Cogent Business & Management

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Lean accounting tools and competitive advantage

in Jordanian industrial companies

Ayman Mohammad ALShanti, Khalil Mahmoud Ali Al-Refae & Mohammad

Jebreel

To cite this article: Ayman Mohammad ALShanti, Khalil Mahmoud Ali Al-Refae &
Mohammad Jebreel (2025) Lean accounting tools and competitive advantage in
Jordanian industrial companies, Cogent Business & Management, 12:1, 2447414, DOI:
10.1080/23311975.2024.2447414

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2447414

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Cogent Business & Management
2025, VOL. 12, NO. 1, 2447414
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2447414

Accounting, Corporate Governance & Business Ethics |

Research Article
Lean accounting tools and competitive advantage in Jordanian
industrial companies
Ayman Mohammad ALShantia , Khalil Mahmoud Ali Al-Refaea and Mohammad Jebreelb
a
Department of Accounting and Accounting Information System, Amman University College, Al-Balqa Applied University,
Amman, Jordan; bAccounting Department, Faculty of Business, Applied Science Private University, MEU Research Unit, Middle
East University, Amman, Jordan

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This study explores the impact of lean accounting tools—specifically value stream Received 12 September
costing (VSC), target costing (TC), and kaizen costing (KCO)—on the competitive 2024
advantage (CA) of industrial companies in Jordan. We conducted an online survey Revised 29 November 2024
targeting 400 managers across 32 companies, which yielded 293 responses from 18 Accepted 20 December
2024
companies. We validated the data, analyzed 279 complete responses using SPSS, and
performed multiple regression analyses to test the study’s hypotheses. The results show KEYWORDS
a higher utilization of VSC and TC compared to KCO. Jordanian companies tend to Cost reduction; innovation;
focus on quality improvement (QI), time efficiency (TE), and operational reliability (OR) kaizen costing; operational
more than cost reduction (CR) and innovation (INN). A strong correlation exists between reliability; quality
lean accounting tools (LAT) and competitive advantage. LAT has a significant effect on improvement; target
costing; time efficiency;
overall CA, with lean operations exerting the greatest influence, followed by VSC and value stream costing
TC. Although LAT significantly affects QI, INN, and TE, it does not have a significant
impact on OR or CR. JEL CLASSIFICATION
CODES
M41; M42; L60
SUBJECTS
Business, Management and
Accounting; Accounting;
Cost Accounting

1. Introduction
Lean accounting techniques (LAT), such as value stream costing (VSC), target costing (TC), and kaizen
costing (KCO), have been widely accepted and applied for corporate operations in many countries.
Furthermore, ever-growing demand from organizations for operational efficiency and cost optimization
presses them to formulate rules for proper resource management. The concept of lean accounting has
thus gained great momentum with regard to organizational approaches toward operational efficiency
and sustainable business practices. If these practices are adopted, then the organizations could imple-
ment different measures that could minimize the negative effect from difficulties in the industry to which
they belong and adversely impact their operational performance. In times when consciousness about
operational efficiency is on the rise globally, increasing numbers of enterprises are also continuing to
adopt LAT as a competitive advantage (Ahakchi et al., 2012; Altal, 2024).
Globalization has increased the demand for companies worldwide to manage the sustainable devel-
opment that is facing social, economic, and operational challenges (Alqudah et al., 2023). With the rise
in operational innovation and renovation of operations, organizations have had to be innovative to
remain competitive and improve their operations. The growing interest in operations efficiency as a
corporate performance contributor has raised the stakes on organizations for better management tech-
niques (Kennedy & Widener, 2008). This trend has amplified the expectations on organizations to begin
applying the lean accounting technique, among others. The relentless stakeholder expectations that

CONTACT Ayman Mohammad ALShanti [email protected] Department of Accounting and Accounting Information System,
Amman University College, Al-Balqa Applied University, Amman, Jordan
© 2025 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been
published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
2 A. M. ALSHANTI ET AL.

have remained constant have forced companies to study and apply lean accounting principles in a bid
to become competitive (Stronczek, 2023). With regard to recent changes in operational landscapes and
market dynamics, it is hugely important that firms apply proper LAT strategies focused on waste mini-
mization and inefficiency. In fact, these strategic focuses create a clear avenue for ensuring operational
performance, competitive advantage, long-term sustainability, profitability, and overall corporate success
provided by Alves et al. (2022) and Okorie et al. (2023). Operational advancements over the last few
decades have driven organizations to adopt lean techniques as a way of survival in the context of
effective competition (Yu et al., 2023). With increasing demands, more and more companies are com-
pelled to solve operational problems and adopt efficient technologies that would help improve perfor-
mance and strengthen their competitive advantage (Nguyen & Ngo, 2023). Efficient processes and
technology are core in the eradication of waste and redundancies, hence creating a competitive edge
(Monroy et al., 2014). The emergence of the industrial revolution made issues of operational efficiency
increase and forced companies to change the way things were going. As such, every organization has
to be concerned about embedding efficiency and sustainability within the core operational strategies
(Sharabati, 2021).
Some of the main objectives of lean accounting are to enhance the efficiency of processes through
low-cost yet safe procedures that minimize wastes but maximize value-added activities. Other objec-
tives also include the provision of better visibility as well as improved information to stakeholders (Al
Karabsheh et al., 2024). Lean accounting is defined as the integration of effective management prin-
ciples across various business functions and processes (Harris & Cassidy, 2014). Social, economic, as
well as operational efficiency is facilitated by the incorporation of such principles. The embedding of
the lean management principles into strategic planning will thereby enable an organization to estab-
lish a sustainable competitive advantage (Farida & Setiawan, 2022). In the globally fiercely competitive
marketplace, efficiency indicators are at the core in driving performance for a competitive advantage.
Firms are therefore under pressure to adopt effective strategies that will guarantee them a competi-
tive advantage (Fabrizio et al., 2022). Lean accounting enhances competitiveness because through the
elimination of waste and inefficiency it improves the quality of service and enhances productivity and
profitability (Rosa & Machado, 2013). Above all, what logistics service providers have to stress is oper-
ational efficiency in order for them to stay ahead of the competition (Rehman et al., 2022). Lean
accounting not only seeks to minimize waste at the sourcing and manufacturing process but also at
distribution (Delery & Roumpi, 2017). Long-term viability depends on competitiveness by how an
organization efficiently designs and develops its operational network. Lean accountancy encompasses
the overall set of processes involving optimization in the areas of acquisition, production, sales, trans-
portation, and recycling of operations. Efficient practices must be inculcated along every step of
these processes (Liu et al., 2023). Companies can save waste of materials and operational costs sub-
stantially by employing lean accounting tools such as VSCs, TCs, and KCOs to attain improved perfor-
mance of the organization. These aspects subsequently contribute to positive effects on operational
efficiency and financial performance, enhancing the competitive positioning of the company (Elsukova,
2015). The firms that can adopt the lean accounting practices will be better positioned to enhance
efficiency and competitive advantage (DeBusk, 2015). Innovation in operations and lean techniques is
crucial for optimization in performance and maintaining a competitive advantage (Wang & Yuan,
2009). Lean accounting utilizes different methods and techniques for maximizing production effi-
ciency, including waste elimination, improvement in the quality, on-time delivery, and cost control
(Alotaibi et al., 2021). The level of performance and competitiveness of an organization can also be
strengthened by the addition of new and innovative lean activities (Momani et al., 2023).
The study attempts to fill significant gaps in the lean accounting literature and portrays the situation
relating to lean accounting in Jordanian industries. This study explores the practical implications of lean
accounting tools—namely, VSC, TC, and KCO—on organizational performance and competitive advan-
tage in Jordanian factories. Thus, it contributes to understanding the nature of the influence of lean
accounting practices on key dimensions of continuous improvement, such as cost reduction (CR),
enhancement or improvement of quality (QI), time efficiency (TE), operational reliability (OR), and capa-
bility of innovation (INN). Additionally, the study explores ways through which Jordan’s industrial sector
can effectively implement lean accounting to achieve maximum operational performance and a
 Cogent Business & Management 3

