Standards in Engineering

Notes from
Primer on Engineering Standards
by O. R. Greulich and M. H. Jawad, WILEY
Outline
• What are standards and why do we use them?
• History of standards
• Examples to modern standards
• How do we assure compliance with standards?
• Standard Developing Organizations
• The ideal standard format
Basic Definitions
• Rule: A single specific requirement that must be met.
Many types of such requirements exist, such as
requirements to perform actions, for how to perform
actions, for results that must be achieved, for specific
properties or characteristics that must be attained, and
for dimensions that must be met.
• Procedure: A set of rules regarding how a task or
function is performed. Procedures are used to ensure
consistency of results and to promote efficiency.
• Standard: A set of rules and/or procedures recognized
as authoritative in a particular area of interest.
• Codes: The terms code and standard are often
interchanged in conversation. However, a code is also
a body of standards grouped together for ease of
reference.
• They form the basis for safe, consistent, and effective
designs in various fields. Codes are normally specified
in the design documents of a project.
• Procedures and rules are usually developed within an
organization to establish operating methods that will
lead to consistent desired results.
• They include such items as drawing and calculation
formats, dimensional standards, checking sequences,
and hierarchical progression of a task within the
organization.
• They are limited in scope to an individual task or
component within an organization such as a how to
manufacture and assemble a gear box, or a
methodology for project progression within the
organization. A separate procedure then details the
next step
• The applications of procedures and rules form the
operating norm of an organization, and they differ
from one organization to another. Hence, the
procedures and rules used for the design and
manufacturing of the same product at two
companies may differ substantially even though the
end product is the same.
• On the other hand the standards those companies
follow are shared. There are tens of thousands of
engineering standards world-wide, covering every
imaginable subject related to engineering.
Specifically a standard is a set of technical definitions,
instructions, rules, guidelines, or characteristics that
are developed, documented, approved by general
consensus to provide consistent and comparable
results, including:
• Items manufactured uniformly, to help for
interchangeability.
• Tests and analyses conducted reliably, minimizing the
uncertainty of the results.
• Facilities designed and constructed for safe operation.
Standards form the backbone for many engineering
processes by providing the following requirements and
guidelines:
• Practical limits for operating conditions to improve safety
and reliability
• Permissible materials of construction, performance
criteria, and material properties
• Safe design rules
• Construction details
• Available methodologies for inspection and testing
• Safe operating parameters
• Process control
• Practical limits for operating conditions to improve safety
and reliability.
In other words…
• Standards provide the engineer a means of
ensuring consistent designs, quality, and operating
characteristics, with adequate reliability, safe
operation of components, and well-defined
configurations.
• Standards are the vehicle of communication for
producers and users. They serve as a common
language, defining quality and establishing safety
criteria. Costs are lower if procedures are
standardized; training is also simplified.
History of Standards
• The nature of society, the natural human resistance
to accept constraints, the thought and effort
needed to develop standards, and laziness have
dictated that standards not be produced and
imposed without a reason.
• While there is sometimes resistance to their
development and implementation, people,
companies, and other organizations now generally
recognize that standards can have a favorable effect
on their lives, safety, the quality and efficiency of
their work, and their business opportunities.
Standards have been therefore developed addressing:
• safety and reliability,
• quality,
• uniformity,
• cost reduction,
• increased flexibility,
• promotion of business,
• helping society to function
Most standards provide more than one of these
benefits.
For example, The National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) in the US has developed hundreds of standards
to enhance safety. Among those the National Electric
Code (NEC) was written with the aim of minimizing
home fires caused by arcing and overheating due to
overloaded wiring and unsafe installations.
It has become the accepted standard guiding the
design, installation, and inspection of practically all
home and commercial electrical installations in the
country. NEC now has the added benefits of reducing
the costs of construction and insurance, and increasing
the confidence of home purchasers.
The Code of Hammurabi written about 4000 years ago
can be considered as the first example of standards
Many of the laws included in this document related to
crimes, marriage, and general legal obligations but it
also provided basic performance standards for
construction of buildings and boats.
The document specified what must be achieved: walls
must not fall down, boats must be tight
Such performance standards provide little or no
guidance as to how the requirements can be met and
therefore are easy to write, allowing the maximum level
of flexibility since any means of accomplishing the end is
sufficient
Aside from the great people of old times, safety
standards were implemented to social life, industry and
business after major disasters or technological
developments:
• Fire that burned most of London in 1666 resulted in
the first examples of current building and safety codes
• Steam engine explosions throughout 1800s resulted in
the initial version of the modern ASME boiler code in
1914
• ASME boiler code later became Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code (BPVC) with sections on various types of
pressure vessels, materials, welding, and inspection
• Accidents in elevators, escalators, electrical processing
equipment resulted in piping codes, lifting devices
standards, electrical codes, and more
These examples of standards are prescriptive unlike the
Code of Hammurabi, specifying dimensions of
structures, materials of construction and method of
processes
Descriptive standards emphasize performance while
prescriptive standards emphasize design
Modern standards emphasize both performance and
design by taking scientific theories and making
modifications to permit their application in engineering
for safe designs
For example, all volumes of the BPVC are quite
prescriptive, and while many choices are still made by
the designer, once a design approach and materials are
selected, there are many specific requirements that
must be met (descriptive)
Many standards have been developed to provide
predictability and dependability of design through use
of standardized components and standard
configurations.
This provides for a simplified design process, permits
development of preapproved lists of products and
product standards, and avoids the need for
requalification for every application.
Standard products makes life easier for all people and
reduce the cost of manufacturing
The full economic benefit of the industrial revolution
could not be realized until standardization
Anti-example – Overstandardization
The US standard for railroad gauge is 4 feet 8.5 inches and that relates horses
to rockets
Engineers often rely on national and international
standards for obtaining appropriate material properties
and safety factors for their designs. Such standards
establish factors of safety based on experience, practical
limits, and understanding of material characteristics
such as endurance limits, creep, and fatigue crack
growth rates.
As an example, ASME BPVC, Section VIII, Division 1 uses
four criteria for establishing the allowable tensile stress.
This allowable stress is taken as the smaller of the
values obtained from
• 2/3 times the yield stress,
• 0.286 times the tensile strength,
• stress that causes rupture at 100,000 h,
• or stress at a creep rate of 0.01% in 1000 h.
Modern examples
Theoretical equation for circumferential stress in a thin cylindrical
shell (R/T < 10), is given in mechanical engineering textbooks as:
𝑃𝑅
𝑆=
𝑇
where S is stress, P is internal pressure, R is inside radius, and T is
shell thickness.
For easy, practical, everyday usage the ASME BPVC modifies it as:
𝑃𝑅
𝑡=
𝑆𝐸 − 0.6𝑃

