration time of the camera system and the adjustmentthe soft-
Kit (SDK) provided by InfraTec. After defining a region of interest,
ware
of the surveilled this area
spectral sensitivity wasforconfigured
temperatures by the above
SDK as a certain
well. Thethreshold
informationandprovided
recorded a pre-
defined
within thenumber
processed ofimages
pictures when
shows the triggered. The integration
currently uncalibrated grayscaletime of the
values camera
of the laser system
interaction
and zone and the
the adjustment ofsurrounding
the spectralarea. sensitivity was configured by the SDK as well. The
For downstream
information provided data analysis,
within thethe collectedimages
processed data were also stored
shows as comma-separated
the currently uncalibrated gray-
value files that were analyzed and visualized with the
scale values of the laser interaction zone and the surrounding area. help of MATLAB R2021a. Assuming
that the brightest pixel always represents the laser–material interaction zone, the detection
For downstream data analysis, the collected data were also stored as comma-sepa-
of this pixel can be used to draw conclusions about the positioning accuracy of the sensor
rated value files that were analyzed and visualized with the help of MATLAB R2021a.
system. Therefore, statistics about the position of the brightest pixel were carried out.
Assuming that the brightest pixel always represents the laser–material interaction zone,
the detection of this pixel can be used to draw conclusions about the positioning accuracy
of the sensor system. Therefore, statistics about the position of the brightest pixel were
carried out. Pictures taken during the time when the laser was deactivated, e.g., during
 Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 11

Sensors 2022,22,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of1111
6 of
jumps between separated characters, were not considered. The entire setup is shown in
Figure 5.
Pictures taken during
jumps between the time
separated when the
characters, laser
were was
not deactivated,
considered. Thee.g., during
entire jumps
setup between
is shown in
Sensor
separated
Figure 5. characters,
Laser were not
scanner
considered. The entire setup is shown in Figure 5.
scanner
Beam
Oscilloscope Sensor expander Optical
Laser
scanner Laser Collimator fibre
scanner
scanner Beam
Oscilloscope expander Optical
Laser Collimator fibre
z-axis scanner
Laser Inert gas
nozzle IR Camera
z-axis
Laser Inert gas
Sensor
Cooler
nozzle scanner
Process IR Camera
platform Containment Sensor
Cooler box scanner
Process
(a) platform Containment (b)
box
Figure 5. (a,b) Representation of the laboratory setup for the Synchronized Path Infrared Ther-
(a)
mography system. (b)
Figure 5. (a,b) Representation of the laboratory setup for the Synchronized Path Infrared Ther-
Figure 5. (a,b) Representation of the laboratory setup for the Synchronized Path Infrared Thermogra-
2.2. Methods,
mography Samples and Test Parameters
system.
phy system.
To initially evaluate the performance of the laser source and optical path, a series of
2.2.
2.2. Methods,
Methods, Samples and
Samples
tests were performed. and
The Test
Test Parameters
Parameters
laser power was measured by a Primes Cube M, the beam caus-
To
tic and initially
the focus
To initially evaluate
diameter