sustainable competitive advantage. Consequently, investigating the above aspects, this research also tries
to provide useful guidelines for industry practitioners in developing ways to improve their operational
efficiency and strategic performance.
The essential research questions investigated in the research are:

• To what extent are the lean accounting techniques being adequately integrated into Jordanian
industrial companies’ daily operation?
• What is the effect of VSC, TC, and KCO—the three main lean accounting tools—on the continuous
improvement dimensions in such organizations?

Next sections outline the development of hypotheses based on these questions, the literature review,
explanation of the research methodology and data analysis. The last section covers the discussion and
interpretation of results, implications, recommendations, and description of practical and societal impli-
cations for society which could be drawn from the findings.

2. Literature review
This section presents a historic review of previous research into the relationship between lean account-
ing techniques (LAT) and competitive advantage (CA). Cost reduction, enhancement of quality improve-
ment, and efficiency in time are some of the significant factors that have contributed to the achievement
of competitive advantage in Jordan’s sustainable development. Lean Accounting tools such as VSC, TC,
and KCO lean accounting practices have been instrumental to this effort. These are helping profoundly
in Competitive advantage and thereby improving Business performance through the control of cost and
smoothening out operational processes of an organization (Ahakchi et al., 2012; Al Karabsheh et al.,
2024). Extensive research underlined considerable association between the lean practices of Total Cost,
Value Stream, and Kaizen Culture and organizational performance. It has been observed that these prac-
tices improve cost efficiency and quality of products, hence ensuring a rise in overall competitiveness (Al
Mubarak & Hamdan, 2023; Alotaibi et al., 2021).
Lean accounting practices also have been doing wonders in waste reduction and in optimizing the
cost control aspect to make the processes more effective. It also reinforces the competitive advantage
through proper cost control and operational effectiveness, enhancing quality product (Alqudah et al.,
2023; ALShanti et al., 2024). Internal application of lean techniques and establishment of external part-
nerships have had a positive effect on operational performance and facilitated or gained competitive
advantage (Altal, 2024; Alves et al., 2022). Lean accounting has also been shown to reduce production
costs, enhance efficiency of operations, and improve quality, flexibility, and reliability of operations,
thus enhancing competitiveness (Al-Zwaylif & Taher, 2020; Arora & Soral, 2017). Meta-analysis of numer-
ous studies identifies that the use of lean accounting techniques has facilitated long-term competitive-
ness by focusing on continuous improvement and value-added cost control (Azeem et al., 2021;
DeBusk, 2015).
Lean accounting inculcated into various contexts such as corporate responsibility, quality improve-
ment, as well as technological enhancement have resulted in increased business competitiveness through
various internal process improvements and also helped to raise external partnerships. The utilization of
lean accounting principles in manufacturing and distribution processes has effectively facilitated waste
removal and total cost reduction; these developed efficiencies thus contributed to improved economic
performance and determined a formidable competitive advantage (Fabrizio et al., 2022; Farida & Setiawan,
2022). For instance, Jordanian companies that have already implemented VSC and KCO have reported
better quality, reliability, and performance-which in turn improves the competitive situation (Fullerton
et al., 2013; 2014). The link between lean accounting practices, operational performance, and competitive
advantage has been quite strong. Lean accounting practices impact cost control and operational effi-
ciency, and their impact has resulted in competitive advantage (Hair et al., 2014; Hallam et al., 2018).
The inclusion of LAT like VSC, TC, and KCO has provided limited change in operational activities. The
continuous improvement activities, however, have been responsible for radical inventions. Partnerships
and alliances with suppliers have made it very supportive to implement lean accounting techniques
4 A. M. ALSHANTI ET AL.

