CGA- Computer Graphics

and Animations
Unit 1
Unit 1 Overview of CGA
Unit 1 Overview of CGA

“A picture is worth a thousand words” is a well-known saying and highlights the advantages and benefits of the visual
presentation of our data.

A well-chosen graph is able to transform a complex table of numbers into meaningful results.

Graphs are used to illustrate papers, reports and theses, as well as providing the basis for presentation material in the
form of slides and overhead transparencies.
Unit 1 Overview of CGA

Computer graphics are pictures and movies created using computers - usually referring to image data created
by a computer specifically with help from specialized graphical hardware and software.

Another name for the field is computer-generated imagery, or simply CGI.

Computer graphics are visual representations of data displayed on a monitor made on a computer.

Computer-generated imagery is used for movie making, video game and computer program development,
scientific modeling, and design for catalogs and other commercial art.
Unit 1 Overview of CGA

Computer graphics can be 2D or 3D. They are made differently and used differently.

2D graphics

2D computer graphics are usually split into two categories: vector graphics and raster graphics.
2D graphics
VECTOR and RASTER
Vector Graphics
Mathematical equations to draw out your designs.

Mathematical equations are translated into points that are connected by either lines or curves, also known as vector paths.

They make up all the different shapes you see in a vector graphic.

This allows vector graphics to be scaled to any size without sacrificing image quality as well as maintain a small file size.

Common vector file formats are .svg, .cgm, .odg, .eps, and .xml.
RASTER GRAPHICS
Raster Graphics

Raster (or bitmap) graphics are made up of tiny squares called pixels.

A raster graphic is created at a certain size (i.e. a fixed number of pixels), it can’t be scaled up without losing image
quality.

The larger the amount of pixels in an image, the larger the file size – they are positively correlated since the computer
needs to store information on every single pixel.

Widely used raster file formats are .jpg, .png, .gif, .bmp, and .tiff.
Raster Graphics
Raster Graphics
Raster graphic editors are optimal for digital photograph editing because raster graphics are able to portray better color
depth.

Each pixel can be any one of the 16 million different colors available.

Raster image files can be quite large.since the computer needs to remember information about every single pixel.
Raster Graphics
Raster Graphics V/S Vector Scan
Raster Graphics V/S Vector Scan
3D graphics
3D graphics are graphics that look like objects because they are three-dimensional.

It has a height, a length, and a depth.

Programs used to make 3D graphics are Bryce, 3D Studio Max, Maya and Blender

3D graphics are used many times in movies and TV shows and video games.
3D graphics
Pixel: Short for Picture Element, a pixel is a single point in a graphic image.

Graphics monitors display pictures by dividing the display screen into thousands (or millions) of pixels, arranged in rows and
columns.

The pixels are so close together that they appear connected.

The number of bits used to represent each pixel determines how many colors or shades of gray can be displayed.

For example, in 8-bit color mode, the color monitor uses 8 bits for each pixel, making it possible to display 2 to the 8th
power (256) different colors or shades of gray.
3D graphics

Phosphors excited by ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation are used principally in the so-called fluorescent
lamps commonly employed for general illumination.
Persistence: The major difference between phosphors is their persistence. It decides how long they continue to emit light after the electron
beam is removed.

Persistence is defined as the time it takes the emitted light from the screen to decay to one-tenth of its original intensity.

Note:-A phosphor is a substance that exhibits the phenomenon of luminescence; it emits light when exposed to some type of radiant energy
Persistence: (Contd.)

Lower persistence phosphors require higher refreshing rates to maintain a picture on the screen without flicker. However it is useful for displaying animations.

On the other hand higher persistence phosphors are useful for displaying static and highly complex pictures

Resolution: Number of Dots on the entire screen.

They are expressed in terms of number of pixels on the horizontal axis and on the vertical axis
Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio of a geometric shape is the ratio of its sizes in different dimensions.

For example, the aspect ratio of a rectangle is the ratio of its longer side to its shorter side -

the ratio of width to height when the rectangle is oriented as a "landscape".

