Chapter 14: SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

The branch of physics which deals about semiconductors and its devices is called solid state
electronics.. The electron mechanics is called electronics.

The group of energy levels with continuous energy variation is called energy band.
band

The energy band which includes the energy levels of valence electrons is called the valence band.
Valence band is occupied
upied by valence electrons.
The energy band above the valence band is called the conduction band.
Normally the conduction band is empty or occupied by free electrons.

The lowest energy level in the conduction band is shown as ‘Ec’ and the highest energy
ene level in the valence
band is show as ‘Ev’.

The gap between the top of the valence band and bottom of the conduction band is called energy band gap.
‘Eg’ (Energy band gap) may be large small or zero depending upon the material.

Note: When the valence electron gets sufficient energy, they get excited to conduction band.

Explain with a sketch classification of solids on the basis of energy bands (Distinguish between
conductors, semiconductors and insulators on the basis of band theory):
There are three types.
i) Conductors, ii) Semiconductors, iii) Insulators

Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

Ex: All metals (Al,Cu, Fe, Au,etc) Ex: silicon, germanium, carbon. Ex:: plastic, wood, glass.

It has low resistivity IIt has moderate resistivity It has hiigh resistivity
Conductivity is due to free C
Conductivity is due to both free Conducttivity is zero
electrons e
electrons and holes
The valence band and conduction T
The valence band conduction The
he valence band and
band are overlapped, i.e. energy band are separated by a small conduction band are separated
gap, Eg=0. energy gap. i.e., Eg<3eV. by a large energy gap, i.e.
Eg>3eV.
3eV.
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The conduction band is The conduction band is partially
T The
he conduction band is
completely filled by free filled with free electrons at room completely empty
electrons. temperature.

Note-1:
i) Elemental semiconductors : Si and Ge
ii) Compound semiconductor: Example:
a) Inorganic: CdS, GaAS, CdSe, InP, etc
b) Organic : Anthracene, doped pthalocyanines, etc
c) Organic polymers: Polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene, etc.

Note-2:
2: Structure of Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge):
Atomic Number of Si= 14 Atomic Number of Ge= 32
2 2 6 2 2
1s , 2s , 2p , 3s , 3p 1s , 2s , 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p2
2 2

Si Ge

..
Si Si Si Ge Ge Ge

Si Ge

Note-3: Concepts of holes:

C.B. = Free electrons

1ev

οοοο V.B. ο = holes

Note-4:

Define hole: The vacancy in the valance band which can be occupied by electron is called hole. The hole
carries positive charge.

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(IMP)
Types of semiconductor: There are two types 1) Intrinsic Intrinsic semiconductor and 2) Extrinsic
Extri
semiconductor.
Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor in a extremely
ely pure form is known The doped semiconductors are called extrinsic
as an intrinsic semiconductor. semiconductors.
Ex: pure silicon and germanium. Ex: n-type and p-type semiconductors.
semiconductors
The number of free electrons (ne) is equal to the The number of free electrons (ne) is unequal to the
number of holes (nh). number of holes (nh).
Conductivity depends on the temperature. Conductivity depends on the temperature and
impurities.
Conductivity is low Conductivity is high
Conductivity is due to both electrons and holes. Conductivity is due to majority charge carriers.

Write a note on Intrinsic

trinsic Semiconductor with variation in temperature shown with energy band
diagram:

An intrinsic semiconductor will behave like an insulator at T=OK as shown in figure (a). It is the
thermal energy at higher temperatures (T>OK), which excites some electrons from the valence band to the
conduction band. These thermally excited electrons at T>OK, partially occupy conduction
conducti band, therefore
the energy band diagram of a intrinsic semiconductor as shown in figure (b). Here, some electrons shown in
the conduction band, these have come from the valence band leaving equal number of holes there.

Doping: The process of adding impurity to pure semiconductor is called Doping.

Dopant:: The impurity added to pure semiconductor is called Dopant or Doping agent.
agent

There are two types of dopants used in doping the tetravalent Si or Ge

Ex: Pentavalent impurities:: Phosphorous (p), Antimony (Sb) and Arsenic (As).