which further enhanced the organisational skills and competitive advantage (Maskell & Kennedy, 2007;
Momani et al., 2023). As a result, effective collaboration with the lean accounting partners enabled better
sharing of ideas and hence efficiency in the processes. In that direction, huge resources and competen-
cies were gained which helped in competitive advantage (Monroy et al., 2014; Nguyen & Ngo, 2023).
Lean accounting optimized manufacturing costs by weeding out waste, increasing the effectiveness of
processes, hence had consequently led to lower costs and superior competitive edge. Lean Accounting
in Production and Distribution stage increased the capacity to control cost along with effectiveness of
operations (Nielsen et al., 2023; Okorie et al., 2023). These studies identified the relationships among lean
accounting techniques, which include VSC, TC, and KCO, with operational performance and competitive
advantage. VSC and TC directly affect the competitiveness of an organization since these strategies lower
costs and enhance quality. The KCO, on the other hand, enhances the efficiency and reliability of the
process (Stronczek, 2023; Wang & Yuan, 2009).
Lean accounting techniques, like VSC, TC, and KCO, have been practiced in organizations to enhance
their performance by cost management, reduction in operations, and the fostering of innovation that
eventually reduced waste and enhanced overall competitive advantage (Zhang et al., 2023). The relation
of LAT and organizational competitiveness stands very strong. It was found that VSC and KCO have sub-
stantial impacts on CR and operational reliability. VSC reduces material cost and manufacturing cost. KCO
improved the process efficiency and quality of the process. All the above lean accounting practices like
VSC, TC, and KCO were integrated, which thereby helped in improving the organizational performance
and gave a competitive advantage over others (Fullerton et al., 2013; Hallam et al., 2018).
Lean accounting technologies, such as VSC, TC, and KCO, have been able to enhance cost control and
the quality and operational efficiency of industrial enterprises (Kuncoro & Suriani, 2018; Liu et al., 2023).
Firms should participate in alliances with suppliers and stakeholders for the strategic exploitation of LAT
for better competitiveness (Magboul et al., 2024; Maskell & Baggaley, 2006). According to Nguyen and
Ngo (2023), and Nielsen et al. (2023), a study conducted on industrial businesses had a long-term com-
petitiveness relationship with LAT. However, some bottlenecks which exist are in the forms of lack of
commitment by managers, small scale operations, and resource and logistic management constraints.
With the application of LAT, the manifested performance improvement was that it showed better
competitiveness. Okorie et al. (2023); Ong and Puteh (2017). The outcome of the lean techniques applied
across organizations directly affects how the organization relates other parties externally; hence, this
impinges on the overall organization’s performance. Rehman et al. (2022); Stronczek (2023). The approach
of lean accountancy is strongly connected with the approach of competitive strategy (Wang & Yuan,
2009; Wongsansukcharoen & Thaweepaiboonwong, 2023). Organizations implement the LAT approach for
differentiating their products and services as well as reducing the potential risks that are associated with
the lean management practices (Yu et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2023). Jordanian organizations operating at
the leading edge in their industry have operationalized the priorities for their competitive strategy using
the LAT methodology. Even though lean accounting techniques were generally positive with regard to
operational performance, any conclusion regarding financial performance was inconclusive (Alves et al.,
2022; Al-Zwaylif & Taher, 2020).
Indeed, significant correlations exist between lean accounting approaches, represented by the VSC
and TC techniques, with operational competitive performance indicators represented by the following:
cycle CR, QI, TE, and dependability (Arora & Soral, 2017; DeBusk, 2015). Applying the VSC and TC tech-
niques could have a consequence on reduced costs but perhaps not a full rise in TE and flexibility (Farida
& Setiawan, 2022; Harris & Cassidy, 2014). On the other hand, KCO focuses on improving process effi-
ciency and operational reliability, but it might not necessarily cause cost reduction (Kennedy & Widener,
2008; Liu et al., 2023). Sufficient internal accounting methodologies, in some cases, have been observed
to help produce operational gains, quality, and cost control (Al-Zwaylif & Taher, 2020; Liu et al., 2023).
Quality, total efficiency, and dependability of the operational performance of a system fulfill the needs
on the part of consumers. KCO improves the aspects related to operational performance, waste reduc-
tion, process efficiency, and quality improvement (Nguyen & Ngo, 2023; Rehman et al., 2022).
Lean accounting is defined as a series of activities to effectively control and manage the costs and
enhance efficiency in order to provide high performance and competitive advantages (Sharabati, 2021;
Stronczek, 2023). The organization will have to develop internal and external coordination in order to
 Cogent Business & Management 5

compete with other organizations. Research proved that value stream costing has a significant positive
impact on cost reduction and operational reliability (Ahakchi et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2023). In the case
of lean internal practices, the organizational performance was enhanced regarding cost management
and process efficiency; on the other hand, external coordination and continuous improvement showed
mixed results (Al Mubarak & Hamdan, 2023; Alotaibi et al., 2021).
KCO, VSC, and TC directly create impacts on the factors of competitiveness of a company (Al-Zwaylif
& Taher, 2020; Arora & Soral, 2017). The competitiveness directly influences operational performance,
quality, and innovation (DeBusk, 2015; Farida & Setiawan, 2022). Lean accounting strategies are found to
provide an influential effect on performance and competitive advantage (Fullerton et al., 2014; Liu et al.,
2023). Competitive pressure, therefore, has the power to influence Jordanian SMEs to adopt internal and
external lean methods in order to advance their processes (Momani et al., 2023; Nguyen & Ngo, 2023).
Organizations need to adopt internal lean processes and form external linkages to maximize their per-
formance (Ong & Puteh, 2017; Rehman et al., 2022).
Lean accounting factors, namely, internal management, top management commitment, cost manage-
ment techniques, process enhancements, and supplier relationships, showed very much interrelated to
one another (Sharabati, 2021; Wongsansukcharoen & Thaweepaiboonwong, 2023). There has been a very
strong correlation between LAT and company success (Yu et al., 2023). Lean accounting approaches such
as VSC, TC, and KCO have influenced the bottom line and top line of operational and financial perfor-
mance in a company greatly. The application of VSC and KCO would bring positive influences on cost
management and process improvement aspects respectively (Ahakchi et al., 2012; Al Mubarak & Hamdan,
2023). On the contrary, TC has had a variable effect by either improving or compromising the results
(Al-Zwaylif & Taher, 2020; Liu et al., 2023). Lean accounting, on the other hand, has considerably brought
change in some sections such as quality, cost, total efficiency, and dependability amongst other perfor-
mance measures (Al-Zwaylif & Taher, 2020; Liu et al., 2023). Each dimension of LAT had a different per-
formance and competitiveness effect (Sharabati, 2021).
The overall results signify that major components of LAT influence the competitive advantage of or
an organization. Which component of LAT has contributed most is still being debated between Al-Zwaylif
and Taher (2020) and Liu et al. (2023).