evaluate the performance
thewith the help of
performance of
ofathe laser
lasersource
Primes
the sourceand
FMW+ andoptical
and, finally,path,
optical aaseries
seriesofof
the precision
path, of
tests werefield
the scan
tests were performed.
with a The
performed. The laser
Primes laser
SFM power
power was measured
(PRIMES
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the help help of a Primes
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and, finally, the precision
the precision of the scanof
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To further
a Primeswith a Primes
validate
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abilityPfungstadt,
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Germany).
effects of laser–material
To further validate the interaction,
accuracy ofathe series
setupof and
sample exposures
the ability werethe
to detect performed
thermal effectsat dif-
of
ferentTolaser
further
laser–material validate
interaction,
speeds the aaccuracy
and laser series
powers of of
on the
sample
plainsetup and the
exposures
aluminum wereability to detect
performed
plates. The the thermal
at different
parameter rangelaseris
effects
speeds
shownand of
inlaser–material
laser powers
Table interaction,
on
1. For every plain a seriesplates.
aluminum
combination oflaser
of sample
The exposures
parameter
speed and laser were
range performed
is shown
power, the in at dif-
Table
path con- 1.
ferent
For
sisted laser
every speeds and
of acombination
straight lineoflaser
laserpowers
along speed
the on plain
and
X-axis laser aluminum
with apower,
lengththeof plates.
path
32 mm. The parameter
consisted
After range
of a straight
completion isthe
ofline
shown
along
line, the incurrent
the Table 1.
X-axis For
with
test aevery
length
parameters combination
of 32 date
and ofAfter
mm.were laser speed and
completion
engraved laser
of thepower,
(cf. Figure line,
6). The the
thedata path
current con-
producedtest
sisted
parametersof a straight
and date line
werealong the
engraved X-axis
(cf.with
Figurea length
6). Theof 32
data
while engraving the current parameter set and date were also part of the evaluation in mm. After
produced completion
while of
engravingthe
line,
the
order thetocurrent
current represent testcomplex
parameter parameters
set and laserand
date dateinwere
were
paths also engraved
the part
x–y of the(cf.
plane. Figure 6).ainThe
evaluation
Therefore, data
order
font size toproduced
represent
of approxi-
while
complex engraving
mately 2.5 laser
mmpaths the
was in current
the x–y
chosen. parameter
Asplane. set and
Therefore,
base material date were
wasa sandblasted also part of
font size of approximately the evaluation
to 40·40 mm AlMg3,
2 2.5 mmplates in
was
order
chosen. to represent
of 2 mmSandblasted
thickness werecomplex
platesusedlaser
made paths in the
of AlMg3plates
Sandblasted x–y plane.
with made Therefore,
the dimensions
of AlMg3 with a font size
× 40
of 40the of approxi-
2
mm and of
dimensions a
mately
40 × 40 2.5
thickness mm ofmm22andwas
mm chosen.
awere used
thickness Asof
asbase
2the
mmmaterial
base
were was sandblasted
material.
used to 40·40 mm2 AlMg3, plates
as the base material.
of 2 mm thickness were used Sandblasted plates made of AlMg3 with the dimensions of
40 × 40 mm2 and a thickness of 2 mm were used as the base material.