Trivalent impurities:: Aluminium(Al), Boron(B), Indium(In), Gallium(Ga)

Types of extrinsic semiconductors:

Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are classified into
i) n-type semiconductor and ii) p-type
type semiconductor

n-type semiconductor: The n-type

type semiconductor is obtained when a pentavalent impurity is added to pure
semiconductor. The pentavalent impurity like phosphorus has five valence electrons. Four of them formfo
covalent bonds with four neighbouring atoms leaving a free electron. Thus every pentavalent impurity atom
donates one free electron for conduction. Hence pentavalent impurity atom is called donar impurity. The
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free electrons donated by donar impurity are available for conduction even at 0K. In n-type, number of free
electrons are greater than number of holes. Therefore majority charge carries are free electrons and minority
charge carriers are holes.

Si Si

Si P Si Si B Si

Si Si

n-type p-type

p -type semiconductor: The p-type semiconductor is obtained when a trivalent impurity is added to pure
semiconductor. The trivalent impurity like aluminium has three valence electrons. The three valence
electrons form covalent bonds with the neighbouring atoms leaving a hole. Thus every trivalent impurity
atom donates one hole for conduction. Hence trivalent impurity atom is called acceptor impurity. The holes
created by acceptor impurity are available for the conduction even at 0K. In p-type, number of holes are
greater than number of free electrons. Therefore majority charge carries are holes and minority charge
carriers are free electrons.

Note-1:

Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors are electrically neutral.

In p-type, the ‘p’ means positive, i.e. the majority charge carriers are positive charge carriers i.e.
holes.

In n-type, the ‘n’ means negative, i.e. the majority charge carriers are negative charge carriers i.e.
electrons.

Distinguish between n-type semiconductors and p-type semiconductors.

n-type semiconductors p-type semiconductors
It is a semiconductors doped with pentavalent It is a semiconductors doped with trivalent
impurities. impurities.
Electrons are majority charge carriers.. Holes are majority charge carriers.
Holes are minority charge carriers Electrons are minority charge carriers.
The impurity atom is called donar impurity. The impurity atom is called acceptor impurity.
Conductivity is more. Conductivity is less.

What is p-n junction?

A single piece of pure semiconductor with one half doped with trivalent impurity to obtain the p-type
and other half doped with pentavalent impurity to obtain the n-type. This is called p-n junction.

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Explain the formation of p-n junction:
Junction potential difference

o oo - + •••
p - + n
o oo - + •••
o oo - + •••
Depletion region
A single piece of pure semiconductor with one half doped with trivalent impurity to obtain the p-type
and other half doped with pentavalent impurity to obtain the n-type. This is called p-n junction.
The holes are majority charge carriers in p-type and free electrons are majority charge carriers in n-
type. The holes carry positive charge and electrons carry negative charge. Some holes diffuse from p-type
to n-type through the junction and some free electrons diffuse from n-type to p-type. A layer of positive and
negative immobile charges is formed across the junction. As a result the potential difference is set up across
the junction called potential barrier. This stops the further diffusion of immobile charges. The free electrons
and holes are absent around the junction. The region around the junction free from mobile charge carrier is
called depletion region or depletion layer. The thickness of depletion region is about 1 micron or 10-6m.
The thickness depends on the concentration of doping. The thickness of depletion layer decreases with
increase in impurity concentration. The junction potential difference increases with increase in impurity
concentration.

Important terms related to semiconductor diode:

Potential barrier (Junction potential difference): The potential difference across the junction which
prevents the further diffusion of holes and free electrons is called potential barrier.

Depletion region (depletion layer): The region around the junction free from mobile charge carrier is
called depletion region or depletion layer.

Diffusion current: It is the current due to the concentration difference in the majority charge carriers when
the p-n junction is formed.

Drift current: It is the current due to minority charge carriers when electric field is setup by the immobile
ions in the depletion region.

Drift : The motion of charge carriers due to the electric field is called drift.

Note-1: The p-n junction is commercially called semiconductor diode. For silicon diode junction potential
difference is 0.7V. For germanium diode is 0.38V at room temperature.

Note-2: The symbol of semiconducting diode is

p n
The arrow points from p-side to n-side. The arrow indicates the direction of conventional current.

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Biasing: When no external potential difference is applied across the p-n
p n junction, it is said to be unbiased.
When the p-nn junction is connected to an external potential difference, it is said to be Biased. The p-n
junction can be biased in 2 ways. The Forward Bias and Reverse Bias

What is forward bias?

A p-nn junction is said to be forward Biased, if p-type
p type is connected to positive terminal and n-type
n is
connected to negative terminal of the battery.

Explain how a P-n

n junction diode behaves under ‘FORWARD BIAS” condition.