3. Formulation of hypotheses
Growing attention to LAT underlines the potential influence of the latter on corporate performance and
CA. At the same time, there is still a lack of evidence concerning the exact influence of LAT on CA
despite their extensive use, and this issue is still controversial among many researchers and practitioners.
This debate, going on worldwide, is steadily developing (Ahakchi et al., 2012; Nguyen & Ngo, 2023).
In fact, there is a remarkable lack of empirical research into the influence of the LAT - VSC, TC, and
KCO - on CA. Previous studies had not yet considered how these different tools influence the various
dimensions of the CA systems (Alotaibi et al., 2021; Monroy et al., 2014). In particular, little research was
done as to how lean accounting techniques affect organizational competitiveness. Previous literature has
failed to address how LAT affects CA, such as Hallam et al. (2018), and Stronczek (2023). In addition,
literature that reviews how lean accounting influences CA too and operational performance is still scant,
such as Fullerton et al. (2014), and Maskell and Kennedy (2007).
Key findings of prior studies may give some insights into how LAT could support the enhancement
of operational performance and cost management. Lean accounting techniques, such as VSC and TC,
may enable a reduction of operational costs and accelerate the processes of an organization faster, as
stated by Nguyen and Ngo (2023). Other studies investigate the potential of LAT to bring quality improve-
ments and provoke innovation (Al Karabsheh et al., 2024). As a result, there is less evidence on how LAT
affects several of the CA variables. Secondly, the existing literature does not represent the actual impact
of lean accounting techniques on CA, and therefore, there is a conflict in the area of CA (Azeem et al.,
2021; DeBusk, 2015). Besides, the Lean Agile Thinking approach can be used to enhance CA within an
organization (Kuncoro & Suriani, 2018; Rehman et al., 2022).
These observations form the basis of the identified gaps in prior research and hence directly inform
this study. Though some research documents the positive effect of LAT on operational performance and
6 A. M. ALSHANTI ET AL.

cost efficiency (Fullerton et al., 2014), there is scant literature that details the effects of LAT on all dimen-
sions of competitive advantage: CR, QI, TE, OR, INN. This paper proposes to research these dimensions in
greater detail with a view to closing the existing gap (Al Mubarak & Hamdan, 2023; Stronczek, 2023).
Based on the above observations, we propose the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1 (H1): The usage of LATs does not cause any significant effect on the CA of Jordanian industrial
companies at the level of significance α < 0.05

There is an insufficient number of literature explaining how LAT affects different dimensions of CA like
CR, QI, TE, OR, and INN. However, the current evidence appears to reflect that lean accounting tech-
niques apply a positive effect on all these facets, which may result in enhanced cost management, oper-
ational efficiency, quality, and innovation support (Azeem et al., 2021; Fullerton et al., 2014). Therefore,
the direct effects of LAT on individual dimensions of CA remain highly debated. Lean accounting tech-
niques are primarily considered to favor certain elements of competitive advantage while the total effect
on all CA dimensions is not well reflected (Fabrizio et al., 2022).
In light of the above-mentioned anomalies, this study postulates that while LAT may have a bearing
on some facets of CA, its impact may differ for each of its dimensions. Therefore, a hypothesis postulated
could be as follows:
Hypothesis 2 (H2): The extent of LAT implementation has no significant influence in regard to the dimensions
of competitive advantage, CR, QI, TE, OR, and INN in Jordan’s industrial enterprises at α < 0.05.

4. Model for research

This study presents two models that match the hypotheses of the research. In this regard, Figure 1
shows the first model, which demonstrates the influence of lean accounting tools-LAT-included in VSC,
throughput costing (TC), and kaizen costing (KCO) on the general dimension of the competitive advan-
tage at CA. Figure 2 presents the second model, which illustrates the impact of LAT on different dimen-
sions of CA at CR, QI, TE, OR, and INN.

5. Study methodology
This study uses a quantitative approach via a cross-sectional sample to investigate the association of lean
accounting tools-LAT with competitive advantage, CA, in 32 industrial enterprises in Jordan. The sample
selection was done with the consideration of representativeness of the Jordanian industrial sector, which

Figure 1. Primary research model. Regarding to Sharabati (2021).

Figure 2. Secondary research model. Regarding to Sharabati (2021).

 Cogent Business & Management 7

is marked by the diversity of industries facing different challenges in operational performance, cost man-
agement, and competitiveness. The sample size of 32 companies is considered appropriate in line with
the size and diversity of the Jordanian industrial sector, which continues to face growing lean principles
adoption but with many significant barriers, such as limited awareness and implementation of modern
accounting practices. This sample size further provides a greater insight into LAT adoption across varied
industry types in Jordan and how these tools could influence competitive advantage within the context
of a developing economy.
Field research was conducted from 7 January to 30 April 2024, providing a clear timeframe for con-
textualizing the levels of LAT adoption within the industries studied. Data were collected using a
self-developed questionnaire designed from previous literature and adapted to the context of Jordanian
industries. The questionnaire was addressed to all 32 listed companies, and no sampling was required.
To minimize the problem of receiving repetitive responses from more than one participant in the same
company, the data was collected from managers at various levels within the organization. This approach
allowed for the capture of multiple perceptions regarding the implementation of LAT and an overall view
of how LAT is perceived and applied at various tiers of the organization.
This study received ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board at Al-Balqa Applied University
under the approval number BAU 7/072224. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to
their inclusion in the study. Participants were provided with a detailed explanation of the study’s pur-
pose and procedures. Written consent was secured to ensure that their participation was voluntary and
that they fully understood their rights within the study. All collected data was handled with strict confi-
dentiality and used exclusively for research purposes, in accordance with ethical standards.
Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS software for coding. Both secondary data (books, online
sources) and primary data (from the questionnaire) were utilized to provide a well-rounded dataset for
analysis. Convergent and discriminant validity tests were carried out to ensure that the measurement
model had validity. These tests confirmed that the constructs measured through the questionnaires were
reliable and distinct, thus adding to the credibility of the research findings (Hair et al., 2014).
The demographic data collected through the questionnaire included: sex, age, experience, education,
position, and department. The sections covering different aspects of CA included: cost reduction (ques-
tions CR1 to CR5), quality improvement (questions QI1 to QI4), time efficiency (questions TE1 to TE6),
operational reliability (questions OR1 to OR4), and innovation (questions INN1 to INN5). A five-point
Likert scale ranging from ‘1’ for not implemented at all to ‘5’ for extremely implemented was used to
measure the responses.

6. Findings
6.1. Collection of data
Around 400 employees from 32 Jordanian industrial businesses registered with the Ministry of Commerce
and Industry of Jordan were sent online questionnaires. We have gotten a total of 293 answers from 18
out of the aforementioned firms. Out of the total number, 279 questionnaires were deemed complete
and suitable for analysis. It is worth mentioning that a few managers were located in different countries.
The replies were processed and examined using SPSS. Table 1 delineates the demographic data of the
study participants.

6.2. The dependability and accuracy of the data

In order to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the measurements, three forms of validity testing were
performed: content validity through an extensive review of the literature; face validity confirmed by a
panel comprised of nine academics and seven industry experts; and construct validity sought through
principal component factor analysis supplemented by Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin, which provides an indication
of the adequacy, homogeneity, and suitability of the data (Ong & Puteh, 2017). Whereas factor loadings
above 0.50 were considered good, those above 0.40 have been deemed adequate. The KMO measure
shows the adequacy of the sample about the correlation between the variables. High sufficiency is
8 A. M. ALSHANTI ET AL.