Figure 6. Processed AlMg3 base plate.

CAMP
 Figure 6. Processed AlMg3 base plate.

Table 1. Laser energy outputs and travel speeds.

Sensors 2022, 22, 5943 Energy Output Travel Speed 7 of 11

105 W 0.05 m/s

240 W 0.5 m/s
Table 1. Laser energy 460
outputs
W and travel speeds. 1.0 m/s
Energy Output Travel Speed
The investigation of the melt pool dimensions was carried out metallographically.
105 W
For this purpose, the samples were cut perpendicular to the 0.05
scanm/s
direction of the line,
240 W 0.5 m/s
embedded in epoxy,460ground,
W polished and etched. The microscopic investigation
1.0 m/s was per-
formed using an incident light microscope (Olympus AX70).

The investigation of the melt pool dimensions was carried out metallographically.
3. Results
For this purpose, the samples were cut perpendicular to the scan direction of the line,
In the first step, the characteristics of the laser beam were determined. It proved to
embedded in epoxy, ground, polished and etched. The microscopic investigation was
be well within the expected parameters, with a spot diameter of 66 μm, a focal length of
performed using an incident light microscope (Olympus AX70).
427 mm and a Rayleigh length of 1.43 mm.
Based on static pointwise measurements at different locations in and near the zero
3. Results
pointInofthe
thefirst
superimposed coordinate systems,
step, the characteristics the beam
of the laser laser spot
werecould be assigned
determined. to a de-
It proved to
fined single pixel at the sensor unit. Further, the evaluation of the distinctive
be well within the expected parameters, with a spot diameter of 66 µm, a focal length of thermal im-
agesmm
427 of these
and ameasurements
Rayleigh length showed
of 1.43the
mm.single brightest pixel at the place where the beam
interacts with the surface. Surrounding
Based on static pointwise measurements pixelsatalso showed
different significantly
locations in andincreased gray
near the zero
values, representing the zone of thermal influence (cf. Figure 7). During initial
point of the superimposed coordinate systems, the laser spot could be assigned to a defined dynamic
measurements
single pixel at thenear the zero
sensor point,
unit. the brightest
Further, pixel ofofthe
the evaluation themeasurements corresponded
distinctive thermal images
with the previously determined laser spot location on the sensor.
of these measurements showed the single brightest pixel at the place where Therefore, thethe
brightest
beam
pixel in each
interacts withimage was used
the surface. as the reference
Surrounding pointshowed
pixels also for thesignificantly
precision evaluation
increasedofgray
the
setup. representing the zone of thermal influence (cf. Figure 7). During initial dynamic
values,
The dimensions
measurements near the and intensity
zero point, theof the measured
brightest pixelbrightness depended on
of the measurements the chosen
corresponded
with the previously determined laser spot location on the sensor. Therefore, the460
laser power and scan speed. The signal-to-noise ratio variated from 20.3 dB at W and
brightest
0.05 m/s to 8.1 dB at 105 W and 1 m/s.
pixel in each image was used as the reference point for the precision evaluation of the setup.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7. IR-images for (a) 460 W, 0.05 m/s; (b) 240 W, 0,5 m/s; (c) 105 W, 1 m/s.
Figure 7. IR-images for (a) 460 W, 0.05 m/s; (b) 240 W, 0,5 m/s; (c) 105 W, 1 m/s.

The dimensions
The observation andof the brightest
intensity ofpixel showed that
the measured trackingdepended
brightness the laser–material inter-
on the chosen
action point is possible with high precision within the parameters applied
laser power and scan speed. The signal-to-noise ratio variated from 20.3 dB at 460 W and in this study.
The m/s
0.05 migration
to 8.1 of
dBthis pixel
at 105 was 1minimal
W and m/s. in the tests performed and showed a direct de-
pendency on the position
The observation of thewithin the pixel
brightest processing
showed area.
thatThe high repeatability
tracking revealed
the laser–material that
interac-
the causes
tion point isofpossible
this movement
with high areprecision
to be found in an
within theoptical distortion
parameters of the
applied in thermographic
this study. The
path.
migration of this pixel was minimal in the tests performed and showed a direct dependency
While moving
on the position along
within the x-axis area.
the processing to carry
The out
highthe straight line,
repeatability no deviation
revealed in the
that the causes
brightest pixel along the y-axis was observed. Meanwhile, the roaming
of this movement are to be found in an optical distortion of the thermographic path. within the field of
viewWhile
along moving
the x-axisalong
was consistent
the x-axis intoall sets out
carry withthe
a span of 5 pixels.
straight line, noAfter finishing
deviation in the
brightest pixel along the y-axis was observed. Meanwhile, the roaming within the field of
view along the x-axis was consistent in all sets with a span of 5 pixels. After finishing the
straight line, there was a jump along the y-axis to the beginning of the first digit. This jump
can also be correlated to the omission of a whole senor line when analyzing the position
of the brightest pixels. This skipped line is recognizable across all settings and, again,
indicates the geometric relation between position and deviation (cf. Figure 8).
 straight
straight line,line,
therethere
was was a jump
a jump along
along the y-axis
the y-axis to beginning
to the the beginning of first
of the the first
digit.digit.
ThisThis
jumpjump
can can
also also be correlated
be correlated to omission
to the the omission
of a of a whole
whole senor
senor line line
whenwhen analyzing
analyzing the the
Sensors 2022, 22, 5943 position
position of brightest
of the the brightest pixels.
pixels. ThisThis skipped
skipped line line is recognizable
is recognizable across
across and,8and,
all settings
all settings of 11
again,
again, indicates
indicates the geometric
the geometric relation
relation between
between position
position and and deviation
deviation (cf. Figure
(cf. Figure 8). 8).

Figure
Figure
Figure 8. Frequency
8. Frequency
8. Frequency distribution
distribution ofsingle
of the
distribution of thesingle
the single brightest
brightest pixel
brightest pixel onthe
on the
pixel on thesensor
sensorsensor at a laser
at aatlaser power
a laser power
of of
power 460of
460460
W
W
W and
andaand a scan
scan
a scan speed
speed ofof
speed 1ofm/s.
1 m/s.1 m/s.