In forward bias P-side

side is connected to positive terminal of the battery and n-side
n to the negative
terminal. The direction of applied voltage (V) is opposite to the built in potential ‘V0’. As a result, the
depletion layer width decreases and the barrier height is reduced as shown in (b). The effective barrier height
under bias is (V0− V). Now junction resistance becomes almost negligible and thus diode permits the current
(order of mA) to flow through it.

Explain with the circuit diagram the working of diode in forward bias characteristic:

In forward bias, positive terminal of a battery is connected to p-type

p type and negative terminal is
connected to n-type.
type. During forward Bias the applied voltage opposes the junction voltage, i.e. applied
voltage cancels the potential barrier. The junction resistance decreases. The majority charge carries holes
and free electrons can cross the junction easily. The current flows through the junction. This current is called
forward current. The forward current increases with increases in applied voltage.
The applied voltage at which the forward current increase rapidly is called Knee voltage (VK). After
Knee voltage the forward bias characteristic is almost linear. The forward bias resistance is very low. For an
ideal diode, the forward bias resistance is zero (Rf= 0). During forward bias the diode conducts the current to
flow through it. The graph of forward current verses forward voltage is called forward bias characteristic.
characteristic

Define Cut in voltage or threshold voltage (knee voltage): It is the minimum forward voltage in which the
diode goes to on state (conducting state) with increase in current.

Cut in voltage: For Ge→0.2

0.2 to 0.3V, Si→0.6
Si to 0.7V.

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What is reverse bias?
A p-nn junction is said to be reverse biased, if p-type
p type is connected to negative terminal and n-type
n is
connected to positive terminal of the battery.

Explain how p-n

n junction diode behaves under
under “REVERSE BIAS” condition:

In reverse bias n-side

side is connected to positive terminal and P – side is connected to negative terminal
of the battery. The direction of applied voltage is same as the direction of barrier potential. As a result, the
barrier
ier height increases and the depletion region widens, a high resistance path is established. The effective
barrier height under reverse bias is (V0 + V) as shown in fig (b). This suppresses the flow of electrons from
n→p and holes from p→n. n. Thus, diffusion current, decreases enormously compared to the diode under
forward bias.
The current under reverse bias is essentially voltage independent up to a critical reverse bias voltage,
known as breakdown voltage (Vbr) when V = Vbr, the diode current increases sharply arply is of the order of micro
– amperes (few µA).

Explain with circuit diagram the working of reverse biased characteristic:

In reverse bias positive terminal of a battery is connected

to n-type
type and negative terminal is connected to p-type.
p During
reverse bias the applied voltage adds to the junction voltage. The majority charge carries holes and free
electrons cannot cross the junction. However a small current flows through the junction due to minority
charge carriers. This current is called reverse current or leakage current. At a particular applied voltage
the reverse current suddenly becomes maximum, this reverse voltage is called
c break down voltage (Vb).
The reverse resistance is very high. For an ideal diode, the reverse bias resistance is infinity. (Rr= ∞) The
diode does not conducts during reverse bias. The graph of reverse current verses reverse voltage is called
reverse bias characteristic.

Reverse saturation current: It is the reverse current which remains constant with increase in reverse bias
voltage. It is of the order of 10-6A.

Break down voltage (VB) : It is the reverse bias voltage at which the reverse current increases sharply.

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Dynamic resistance: It is the ratio of small change in voltage ∆V
V to a small change in current ∆I. i.e.
∆V
rd = .
∆I

Note:
1. The diode characteristic is not a straight line, therefore diode is a non-ohmic
non ohmic device.
2. At breakdown voltage the current is maximum is due to breakdown of covalent bonds. A large number
of electron-hole
hole pairs are formed. The high reverse current may damage the junction.
3. The reverse bias resistance
sistance is very much greater than forward bias resistance.

Rectification: The process of converting AC to DC is called rectification.

The device which converts AC to DC is called rectifier.

Principle of rectification: Semiconductor diode conducts the current

current during forward bias and did not
conduct the current during reverse bias. i.e. diode has unidirectional conducting property. This is the
principle of rectification.

What is half wave rectifier?

The rectifier which converts only half cycles of AC into
into DC is called half wave rectifier.

Explain with circuit diagram of half-wave

half rectifier:

The circuit diagram is as shown in the figure. The AC to be converted in to DC is fed to the primary
(p) of the transformer. A diode (D) and load resistor (RL) are connected to secondary (S) of the transformer.
During positive half cycle of AC, the point A is positive potential with respect to point B. then diode is
forward biased and it conducts the current, the output is obtained across the load resistance. During the
negative half cycles of AC, the point A is negative potential with respect to B. then the diode is reveres
biased and it does not conduct the current, the output is not obtained across the load resistance. We get the
output only during one-half
half cycles. Thus it is called half wave rectifier.. The graph of input AC and output
DC is shown in the figure.