The aspect ratio is expressed as two numbers separated by a colon ( x : y ).

The values x and y do not represent actual width and height but, rather, the "relation" between width and height.

As an example,

8:5, 16:10 and 1.6:1 are the same aspect ratio.

An aspect ratio of 4:5 means that a vertical line plotted with four points has the same length as a horizontal line plotted with
five points
Computer Graphics Application and Software

Application of Computer Graphics

● Computer-Aided Design for engineering and architectural systems etc.

○ Objects maybe displayed in a wireframe outline form.
○ Multi-window environment is also favored for producing various zooming scales and views.
○ Animations are useful for testing performance.
● Presentation Graphics
○ To produce illustrations which summarize various kinds of data.
○ Except 2D, 3D graphics are good tools for reporting more complex data.
● Presentation Graphics
○ To produce illustrations which summarize various kinds of data.
○ Except 2D, 3D graphics are good tools for reporting more complex data.
● Computer Art
○ Painting packages are available.
○ With cordless, pressure-sensitive stylus, artists can produce electronic paintings which simulate different brush strokes, brush
widths, and colors.
○ Photorealistic techniques, morphing and animations are very useful in commercial art.
○ For films, 24 frames per second are required.
○ For video monitor, 30 frames per second are required.
❖ Entertainment
➢ Motion Pictures, Music Videos and TV Shows and Computer Games
❖ Education and Training
➢ Training with computer-generated models and specialized systems such as the training of ship captains and aircraft pilots.
❖ Visualization
➢ For analyzing scientific, engineering, medical and business data or behavior.
➢ Converting data to visual form can help to understand mass volume of data very efficiently.
❖ Image Processing
➢ Image processing is to apply techniques to modify or interpret existing pictures.
➢ It is widely used in medical applications.
❖ Graphical User Interface
➢ Multiple window, icons, menus allow a computer setup to be utilized more efficiently
What is Graphics Software?

Computer-Aided Design for engineering and architectural systems etc.

Objects maybe displayed in a wireframe outline form. Multi-window environment is also favored for producing various zooming
scales and views. Animations are useful for testing performance.

Presentation Graphics

To produce illustrations which summarize various kinds of data. Except 2D, 3D graphics are good tools for reporting more complex
data.
Computer Art

Painting packages are available.

With cordless, pressure-sensitive stylus, artists can produce electronic paintings which simulate different brush strokes, brush
widths, and colors.

Photorealistic techniques, morphing and animations are very useful in commercial art.

For films, 24 frames per second are required.

For video monitor, 30 frames per second are required.

Graphics Software

It is any kind of software which can be used to create, edit, and manage 2D computer graphics.

These computer graphics may be clip art,

2D Graphics
2D Art

Digital Photos

Background
Clip art Web Graphics Logos Heading
Graphics software titles

Photoshop

Coral Draw
Illustrator
Paint
Canva

Picasa
3D Modeling and CAD (computer-aided design) software is also graphics software, but these are very specialized
applications which are best covered under the respective topics for the industries in which they are used.

For example, 3D graphics software is often used in animation, and CAD software is often used in architecture and
engineering.
Not covered in Graphics software

Page layout software such as InDesign, QuarkXpress, and Publisher.

Presentation software such as PowerPoint or Apple Keynote.

Home publishing or creative printing software .

Types of Graphics Software

The two main categories are pixel-based image editors, and vector-based image editors.

Specialized tools in Graphics software

Image Management Software

Image Viewers

Batch Processing Tools

Web and Animation Software

Diagramming Software
Use of Graphics Software

editing and sharing digital photos

creating logos,

drawing and modifying clip art,

creating digital fine art,

creating Web graphics,

designing advertisements and product packaging,

touching up scanned photos,

drawing maps or other diagrams.