In addition
addition
In addition to the
to
to the thebrightest
brightest
brightest pixel,
pixel,
pixel, a aheat-affected
heat-affected
a heat-affected zone
zone
zone cancan
can be observed
bebeobserved
observed in ther-
inthe
in the the ther-
thermog-
mography
raphy images
mography images
images (cf. (cf. Figure
(cf.Figure
Figure 9a), 9a),
9a),the the dimension
thedimension
dimension ofof
whichof which
whichdepended depended
depended on on on energy
thethe the input
energy energy input
into
input the
into into the varying
surface, surface,
the surface, varying
from
varying from from approximately
approximately
approximately 2.2 mm 2.2
460mm
2.2atmm W460
at at W
laser460 W laser
power
laser and power
power 0.05 m/s
and and 0.05
scan
0.05 m/s m/s
speed
scanscan
to 0.8speed
speed mm atto105
to 0.8 0.8Wmm
mm atlaser
105atpower
105laser
W Wand
laser power
1 m/s
power scan
and and 1 m/s
speed.
1 m/s scan speed.
Subsequently
scan speed. Subsequently carried-
carried-outcarried-
Subsequently metallurgi-
out
cal metallurgical
examinations examinations
(cf. Figure 9b), (cf.
in Figure
which the9b), in which
dimension of the
the dimension
melt
out metallurgical examinations (cf. Figure 9b), in which the dimension of the melt pools pools of the
were melt pools
determined,
werewere
have determined,
shown
determined, that
have have
the shown
areas
shown of that
increased
that the temperature
the areas areas of increased
of increased visible temperature visible
in the thermography
temperature visible inexceeded
in the the ther-
ther-
the width
mography
mography of
exceededthe melt
exceeded pool.
the
the width width of melt
of the the melt
pool.pool.

(a) (a) (b) (b)

Figure
Figure
Figure 9.
9. Comparison
9. Comparison
Comparison between:
between: (a) A(a)
between: A
A thermal
thermal
(a) image
thermal image
of anof
image an
an exposure
exposure
of withwith
exposure aa laser
a laser
with power
laser power of
of 460
power ofW460 W
W and
and
460 and
a
a scan scan
speedspeed
of 1 of
m/s1 m/s
and and
(b) (b)
the the metallurgical
metallurgical microscopy
microscopy of of
the the aluminum
aluminum plate.
plate. The The
melt melt
pool pool
a scan speed of 1 m/s and (b) the metallurgical microscopy of the aluminum plate. The melt pool has
has ahas a measured width
ameasured
measuredwidthwidthof
of 165.1and
of165.1
165.1μm
μm and a measured
µm andaameasured
measured depth
depth
depth of
of 282.6 μm.
of 282.6
282.6 μm.
µm.

4. Discussion
4. Discussion
Discussion
The The
test test series
series carried
carried outthis
out in in this research
research demonstrates
demonstrates the high
the high precision
precision that that
the the
synchronized
synchronized
synchronized galvanometer
galvanometer
galvanometer scanners
scanners can can
scanners can follow,
follow, eveneven for complex
for complex The The
paths.
paths. brightest
brightest
pixelpixel selected
selected as a as a benchmark
benchmark
benchmark provides
provides
provides aa reliable
reliable
a reliable reference
reference
reference point
point
point for the
the operating
foroperating
for the operating laser.
laser.laser.
The discrepancy between the strongly focused spot diameter and the resolution capability
of the camera system provides a clear drop-off between the zone of energy input and
the surrounding heat-affected area. In all combinations of power and traverse speed
investigated, a single pixel always stood out clearly, fitting the characteristic properties
Sensors 2022, 22, 5943 9 of 11