What is full wave rectifier?

The rectifier which converts both the half cycles of AC into DC is called full wave rectifier.

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Explain with a circuit diagram the working of full wave rectifier:
rectifier

The circuit diagram is as shown in the figure. The AC to be converted into DC is fed to the primary
(p) of the transformer. Two diodes D1, D2 and load resistance R L are connected to secondary (S) of the
centre tapped transformer.
During positive half cycles of AC, the point A is positive w.r.t. B, then the diode D1 is forward
biased and diode D2 is reverse biased. The diode D1 conducts the current and diode D2 does not conducts the
current. The output is obtained across the load resistance RL due to diode D1. During negative half cycles of
AC, the point A is negative w.r.t. B. then the diode D1 is reverse biased and diode D2 is forward biased. The
diode D1 doesn’t conduct
onduct and the diode D2 conducts the current. The output is obtained across the load
resistance RL due to diode D2. The output is obtained during both half cycles of AC. Thus it is called full
wave rectifier.. A graph of input ‘AC’ and output ‘DC’ is as shown
s in the figure.

ONE MARK QUESTIONS

1. What is an electronic device?
Ans. It is a device in which controlled flow of electrons takes place either in vacuum or
in semiconductors.
2. What is an energy band in a solid?
Ans. Energy band is a group of close by energy levels with continuous energy variation.
3. What is a valence band?
Ans. Valence band is the energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence electrons. It
is the range of energies possessed by valence electrons.
4. What is conduction band?
Ans. Conduction band is the energy band which includes the energy levels of conduction electrons
or free electrons.
5. What is energy gap or energy band gap?
Ans. The gap (spacing) between the top of the valence band (EV) and the bottom of the conduction
band (Ec) is called the energy band gap (Eg) or energy gap.
6. What is the order of energy gap in a semiconductor?
Ans. 1eV
7. At what temperature would an intrinsic semiconductor behave like a perfect insulator?
Ans. 0 K (absolute zero temperature)
temperat
8. What is an intrinsic semiconductor?
Ans. It is a pure semiconductor in which electrical conductivity is solely due to the thermally
generated electrons and holes.
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9. What is doping?
Ans. The process of adding suitable impurity atoms to the crystal structure of pure semiconductor
like Ge or Si to enhance their electrical conductivity is called doping.
10. What is a hole?
Ans. The vacancy of an electron(of charge -e)e) in the covalent bond with an effective positive
charge +e is called a hole.
11. What is an extrinsic semiconductor?
Ans. The semiconductor obtained by doping a pure semiconductor like silicon with impurity
atoms to enhance its conductivity is called an extrinsic or doped semiconductor.
12. Name one dopant which can be used with germanium to t form an n-type
type semiconductor.
Ans. Phosphorus.
13. What are dopants?
Ans. The impurity atoms added to pure semiconductors like germanium to increase their electrical
conductivity are called dopants.
14. Name the majority charge carriers in p-type
p semiconductors.
Ans. Holes.
15. What is depletion region in a p--n junction?
Ans. The space charge region at the p-n
p n junction which consists only of immobile ions and is
depleted of mobile charge carriers is called depletion region.
16. How does the width of the depletion
epletion region of a p-n
p n junction change when it is reverse biased?
Ans. The depletion region width increases.
17. What is the forward resistance of an ideal p-n
p junction diode?
Ans. Zero.
18. Draw the circuit symbol of a semiconductor diode.
19. Name any one optoelectronic device.
Ans. Photodiode / Light emitting diode / photovoltaic cell or solar cell.
20. Draw the circuit symbol of a Zener diode.
Ans.

21. What is rectification?

Ans. The process of converting AC (alternating current) to pulsating DC is called rectification.
22. How does the conductivity of a semiconductor change with rise in its temperature?
Ans. The conductivity increases exponentially with temperature.
23. Is the ionisation energy of an isolated free atom different from the ionization energy Eg for the
atoms in a crystalline lattice?
Ans. Yes. It is different since in a periodic crystal lattice each bound electron is influenced by
many
neighbouring atoms.
24. Which process causes depletion region in a p-n p junction?
Ans. The diffusion of majority charge carriers i.e., free electrons and holes across the p-n
p junction
causes the depletion region.
25. What is the order of the thickness of the depletion layer in an unbiased p-np n junction?
Ans. micrometer (10-6 m).
26. What is a photodiode?
Ans. It is a special purpose p-nn junction diode whose reverse current strength varies with the
intensity of incident light.
27. Under which bias condition a Zener diode is used as a voltage regulator?
Ans. Reverse bias.
28.
32. What is an oscillator?
Ans. It is an electronic device which is used to produce sustained electrical oscillations of constant
frequency and amplitude without any external input.
33. What type of feedback is used in an oscillator?
Ans. Positive feedback.