Table 1. Demographic attributes of the sample.

Attributes Frequency Proportion
Gender
Male/Man 145 52.00%
Female/Woman 134 48.00%
Total 279 100.00%
Age
Under 25 years 45 16.10%
25–35 years 110 39.40%
35–45 years 85 30.50%
Over 45 years 39 14.00%
Total 279 100.00%
Experience
Less than 5 years 60 21.50%
5–15 years 110 39.40%
15–25 years 79 28.30%
More than 25 years 30 10.80%
Total 279 100.00%
Education Level
Diploma 30 10.80%
Bachelor’s degree 127 45.50%
Master’s degree 102 36.60%
Doctorate 20 7.20%
Total 279 100.00%
Job Position
Director 65 23.30%
Department Head 59 21.10%
Supervisor 84 30.10%
Team Leader 71 25.50%
Total 279 100.00%
Department
Administration 55 19.70%
Operations 69 24.70%
Marketing 96 34.40%
Accounting/Finance 59 21.10%
Total 279 100.00%

indicated by values between 0.8 and 1, while values above 0.6 are considered acceptable. Bartlett’s test
of sphericity was conducted to assess the appropriateness and correlation of data. The factor analysis
was appropriate since the significance level was below 0.05 at 95% confidence. Large measures of
Cronbach’s alpha were used to determine data reliability, with a cut-off point of 0.60 being considered
acceptable.
Most measures were appropriate for their respective domains as evidenced by the factor loading, with
the majority loading over 50% threshold. While a few measures had less than 40%, this was still within
an acceptable region with a construction of overall validity for the constructs. All sub-variable KMO val-
ues were above 60%; hence, showing that adequate samples were satisfactory with substantial
inter-variable correlations. Bartlett’s test of sphericity gave a p-value less than 0.05; thus, the component
analysis was suitable for this study. Also, all the sub-variables had been reliable since their values were
above the 0.60 threshold, which means the data is reliable.
Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics for lean accounting tools (LAT) and its impact on CA From inde-
pendent variable VSC, the level of implementations in the moderate category is shown with the average
being 3.465 and standard deviation of 0.65. From the KMO value of 0.715 and the significant chi-square
tests statistically, confirmatory VSC for appropriateness as a tool in this study was valid. Similarly, different
levels of implementation were indicated by the responses related to throughput costing (TC) and kaizen
costing (KCO), represented by mean values of 2.84 and 3.63, with standard deviations of 0.725 and 0.685,
respectively. These findings evidence that TC and KCO are used on a lesser scale compared to VSC.
Regarding the dependent variables, the mean values range from a low of 3.1 to a high of 3.63 for CR,
QI, OR, and INN. These represent moderate to high levels of effectiveness in yielding competitive advan-
tage. This would therefore suggest that these aspects of CA are influenced by LAT to varying degrees.
Results indicate that all the constructs had a high reliability with Cronbach’s alpha values higher than
0.70, hence showing internal consistencies of the constructs. The KMO values and subsequent chi-square
tests further support that the constructs are reliable, hence making the analysis robust and guaranteeing
the validity of the results.
 Cogent Business & Management 9

Table 2. Descriptive analysis and validity and reliability tests.

Item M S.D t-Value Sig Alpha F1 KMO Chi2 B.T Var Sig
VSC 3.465 0.65 8.041 0.000 0.755 0.715 217.532 21 63.194 0.000
VSC1 3.82 1.02 10.115 0.000 0.53
VSC2 3.87 0.965 11.095 0.000 0.582
VSC3 3.71 0.98 8.321 0.000 0.658
VSC4 3.78 1.06 7.41 0.000 0.704
VSC5 3.85 1.03 9.157 0.000 0.53
VSC6 3.87 1.04 10.654 0.000 0.64
TC 2.84 0.725 −2.921 0.004 0.73 0.74 189.673 15 59.104 0.000
TC1 3.35 1.02 4.431 0.000 0.582
TC2 3.48 0.93 6.312 0.000 0.658
TC3 3.59 1 8.645 0.000 0.704
TC4 3.55 1.05 7.622 0.000 0.53
TC5 3.42 1.07 5.982 0.000 0.64
KCO 3.63 0.685 11.275 0.000 0.79 0.73 258.175 21 65.357 0.000
KCO1 3.64 0.95 7.832 0.000 0.6580
KCO2 3.77 0.905 9.345 0.000 0.7040
KCO3 3.62 0.98 8.317 0.000 0.5300
KCO4 3.71 1.02 8.021 0.000 0.6400
KCO5 3.76 0.94 9.278 0.000 0.6192
KCO6 3.69 1.04 7.768 0.000 0.7080
CR 3.1 0.655 1.895 0.061 0.74 0.725 202.79 15 64.509 0.000
CR1 3.58 1.05 6.482 0.000 0.6568
CR2 3.5 0.92 7.612 0.000 0.6598
CR3 3.42 1.02 6.012 0.000 0.6628
CR4 3.68 1.08 8.412 0.000 0.6658
CR5 3.73 0.97 9.412 0.000 0.6688
QI 3.415 0.675 7.065 0.000 0.71 0.705 142.547 10 62.448 0.000
QI1 3.52 0.97 6.102 0.000 0.6749
QI2 3.41 0.925 7.351 0.000 0.6779
QI3 3.45 0.99 6.405 0.000 0.6809
QI4 3.48 1.02 5.978 0.000 0.6839
TE 3.37 0.74 6.127 0.000 0.835 0.825 238.978 10 69.43 0.000
TE1 3.72 1.07 6.912 0.000 0.6900
TE2 3.67 1.025 7.439 0.000 0.6930
TE3 3.6 0.95 6.815 0.000 0.6960
TE4 3.68 1.08 6.578 0.000 0.6990
TE5 3.71 1.02 7.082 0.000 0.7020
TE6 3.7 1.04 7.289 0.000 0.7051
OR 3.455 0.655 8.014 0.000 0.796 0.763 218.44 10 55.796 0.000
OR1 3.5 0.95 6.372 0.000 0.7111
OR2 3.62 1.015 7.48 0.000 0.7141
OR3 3.57 0.97 6.788 0.000 0.7171
OR4 3.71 1.06 7.112 0.000 0.7201
INN 3.13 0.81 1.749 0.081 0.772 0.752 307.192 21 70.234 0.000
INN1 3.52 1.06 6.493 0.000 0.7262
INN2 3.68 1.04 7.218 0.000 0.7292
INN3 3.66 1.005 7.035 0.000 0.7322
INN4 3.55 1.015 6.764 0.000 0.7352
INN5 3.73 0.975 7.802 0.000 0.7382
Item M S.D. t-Value Sig. Alpha F1 KMO Chi2 B.T. Var. Sig.
VSC 3.465 0.65 8.041 0.000 0.735 0.7413 0.598 107.96 3 66.297 0.000
TC 2.84 0.725 −2.921 0.004 0.7443
KCO 3.63 0.685 11.275 0.000 0.7473
LAT 3.29 0.54 6.389 0.000
CR 3.1 0.655 1.895 0.061 0.83 0.7533 0.828 235.278 10 69.49 0.000
QI 3.415 0.675 7.065 0.000 0.7563
TE 3.37 0.74 6.127 0.000 0.7594
OR 3.455 0.655 8.014 0.000 0.7624
INN 3.13 0.81 1.749 0.081 0.7654
CA 3.3 0.54 6.302 0.000
Note: It can be seen from the table that all constructs, such as VSC or Value-Sensitive Computing, TC or technological change, and KCO or
knowledge organization, start to be statistically significant with less than 0.05 p-values, except for CR or criticisms, which is insignificantly
marginal with a p-value of 0.061. It can also be seen from Alpha that the internal consistency is good, and most constructs have surpassed
the 0.7 threshold, confirming their reliability. Factor loadings are high, showing good alignment of items with their respective factors. KMO
values indicate appropriateness for data to be used under factor analysis, and Chi-Square values indicate goodness of overall model fit.
Variance Explained values are also very high, which means factors explained a big portion of variance for the data. These results reflect strong
statistical support for the model, and the constructs are reliable. The bold values represent key statistical indicators and measures related to
descriptive analysis, validity, and reliability. The M (Mean) shows the central tendency, while the S.D. (Standard Deviation) measures variability.
The t-Value assesses significance against a hypothesized mean, determined by the Sig. (p-value). Cronbach’s Alpha (Alpha) ensures scale reli-
ability. F1 (Factor Loading) highlights correlations between items and constructs. KMO (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure) and Chi2 (Chi-Square)
assess data adequacy and model fit, respectively. B.T. (Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity) evaluates the correlation matrix’s suitability for factor anal-
ysis. The Var. (Variance) column shows explained variance proportions, with significance values confirming meaningfulness.
10 A. M. ALSHANTI ET AL.