where t is the required minimum wall thickness, P is pressure, R is

the inside radius, S is a design factor (3.5) used to account for
uncertainty in material properties, and the joint efficiency E
provides an additional factor based on the level of nondestructive
evaluation performed on welds, and allowing for a certain amount
of weld defects.
• Details of construction of intricate components such
as column-to-beam connections, heat exchangers, and
concrete slab reinforcement are provided in
established standards.
• The details in these standards are based on years of
practical experience and they are subject to change in
the light of new information
• For example the 1971 and 1994 earthquakes in Los
Angeles and the collapse of the World Trade Center in
2001 resulted in considerable changes in steel
construction joint details and other design
requirements in construction standards.
Modern examples
Theoretical equation for the elastic buckling of a column is given in
mechanical engineering textbooks as: 𝜋 " 𝐸
𝑆! = "
𝐿-
𝑟
where Sc is the critical compressive buckling stress, E is the modulus of
elasticity, L is the effective length, and r is the radius of gyration of the
column.
The Steel Construction Manual from the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC) reformats it in order to prevent Sc from getting higher
than the yield stress of the material: 𝐹# = 𝐹$ /1.67
where

This reformatting also allows for a certain amount of material variation,

lack of straightness of the column and other variation in form, and actual
installation characteristics, with, a design factor to ensure that the column
does not fail just as it reaches its design load.
One of the most important aspects of an engineering
standard is taking into account uncertainties by
application of a design factor, variously referred to as
“design factor,” “safety factor,” and “ignorance factor.”
In design of components and systems, engineers also rely
on material standards to obtain accurate information on
their attributes.
ASTM standards provide a wealth of material
characteristics at room temperature for thousands of
metallic and nonmetallic materials.
In addition, ASME provides material data for several
thousand metallic materials at elevated temperatures
and testing requirements for low-temperature
operations.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) maintains a large
number of standards covering a wide range of applications but focuses
more on the testing needs that affect our life:
• Section 1 – Iron and Steel products
• Section 2 – Nonferrous Metal Products
• Section 3 – Metals Test Methods and Analytical Procedures
• Section 4 – Construction
• Section 5 – Petroleum Products, Lubricants, and Fossil Fuels
• Section 6 – Paints, Related Coatings, and Aromatics
• Section 7 – Textiles
• Section 8 – Plastics
• Section 9 – Rubber
• Section 10 – Electrical Insulation and Electronics
• Section 11 – Water and Environmental Technology
• Section 12 – Nuclear, Solar, and Geothermal Energy
• Section 13 – Medical Devices and Services
• Section 14 – General Methods and Instrumentation
• Section 15 – General Products, Chemical Specialties, and End Use
Products
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) has developed
thousands of general consensus standards, research publications,
technical journals, and engineering books
• A related entity, the ASME Standards Technology, LLC
(stllc.asme.org), manages and publishes theoretical and
experimental research related to mechanical engineering in the
areas of analysis, metallurgy, welding, and nondestructive
examination.
Some of the fields in which ASME develops standards:
• Boilers, pressure vessels, and nuclear components
• Elevators, escalators, and moving walkways
• Piping and pressure relief devices
• Flanges, gaskets, valves, and fittings
• Cableways, cranes, derricks, and hoists
• Screws, threads, and bolts
• Pumps
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) published
over 40 publications related to such topics as
structures, hydraulics, water management, and soils.
A few of their publications are listed as
• ASCE/SEI 07. Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures
• ASCE/SEI 24. Flood-resistant Design and
Construction
• ASCE/SEI 48. Design of Steel Transmission Pole
Structures.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has over 3000 standards in such areas as
• Aerospace
• Antennas and Propagation
• Batteries
• Communications
• Computer Technology
• Consumer Electronics Electromagnetic Compatibility
• Electronics
• Green and Clean Technology
• Healthcare IT
• Industry Applications
• Instrumentation and Measurement
• Nanotechnology
• National Electrical Safety Code
• Nuclear Power
• Power and Energy
• Power Electronics
• Smart Grid
• Software and Systems Engineering
• Transportation
• Wired and Wireless.
In metallurgy industry many components have to be
inspected during manufacturing to assure high quality,
especially when the manufacturing does not involve
mass production
Inspection methods for metallic structures are covered
by standards produced by ASTM and ASME on:
• Radiography,
• Ultrasonic testing,
• Magnetic particle examination, etc.
They provide detailed requirements for the engineer or
technician performing the inspection, ensuring