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34. What is an analogue signal?
Ans. An electrical signal (current or voltage) which varies continuously with time is called an analogue
signal.
35. What is a digital signal?
Ans. A signal (current or voltage) which takes only discrete values is called digital signal.
36. What is a logic gate?
Ans. A logic gate is a digital circuit that follows certain logical relationship between the input and
output signals and works on the principles of Boolean algebra.
37. Draw the logic symbol of an OR gate.
38. Write the truth table for a NOT gate.

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Name the charge carriers in the following at room temperature: (i) conductor (ii) semiconductor.
2. Mention the necessary conditions for doping.
3. Name one impurity each, which when added to pure Si produces (i) n-type and (ii) p-type
semiconductor.
4. Give two differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
5. Give two differences between n-type and p-type semiconductors. Ans.
6. What happens to the width of the depletion layer of a p-n junction when it is (i) forward biased?
(ii) reverse biased?
7. Draw a labelled diagram of a half wave rectifier. Draw the input and output waveforms.
8. What is photodiode? Mention its one use. (2015-A)
9. Draw a labelled diagram of a full wave rectifier. Draw the input and output waveforms. Ans.
10. Zener diodes have higher dopant densities as compared to ordinary p-n junction diodes.
11. How does it effect: (i) the width of the depletion layer? (ii) the junction field?
12. Explain why a photodiode is usually operated under reverse bias.
13. What is an LED? Mention two advantages of LED over conventional incandescent lamps.
14. Mention the factor which determines the (i) frequency and (ii) intensity of light emitted by LED.
Ans. (i)
15. Give two operational differences between light emitting diode (LED) and photodiode.
16. Draw the logic symbol of AND gate and write its truth table.
17. Draw the logic symbol of NOR gate and write its truth table.
18. Draw the logic symbol of NAND gate and write its truth table.

THREE MARKS QUESTIONS

1. What is intrinsic semiconductor? Explain the formation of a hole in the covalent bond structure of a
Ge crystal.
2. Which electrical conductivity is solely dependent on thermally generated charge carriers. Example:
pure crystals.
3. How is an n-type semiconductor formed? Name the majority charge carriers in it. Draw the energy
band diagram of an n-type semiconductor.
4. How is a p-type semiconductor formed? Name the majority charge carriers in it. Draw the energy
band diagram of a p-type semiconductor.
5. Distinguish between n-type and p-type semiconductors on the basis of energy band diagrams.
6. Explain the formation of the depletion region in a p-n junction. How does the width of this
region change when the junction is (i) forward biased? and (ii) reverse biased?
7. When an electron diffuses from n to p-region, it leaves behind an immobile positive ion (donor ion)
on the n-side. As electrons continue to diffuse a layer of positive charge (positive space charge
region)develops on the n-side of the junction.
8. What is forward bias? Draw a circuit diagram for the forward biased p-n junction and sketch the
voltage-current graph for the same.
9. What is reverse bias? Draw a circuit diagram for the reverse biased p-n junction and sketch the
voltage-current graph for the same.
10. With the help of a circuit diagram explain the use of Zener diode as a voltage regulator.
11. What is a logic gate? Draw the symbol of a NOT gate and write its truth table.
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FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS
1. What is energy band? On the basis of energy band diagrams, distinguish between metals, insulators
and semiconductors.
2. Distinction between metals, insulators and semiconductors:
3. What are intrinsic semiconductors? Explain the formation of a hole in an intrinsic semiconductor.
4. What is extrinsic semiconductor?
5. What is a p-n junction? Explain the formation of the depletion region in a p-n junction. How does
the width of this region change when the junction is (i) forward biased? (ii) reverse biased?
6. Draw the circuit diagrams of a p-n junction diode in (i) forward bias and (ii) reverse bias. Draw the
I-V characteristics for the same and discuss the resistance of the junction in both the cases.
7. With a neat circuit diagram, explain the working of a half wave rectifier employing a semiconductor
diode. Draw the relevant waveforms.

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