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20 views

2Review of Physical Layer Concepts

Uploaded by

khansanadeem44
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Advance Wireless Networks

Basic Physical Layer Concepts

Dr. Zara Hamid


Physical layer

To be transmitted,
data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals.

2
3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Data can be analog or digital


 Analog data refers to information that is continuous
 Analog data take on continuous values
 Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range

 Digital data refers to information that has discrete states


 Digital data take on discrete values
 Digital signals can have only a limited number of values

In data communications, we commonly use


periodic analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals.

3
Comparison of analog and digital signals

4
Signal amplitude

6
Frequency

Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.

 Change in a short span of time means high frequency.


 Change over a long span of time means low frequency.

 If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero


 If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.

7
Frequency and Period
Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.

Units of period and frequency

8
Two signals with the same amplitude,
but different frequencies

9
Examples

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz. What is the period of
this sine wave ?

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?

10
Phase
Phase describes the position of the waveform
relative to time 0

Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,


but different phases

11
Wavelength and period

Wavelength = Propagation speed x Period


= Propagation speed / Frequency

13
Time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

A complete sine wave in the time domain can be


represented by one single spike in the frequency domain.

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Frequency Domain

 The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are dealing
with more than one sine wave.

 A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data communication


o We need to send a composite signal, a signal made of many simple sine
waves.
15
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a composite signal is
the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies contained in that signal.

19
Channel Capacity
• Impairments such as noise limit the data rate that can
be achieved.
• Channel capacity is the maximum data rate at which
data can be transmitted over a communication path or
channel under given conditions.

• Data rate: rate at which data can be communicated


(bps)
• Noise: Average level of noise over the communication
path
• Error rate: Rate at which error occurs
Example

A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz,


with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V.
The two extreme frequencies have an amplitude of 0. Draw the
frequency domain of the signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at
240 kHz.

21
3-5 DATA RATE LIMITS

A very important consideration in data communications is


how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel.
Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce the reliability


of the system.

51
Nyquist Theorem

For noiseless channel,

BitRate = 2 x Bandwith x log2Levels

Also, it can be applied when we have two or more levels of


signals.

52
Examples

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz


transmitting a signal with two signal levels. What is the
maximum bit rate?

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal


with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2 bits).
What is the maximum bit rate?

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Noise

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Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR

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Shannon Capacity
In reality, we can not have a noisless channel

For noisy channel,

Capacity = Bandwith x log2(1+SNR)

The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit;


the Nyquist formula tells us how many signal levels we need.

58
Example
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of
the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero.
In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is
faint. What is the channel capacity?

Solution

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero


regardless of the bandwidth.
In other words, we cannot receive any data through this
channel.
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Example
Let’s calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular
telephone line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth
of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162.
What is the channel capacity?

Solution

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 kbps.
If we want to send data faster than this, we can either
increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal-
to-noise ratio. 60
Example
We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for
this channel is 63.
What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?

Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.

The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit. For


better performance we choose something lower, 4 Mbps,
for example.
Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the number of
signal levels.

63

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