Resources of Graphics

3DStudio

LightWave3D

Adobe Photoshop

Adobe Premiere

LightWave3D
Graphics Design

A graphics device is something where you can make a plot appear

A window on your computer (screen device)

A PDF file (file device)

A PNG or JPEG file (file device)

A scalable vector graphics (SVG) file (file device)

When you make a plot in R, it has to be “sent” to a specific graphics device

Graphics Device

The most common place for a plot to be “sent” is the screen device

On a Mac the screen device is launched with the quartz()

On Windows the screen device is launched with windows()

On Unix/Linux the screen device is launched with x11()

When making a plot, you need to consider how the plot will be used to determine what device

the plot should be sent to

Graphics Display
A graphic display is composed of a screen or panel that is made up of a large number of small cells or dots that are called
pixels .

These pixels emit light when they are struck by a beam of electrons and switched on.

At any one instant, the computer hardware can switch some pixels on fully so that they emit light, skip over others so that
they remain dark, and prompt still others to emit an intermediate measure of light.

In this way the representation of a picture can be displayed on a graphic device using every pixel as a separate component in
the image.
Examples of Graphic Device

CRT, EGA(Enhanced Graphic Adapter)/CGA/VGA/SVGA monitors, plotters, data matrix, laser printers, Films,
flat panel devices, Video Digitizers, scanners, LCD Panels, keyboard, joystick, mouse, touch screen, track ball,
etc.

The most commonly used display device is the CRT Monitor

Components of Interactive System
• Graphics Hardware

- Graphics Input and Storage devices

- Graphics Display devices

• Graphics Software

- General Programming packages

- Special-purpose applications packages

Components of Interactive Graphic Device
 Input Devices for Operator Interaction
Input devices and interaction techniques are the human operator's baton.

They set, constrain, and elicit a spectrum of actions and responses, and in a large way inject a personality on the entire
human-machine system.
Graphics Input Devices

• Any device that allows information fromoutside the computer to be communicated to the

computer is considered an input device.

• Understanding of various input devices is important in order to construct high-quality

graphical user-interfaces.

• Input devices are of two basic types: analog and digital.

Commonly used Analog Input Devices

(convert a graphic system user’s movements into changes in voltage)

• Paddle control,

• Trackball,

• Mouse, and

• Joystick
Commonly used Digital Input Devices

Light pen

Magnetic Pen and Tablet

Touch Panel
Keyboard

Digitizers

Image Scanners
• Simplest of the analog input
devices.
• The paddle control varies its
resistance, thereby changing the
voltage of the input circuit in
relation to the movement of the
paddle’s control knob.
• Commonly, two paddle controls
are used in graphics system, one to
control movement in the x-direction
and one to control movement in the
y-direction.
Trackball
• Trackball is normally operated by rolling
the ball with the palm of the hand.
• It mechanically combines two variable
resistors in a single device, thus allowing
the user to use one hand to enter both x
and y information with a single device.
Mouse
Combines two variable resistors in a
single device
Wheels and Rollers on the bottom of the
mouse used to record amount and
direction of movement.
One, two or three buttons included on
the top of the mouse for signaling
execution of some operation.
Joystick
1. Consists of small vertical lever
mounted on a base that is used to
steer the screen cursor around.
2. Stick is moved in any direction from
its center position corresponds to
screen-cursor movement in that
direction.
Light Pen
• Light pens are used to select screen
positions by detecting the light coming
from the points on
the CRT screen.
• They are sensitive to the short burst of
light emitted from the phosphor coating
at the instant the
electron beam strikes a particular point.
• The recorded light-pen coordinates can
be used to position an object or to select
a processing
option.
Magnetic pen and tablet

• A magnetic pen and tablet are

composed of a two-dimensional wire
grid and a radiowave-
emitting stylus.

• The wire grid is a matrix antenna

which locates the position of the stylus
measuring the
intensity of the radio signal received by
each wire in the grid.
Touch Panel
• Touch panels allow displayed objects or
screen positions to be selected with the
touch of a
Finger.
• Optical touch panels make use of a
series of infrared light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) and sensors
located around the perimeter of the
display.
• When the user touches the screen, light
beams are broken, indicating the location
of the user’s
finger.
Keyboard
The keyboard is an efficient device for inputting non graphic data as picture levels associated with a graphic display.