Table 3. Pearson correlation test for bivariate data.

Item VSC TC KCO CR QI TE OR INN LAT CA
VSC 1
TC 0.643* 1
KCO 0.707** 0.661** 1
CR 0.692** 0.675** 0.682** 1
QI 0.662** 0.617** 0.713** 0.678** 1
TE 0.685** 0.652** 0.693** 0.685** 0.727** 1
OR 0.628** 0.621** 0.668** 0.659** 0.671** 0.685** 1
INN 0.649** 0.635** 0.698** 0.684** 0.705** 0.662** 0.693** 1
LAT 0.621** 0.612** 0.661** 0.657** 0.669** 0.643** 0.638** 0.69** 1
CA 0.700** 0.642** 0.678** 0.67** 0.69** 0.681** 0.64** 0.707** 0.76** 1
Note: Significance levels: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01.

Table 4. Total CA against regressing LAT components.

Model Correlation (R) R-squared (R²) Adjusted R-squared F-value Significance Level
1 0.782 0.612 0.603 69.968 0.000**
a
Predictors: (constant), VSC, TC, KCO. bDependent variable: CA. **Indicates statistical significance at the 1% level (p < 0.01), confirming that the
regression model is highly significant.

Table 5. Regressing total CA against lat components.

Model Coefficients S.D Beta t Sig Tolerance VIF
Constant 0.922 0.181 – 5.084 0.000 – –
VSC 0.367 0.046 0.493 7.961 0.000 0.760 1.317
TC 0.258 0.064 0.305 4.012 0.000 0.505 1.979
KCO 0.123 0.055 0.154 2.221 0.028 0.605 1.652
T-tabulated = 1.960; dependent variable: CAs.

6.3. Variable interrelationships

A bivariate Pearson correlation test was conducted to examine the relationship between lean accounting
tools (LAT) and competitive advantage (CA). The analysis revealed that the correlations between the LAT
components were moderate to high, as were the correlations among the dimensions of CA as shown in
Table 3. The results indicate a strong association between LAT and CA, with a correlation value of 76%,
demonstrating a significant positive relationship.

6.4. Multiple regressions and hypothesis testing

Hypothesis 1: ‘LAT-VSC, TC, and KCO-do not have a significant influence on the CA variables of CR, QI,
TE, OR, and INN at α < 0.05’. Apparently, this analysis seems to show that LAT components are strongly
correlated with the total CA within a sample space correlation coefficient at 78.2%. Also, the R2 value of
0.612 explained that LAT components explained 61.2% of variance in total CA, F = 69.968, p < 0.05. Thus,
the null hypothesis is refused and the alternative hypothesis that the dimensions of LAT significantly
affect CA in Jordanian industrial companies is accepted, α < 0.05 significance as shown in Table 4.
Table 5 illustrates the effect of each lean accounting tool (LAT) component on overall competitive
advantage (CA). Among these components, value stream costing (VSC) exerts the most substantial influ-
ence on total CA. This is followed by throughput costing (TC) with β = 0.493, t = 7.961, and a significance
level of 0.000; target costing (TC) with β = 0.305, t = 4.012, and a significance level of 0.000; and Kaizen
costing (KCO) with β = 0.154, t = 2.221, and a significance level of 0.028.
Hypothesis 2 (H2): At α ≤ 0.05 LAT (VSC, TC, and KCO) has no effect on the CA dimensions (CR, QI, TE,
OR, and INN) of Jordanian industrial firms. Table 6 shows the regressive CA component findings vs total
LAT. With a rrr value of 77.3%, the study reveals a clear correlation between CA components and Lat. With
R2 = 0.598, F = 38.916, sig. = 0.000 CA explains 59.8% of the variance in LAT. The study shows a proper
correlation of CA components and Lat since the rrr value stands at 77.3% with R2 = 0.598, F = 38.916, sig.
= 0.000 CA explains 59.8% of variance in LAT. Thus, H2 is rejected and alternative is accepted and at
α ≤ 0.05 LAT significantly impact CA dimensions CR, QI, TE, OR and INN of Jordanian industrial firms.
 Cogent Business & Management 11

Table 6. Regressing CA components against latitude overall.