of the laser melting process of local extremely high temperatures and a rapid drop close
beside it.
The accuracy of the setup reaches or exceeds the resolution capability of the camera
system. Across all tests, oscillating deviations during the movement were not observed.
The shift within the field of view, nevertheless occurring with high repeatability, can clearly
be attributed to a distortion of the optical path that was not completely equalized for the
observed wavelengths.
The initial results of this study illustrate the combination of the benefits of on- and off-
axis monitoring within the SPIT approach. The system allows the use of wavelength ranges
in the SWIR that were previously described by Mohr [20] as favorable for observations in
the PBF LB/M process. In contrast with off-axis systems, there is no need to compromise
between resolution, frame rate and observable working space [7]. Furthermore, due to the
characteristics of the data acquisition consisting of a small movable measuring field, the
SPIT setup enables high frame rates and resolutions with a simultaneously large observable
working space. These attributes are particularly characteristic of on-axis systems [26]. In
addition, it is possible to design the travel paths of the two independent galvanometer
scanners differently, in principle.
By utilizing metallurgical investigations, the dimensions of the generated melt pools
could be mapped onto corresponding infrared images. It was noticeable that the heated
zone detected by the camera was significantly larger than the actual melt pool. This
indicates that even heated areas that have not been melted can be captured in detail with
the SPIT setup, and subsequently evaluated.

5. Conclusions
In this paper, the SPIT setup was introduced as a novel monitoring system that enables
high-resolution observation of the melt pool and the surrounding heat-affected zone in
the PBF-LB/M process. The use of two independent optical paths permitted the usage of
wavelength ranges favorable for thermography.
Initial trials with a variety of simple and complex laser paths approved the repeatabil-
ity, with very high precision of two synchronized galvanometer scanners, even at high scan
speeds. Furthermore, the point of interaction between the laser and the aluminum was
clearly recognizable as a single pixel with prominent brightness. The expansion of the melt
pool was limited to a very small spot in the field of view and surrounded by a significant
area of thermal influence, which was dependent on the test setup for laser energy and
travel speed.
In the next steps, dedicated upgrades in the optical path will take place. The currently
used 50 mm lens will be upgraded to an InfraTec telephoto lens with a focal length of
100 mm. Preliminary experiments with this advanced setup have shown a significant
improvement in the achievable resolution without a significant loss of signal strength.
In order to enable more control of incident radiation to reduce the influence of inter-
ferences and allow more precise temperature mapping, a narrow band-pass filter will be
installed into the sensor path. Tests already carried out have shown that an additional loss
of signal power remains within manageable limits.
The observed shifts of the laser spot within the field of view caused by the optical
refraction showed that a customized correction factor to equalize the movement completely
is necessary. This factor will be implemented after the conduction of additional trails to
map the currently existing distortion.
For future measurements of absolute temperatures, there will be investigations into
moving the focal point apart from the zone of direct laser interaction and towards more
stable areas regarding the aggregate state of the matter. Therefore, a predefined delay of the
sensor path in regard to the laser will be applied. This disengagement of the momentarily
linked scanners will be achieved via a custom software solution with a customizable gap
between laser and sensor focus.
Sensors 2022, 22, 5943 10 of 11

The goal of an obtainment of absolute temperatures requires accurate calibration of

the camera, including the entire optical path with all its elements.
Following these steps, the presented setup consisting of a high-speed SWIR camera
and two synchronized galvanometer scanners will enable the measurement of absolute
temperatures and temperature gradients in a defined region around the laser–material
interaction point in great detail. The information gained will then be used as indicators to
register anomalies occurring during manufacturing, to evaluate the process stability and
predict the achieved part quality.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.H. and C.S.; methodology, D.H. and C.S. software,
C.S.; validation, C.S. and A.S.; formal analysis, D.H. and C.S.; investigation, D.H.; resources, J.H.
and A.S.; data curation, C.S. and D.H.; writing—original draft preparation, D.H. and C.S.; writing—
review and editing, D.H., C.S., A.S. and J.H.; visualization, C.S. and D.H.; supervision, A.S.; project
administration, J.H.; funding acquisition, D.H., A.S. and J.H. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was conducted as part of the ViPAF project funded by StMWI—Bayern Inno-
vativ Bayerische Gesellschaft für Innovation und Wissenstransfer mbH, grant number 41-6562b/25/2-
VAL-2103-0006.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or
in the decision to publish the results.

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