• Keyboards can also be provided with features to facilitate entry of screen coordinates, menu selections, or graphic
functions.

• Function keys allow users to enter frequently used operations in a single keystroke, and cursor control keys can be used to
select displayed objects or coordinate positions by positioning the screen cursor.
 Eg

Ergonomical Design Keyboard with palm rest

Digitizers
Interactively selecting positions on a object
Discrete coordinate positions can be joined with a
straight line segments
Graphic Tablets
Provide highly accurate methods for selecting
coordinate positions with accuracy of 0.05mm.
Constructed with rectangular grid of wires enbedded
in the tablet surface.
Electromagnetic pulses are generated in sequence
along the wires, and an electrical signal is induced in
a wire wire coil in an activated stylus.(hand cursor to
record a tablet position.)
Image Scanner
• records the gradations of gray scale/color of a
given color or b/w photos and stores in an array.
• stores image, we can apply transformations to
rotate, scale, crop the picture to a particular
screen area.
• We can also apply various image processing
methods to modify the array representation of
the picture (e.g. contrast enhancement).
Video Input Devices

An input device is any device that sends data from an outside source into a
processing system such as a computer or television. A video input device is any
device that sends video.

Types of Video Input Device

Media Players- devices that play any sort of media. These include physical media
players such as VCRs, DVD players and Blu-ray players, as well as digital media
players such as DVRs and streaming video players

Eg Roku, Netflix etc

Video Game Consoles

Video game consoles play video game media. These include the PlayStation 3,
Xbox 360 etc

Satellite/Cable Receivers

Set-top boxes (STB) that allow you to receive a decrypted video signal from
your satellite or cable service provider. This allows you to receive broadcast TV
and subscription ,video on-demand and DVR recordings.

Digital Cameras

Digital cameras, including still cameras and video cameras, include video
output ports such as composite or HDMI ports; these ports allow you to connect
the camera to a TV to view the photos and videos form the camera.

Digital cameras can also be connected to a computer to transfer photos and

Audio Input Device
Voice Input

Microphones convert spoken words to digital signals that can be processed by a

computer.

Modern speech recognition software is able to translate this into either commands
or data.

Digitised Audio Signals

MIDI (Musical Instrumental Digital Interface) devices allow direct input from musical
instruments capable of electrical I/O
Active and Passive Graphics Devices
Types of Computer Graphics:-
Non – Interactive or Simple or Passive Computer Graphics &
Interactive or Passive Computer Graphic
Interactive Computer Graphics involves a two way communication
between computer and user.
Observer is given some control over the image by providing him with an
input device
example the video game controller of the ping pong game. This helps
him to signal his request to the computer.
Non Interactive Computer Graphics:

The computer graphics in which user does not have any kind of control over the
image.

Image is merely the product of static stored program and will work according to the
instructions given in the program linearly.

The image is totally under the control of program instructions not under the user.
Example: screen savers.
Display technologies
A display is a computer output surface and projecting mechanism that shows
text and often graphic images to the computer user, using a cathode ray tube
( CRT ), liquid crystal display ( LCD ), light-emitting diode, gas plasma, or
other image projection technology.

The display is usually considered to include the screen or projection surface

and the device that produces the information on the screen.

In some computers, the display is packaged in a separate unit called a

monitor .

In other computers, the display is integrated into a unit with the processor
and other parts of the computer.
Display technologies(contd.)(Working)
Displays (and monitors) are also sometimes called video display terminals (VDTs) .
Working(Mechanism)
● Computer displays use analog signals as input to the display image creation
mechanism.
● This requirement and the need to continually refresh the display image mean
that the computer also needs a display or video adapter.
● The video adapter takes the digital data sent by application programs, stores it
in video random access memory ( video RAM ), and converts it to analog data
for the display scanning mechanism using an digital-to-analog converter ( DAC
)
● Graphics display technologies • They include: cathode ray tube ,Plasma , LCD ,
Raster graphics
Random Scan (Vector Scan) calligraphic display
● The electron beam is directed only to the part of the screen where the picture is to be
drawn rather than scanning from left to right and top to bottom as in raster scan.
● Also called vector display, stroke-writing display, or calligraphic display.
● Picture definition is stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area of memory
referred to as the refresh display file.
● To display a specified picture, the system cycles through the set of commands in the
display file, drawing each component line in turn.
● After all the line-drawing commands are processed, the system cycles back to the first
line command in the list.
● Random-scan displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a picture 30 to
60 times each second.
Refresh Cathode-Ray Tubes
Operation of CRT