consistency in the performance and the results of
inspections, and thereby in the final product.
• Conformity Assessment:
• Testing, certification, inspection processes are used
to verify the compliance of a product, service,
person, process or system to either a standard or a
regulation
• Many materials, after having been subject to
rigorous process control, have been tested and
certified by the manufacturer (steel mill, plastic
manufacturer, etc.) in accordance with accepted
industry standards for material chemical and
physical properties.
• Standard materials allow designers to work with
confidence, without testing materials for them-
selves.
• Many businesses, in order to be more competitive
in a world market, adopt not only local standards
but also international standards such as ISO to
enable them to compete on the same level with
other companies.
• Conformity assessment has its own set of
standards, and while manufacturing, service, and
other organizations devote significant resources to
maintaining compliance, there are accreditation
organizations (ANSI, ASME, ISO, UL, etc.) that are
concerned with certifying company processes and
compliance.
• ANSI is a private nonprofit organization founded in
1918 by five engineering societies and three
governmental agencies. Part of their published
mission is
• the development of American National Standards
(ANS) by accrediting the procedures of standards
developing organizations (SDOs). These groups
work cooperatively to develop voluntary consensus
standards. Accreditation by ANSI signifies that the
procedures used to make standards are according
to standards
Rules for the standard writing process:
• Consensus must be reached by representatives
from materially affected and interested parties.
• Standards are required to undergo public reviews
during which any member of the public may submit
comments.
• Comments from the consensus body and public
review commenters must be responded to in good
faith.
• An appeals process is required.

• There are at least 1100 organizations that are

accredited by ANSI for writing standards
• Some of them are as follows
The ideal standard
• The characteristics listed below are the basics
needed to ensure a useful and effective standard.
Each person or group developing a standard should
give careful thought to every aspect of the product
being produced, and then follow through to ensure
that their standard is of a quality such that they,
and any other users, will find it effective and easy
to use.
The following is a summary of the essential elements of a standard:
1. Table of Contents. A detailed Table of Contents is very helpful
in pinpointing the topic of interest. It, or the index, is normally
the first place the user visits prior to using the Standard.
2. Foreword. The foreword normally explains the reason for
developing the Standard and the process by which it is
developed.
3. Scope/Preamble. The scope or preamble defines the
applicability of the Standard as well as its limitations,
exceptions, and assumptions. It helps the user understand the
applicability of the Standard.
4. Terms, Definitions, Acronyms. There is no need for definition of
commonly used and understood terminology, but definitions
unique to the standard should be provided. This section is
sometimes found early in the document, or sometimes as an
appendix or a glossary at the end.
5. Reference documents. The need for this section varies, as does
its placement, but most often it is not only helpful but also
6. Topics. Sequence of the topics in a standard varies greatly depending on the type of standard.
The following list of topics might be typical for a design standard for fabricated products:
a. Design conditions
i. Dimensional requirements (volumetric minimum and/or maximum,
ii. envelope dimensions, etc.)
iii. Materials (if specified)
iv. Loads (force, pressure, moment, etc.)
v. Life (cycles, years, etc.)
vi. Environments (internal and external, as applicable)
vii. Cleanliness, etc.
b. Design criteria (may range from fairly prescriptive to fairly broad)
i. Safety factors or allowable stresses
ii. Stress analysis
iii. Fatigue analysis
c. Materials (might specify acceptable materials, define characteristics of materials to be accepted, or define processes for
determining material properties to be used; may not be applicable in some process standards)
d. Fabrication
i. Forming
ii. Welding
iii. Post weld heat treatment
iv. Surface finish
e. Inspection
i. Dimensional
ii. Visual
iii. NDT
f. Testing
i. Qualification testing (used to qualify a design)
ii. Acceptance testing (less stringent than qualification testing, used to determine acceptability of an individual article)
g. In-service inspection h. Repairs i. Documentation
7. Appendices. These typically provide information that can stand
separate from the rest of the document. They may include
information that applies only in special cases or applications, or
may provide guidance on topics that are not the main thrust of
the document (considerations in performing a pneumatic test on
a piping system, for example, in order to ensure a safe and
effective test).
8. Index. A detailed index is an important tool in a Standard for
helping the users find specific topics and details.