Model Correlation (R) R-squared (R²) Adjusted R-squared F-value Significance Level
1 0.773 0.598 0.582 38.916 0.000b
Predictors: (constant), CR, QI, TE, OR, INN. Dependent variable: LAT.
b
Results significant at p < 0.001.

Table 7. Regressing total latitude against CA components.

Model Coefficients S. D Beta t Sig Tolerance VIF
Constant) 0.8623 0.2000 – 4.3071 0.0001 – –
CR 0.0512 0.0570 0.0602 0.8982 0.3710 0.6882 0.565
QI 0.2475 0.0600 0.3064 4.1450 0.0000 0.5655 0.47
TE 0.1700 0.0600 0.2285 2.8250 0.0050 0.4700 0.641
OR 0.0850 0.0582 0.1025 1.4670 0.1452 0.6411 0.55
INN 0.1830 0.0511 0.2702 3.6090 0.0003 0.5505 0.565
T-tabulated = 1.960; Dependent variable: LAT.

Following innovation (INN) with β = 0.270, t = 3.965, and a significance level of 0.000, Table 7 indicates
that lean accounting tools (LAT) have the greatest impact on quality improvement (QI) with β = 0.306,
t = 2.825, and a significance level of 0.005. However, LAT has a negligible effect on operational reliability
(OR) with β = 0.102, t = 1.467, and a significance level of 0.145, as well as on cost reduction (CR) with
β = 0.060, t = 0.898, and a significance level of 0.371.

7. Discussion
The results have shown that VSC, TC, and KCO are superficially applied within Jordanian industrial firms,
although the worst implementation has been for KCO. Of the business results, these organizations focus
more on OR, QI, and TE than on CR and INN. It may be considered that the situation is justified because
Jordan, being an industrial hub of best practices and international standards, has strict laws and stan-
dards in place. For example, the regulatory framework requires one to stick to some international stan-
dards. This means that one has little scope for leeway in adopting lean practices. Secondly, these
companies are comparably small and manufacture primarily generic products initially developed by mul-
tinational companies. This limits their speed in switching over to new standards or their ability to move
with the changes in technology because of limited capital base. All these are further exacerbated by
small-scale operations and meager resources, which make it hard for such firms to invest in advanced
lean tools. Other identified contributions to partial adoption of LAT include lack of adequate commit-
ment of management, operational scale limitation, poor quality human resources, and difficulties in logis-
tics. Other major barriers identified in this context include: lack of governmental support, poor
understanding of the benefits of LAT, uncertainty over LAT’s impact on environmental sustainability. LAT
projects are so costly that such projects face immense difficulty in overcoming barriers due to the lack
of government support (Hassan & Al-Tahat, 2020;).
Results show that the correlations of LAT with the dimensions of CA are moderate to high, and there
exists a very strong correlation of LAT with CA. Such findings follow previous research that supports the
robust linkage between environmental practices and company performance and competitiveness.
Environmental performance, operational efficiency, competitive advantage, and financial performance all
interact with techniques of LAT such as VSC, TC, and KCO. Internal lean practices and external lean inte-
gration are associated with green performance and organizational competitiveness.
Recent empirical studies reported significant associations between LAT with CA by establishing the
linkage among lean suppliers, lean innovation, environmental performance, and CA. The implementation
of LAT practices significantly affects the competitiveness of a firm. Also, LAT strategies are identified to
be closely related to competitive strategy. These findings agree with the results here presented, particu-
larly the significant effect of LAT on CA dimensions like QI, INN, and TE, though at a lesser degree in the
aspects of OR and CR. The variations could be partially related to industry-specific factors.
Accordingly, leadership, accountability, and teamwork determine a great extent of CA and overall per-
formance of the firm by affecting VSC, TC, and KCO. Also, internal lean practices and external lean
12 A. M. ALSHANTI ET AL.

initiatives internal to externally spawn environmental sustainability and competitive effectiveness respec-
tively. LAT enables increasing effectiveness in operation in terms of less production cost and waste, qual-
ity, flexibility, and competitive advantages. Precisely, VSC and TC have the potential to impact competitive
capability directly while VSC reduces costs, and on the other hand, TC improves quality, cost, and deliv-
ery. This is so because VSC has proved to reduce operating costs of SMEs in Jordan hence making it a
cost-effective tool for the organisms involved. Green consumption and packaging would also be critical
determinants of success. Internal lean practices tend to influence the external cooperation of environ-
mental concerns about sustainability as well as competitiveness. While TC improves quality and flexibility,
it is not necessary that cost reduction will result. Internal environmental practices improve delivery time,
quality, and costs while VSC results in greater improvement in performance. Lean procurement, supplier
cooperation, and customer collaboration also influence environmental performance and competitiveness,
influencing cost, quality, and delivery. LAT all practices have a positive impact on the environmental
performance.
In the long run, it is apparent that individual and operational misbehavior can result in severe envi-
ronmental degradation thus having negative impacts on human health and making it hard to apply lean
accounting effectively. COVID-19 pandemic has massively impacted global lean accounting through orga-
nizational performance disruptions globally. The global health sector is characterized by challenges and
shortages that contribute to a rise in costs and accounting difficulties. The pandemic has added further
financial pressures on Jordanian companies, which also degraded their capabilities of effective imple-
mentation of lean accounting. Additionally, there is an increasing trend that puts pressure on organiza-
tions to develop their environmental performance along with economic, social, and environmental
objectives, all of which would simultaneously achieve CA. Most of the companies in Jordan’s industrial
sector are trying to survive these crises by rearranging their strategies and positioning so as to attract
new opportunities within the marketplace. Means of information exchange and supply monitoring in
lean accounting should be improved to enable better decision-making. Strategic review of the manage-
ment of lean accounting, including possible enhancements by new technologies like blockchain, may
provide new opportunities to improve logistics and management. Besides, green marketing methods will
play an important role in the further development of environmental awareness and ensuring corporate
citizenship by providing green products.

8. Conclusions
As per the research, though Jordanian industrial enterprises are implementing Value Stream Mapping
(VSC) and Total Costing (TC) techniques vigorously, their application of Key Costing Operations is still
inadequate. Besides, these organizations show a greater emphasis on Quality Improvement, Time
Efficiency, and Operational Reliability as compared to Cost Reduction and Innovation during the mea-
surement of their dimensions of Competitive Advantage. Associations among the inter-associations of
LAT components also ranged from moderate to high order. The higher association exists between LAT
and CA. Testing hypothesis 1 established that the adoption of LAT practices, which covers VSC, TC, and
KCO, significantly influences the CA of Jordanian industrial enterprises at α < 0.05. Among them, lean
operations have the highest positive effect on total CA, followed by VSC and TC. Also, the second hypoth-
esis states that LAT has a significant effect on all the dimensions of CA, including: CR, QI, TE, OR, and
INN, with its impact being maximum in QI followed by INN and TE. However, no significant affect is seen
from LAT on OR or CR.
Theoretically, such findings from this study significantly contribute to a wide and rich area of theory
and practice. In theoretical terms, the results are in line with and confirm previous studies that establish
a positive relationship between LAT and CA. This study also reiterates and supports the concept that lean
accounting practices such as VSC, TC, and KCO tend to be very contributive not only to enhancing the
core operational efficiencies of an organization but also to considerably fostering the competitive posi-
tioning of an organization. This study provides richer insights into the underlying mechanisms by which
LAT may affect organizational performance through an illustrative exploration of how various lean tools
can improve the dimensions of CA. This finding is underpinned by the robust presence of the association
 Cogent Business & Management 13

between LAT and key competitive dimensions such as QI, INN, and TE that characterizes the effectiveness
of lean practices in enhancing the operational capabilities to support long-term competitiveness.
From a practical point of view, the findings emphasize the necessity of entrenching LAT practices
into Jordanian industrial enterprise operations. Thus, organizations should be directed toward improving
lean operations, focusing on VSC, TC, and KCO practices, as these offer the most potential impact on
enhancing CA. It is also suggested that priority should be given by the industrial firms to quality
improvement and innovation through LAT strategies. To that end, organizations need to invest in tal-
ented human resources, hire professionals who can practice lean accounting, and adopt technological
solutions to overcome operational issues. Furthermore, the lean practices of the organizations must be
in line with the rising corporate social responsibility expectation and governmental regulations related
to sustainability.
This study offers useful insights into the subject under discussion; however, this is also associated with
a few limitations. The first and most vital limitation is that the research design is cross-sectional; thus, it
only allows the long-run effects of LAT on variation in CA over time. The data was collected once, and
hence it’s very difficult to establish any form of casual relationship between the LAT practices and the
dimensions of CA. Whereas future research designs should be longitudinal in order to track the evolution
of LAT adoption and its sustained impact on CA over a period of time-this would allow a more profound
understanding of how long-term LAT has affected organizational performance and if their practices have
indeed continued to provide a competitive advantage in maturing firms. Another limitation of this study
includes sampling bias, where the research focused only on industrial enterprises in Jordan. This, of
course, could be a very narrow scope, considering the diversity of industries and companies that poten-
tially can benefit from LAT. Further research needs to work on expanding this study into other industries,
such as services or technology, with more insight into the dispersion of the industries benefiting from
LAT. In addition, studies across countries might enlighten us on how LAT is implemented under different
cultural, economic, and regulatory environments, hence placing the assessment of its efficacy on more
of a global basis.
The present study also does not investigate exogenous factors that may influence LAT adoption and
performance, such as government regulations, market competition, or global economic changes. Future
research might therefore explore such external drivers and their interaction with LAT practices in shaping
lean practices and their contribution to CA.
The findings of this present research indicate more precisely that LAT can be empowered further with
the use of new technologies, like blockchain, which has already shown the ability to improve supply
chains and logistics in terms of transparency. Research on integrating blockchain with LAT should study
how these technologies can further create improvements in enterprise operational efficiency and com-
petitiveness in industries with complex supply chains.
The implications of this study therefore are that there is a meaningful relationship between LAT and
CA in Jordanian industrial enterprises, in which lean operation had the most effects on CA, followed by
value stream controls and then total control. This means LAT can act as a strong tool toward enhancing
the level of operational performance and CA. However, long-term success requires a further adaptation
of strategies, having quality improvements and innovation with better lean practices. Although the con-
strictive resources and external impediments in the form of government regulations and global market
fluctuations faced LAT, it remained imperative for competitive advantage.
Future studies will be necessary to determine whether these findings generalize across industries and
across regions. Longitudinal studies would bring great value to the knowledge of the long-term impact
of LAT on CA, and an in-depth exploration of the role of emerging technologies and external factors
could lead to further insight into how LAT can be best optimized within an increasingly dynamic
global market.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the participating Jordanian industrial companies and their man-
agers for their valuable time and insights provided through the online questionnaires. Special thanks to Al-Balqa
Applied University for their support in facilitating this research.
14 A. M. ALSHANTI ET AL.

Authors’ contributions
Ayman Mohammad ALShanti: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data Collection, Data Analysis, Writing – Original Draft
Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing. Khalil Mahmoud Ali Al-Refae: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – Review
& Editing, Supervision. Mohammad Jebreel: Methodology, Data Analysis, Writing – Review & Editing, Supervision.

Disclosure statement
The authors declare that they have no competing interests that might have influenced the presented work.

Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
The study was self-funded by the authors.

About the authors

Dr. Ayman Mohammad ALShanti is an Associate Professor in the Department of Accounting and Accounting
Information Systems at Amman University College, Al‑Balqa Applied University, Amman, Jordan. He holds a Ph.D. in
Accounting and specializes in lean accounting, managerial accounting, and corporate governance. His research
focuses on the application of innovative accounting practices to enhance organizational performance.
Dr. Khalil Mahmoud Ali Al-Refae is a Full Professor in the Department of Accounting and Accounting Information
Systems at Amman University College, Al‑Balqa Applied University, Amman, Jordan. He holds a Ph.D. in Accounting
and has extensive expertise in cost accounting, financial reporting, and performance measurement. His research
interests include sustainability accounting, lean methodologies, and their influence on strategic decision‑making.
Dr. Mohammad Jebreel is an Associate Professor in the Accounting Department, Faculty of Business, Applied Science
Private University, and a member of the MEU Research Unit at Middle East University, Amman, Jordan. He holds a
Ph.D. in Accounting and specializes in cost management, strategic accounting practices, and corporate financial per-
formance. His research primarily explores the integration of advanced accounting tools to drive competitive advan-
tage in industrial settings.

ORCID
Ayman Mohammad ALShanti http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1455-252X

Data availability statement

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on rea-
sonable request. Due to the confidentiality agreements with the participating companies, the data cannot be made
publicly available.

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