● A beam of electrons (cathode rays) emitted by an electron gun, passes through

focusing and deflection systems that direct the beam toward specified positions
on the phosphor coated screen.
● The phosphor then emits a small spot of light at each position contacted by the
electron beam.
● Because the light emitted by the phosphor fades very rapidly, some method is
needed for maintaining the screen picture.
● One way to keep the phosphor glowing is to redraw the picture repeatedly by
quickly directing the electron beam back over the same points.
● This type of display is called a refresh CRT.
Magnetic deflection
It has two pairs of coils are used, with the coils in each pair mounted on opposite
sides of the neck of the CRT envelope.
One pair is mounted on the top and bottom of the neck and the other pair is mounted
on opposite sides of the neck.
The magnetic, field produced by each pair of coils results in a transverse deflection
force that is perpendicular both to the direction of the magnetic field and to the
direction of travel of the electron beam.
Horizontal deflection is accomplished with one pair of coils, and vertical deflection by
the other pair.
The proper deflection amounts are attained by adjusting the current through the
coils.
Electrostatic deflection

It has two pairs of parallel plates are mounted inside the CRT envelope.

One pair coil plates is mounted horizontally to control the vertical deflection,
and the other pair is mounted vertically to control horizontal deflection

Spots of light are produced on the screen by the transfer of the CRT beam
energy to the phosphor.

When the electrons in the beam collide with the phosphor coating, they are
stopped and then kinetic energy is absorbed by the phosphor.

Part of the beam energy is converted by friction into heat energy, and the
remainder causes electrons in the phosphor atoms to move up to higher
quantum-energy levels.

After a short time, the "excited phosphor

RASTER-SCAN DISPLAYS
It is based on television technology.

In a raster-scan system, “the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a
time from top to bottom”. As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam
intensity is turned on and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots.

Picture Definition- Stored in a memory area called refresh buffer. Or frame buffer.
This memory area holds the intensity values for the screen points.
Ina simple black-and-white system, each screen point is either on or off, so
only one bit per pixel is needed to control the intensity of screen positions.

For a bit level system,

A bit value of 1 indicates that the electron beam is to be turn ON at that

position.

A bit value of 0 indicates that the beam intensity is to be turn OFF.

Additional bits are needed when color and intensity variations can be
displayed.
Random-Scan Displays
When operated as a random-scan display unit, a CRT has “the electron beam
directed only to the parts of the screen where a picture is to be drawn”.
Random scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time and for this reason are
also referred to as vector displays (or stroke-writing or calligraphic display
The component lines of a picture can be drawn and refreshed by a random-scan
system in any specified order (Fig.). A pen plotter operates in a similar way and is
an example of a random-scan, hard-copy device.
Refresh rate on a random-scan system depends on the number of lines to be
displayed.
Picture definition is now stored as a set of line drawing commands in an area of
memory r e f e r to as the refresh display file.
CRT(Cathode Ray Tube)
Random-Scan Displays (contd.)
● Random-scan systems are designed for line drawing applications and cannot
display realistic shaded scenes. Since picture definition is stored as a set of
line drawing instructions and not as a set of intensity values for all screen
points, vector displays generally have higher resolution than raster systems.

● Also, vector displays produce smooth line drawings because the CRT beam
directly follows the line path.

● A raster system, in contrast, produces jagged lines that are plotted as discrete
end point sets.
Color CRT Monitors
Displays color pictures by using a combination of phosphorus that emit
different lights

By combining the emitted light a range of colors is generated

Two basic techniques for producing color display

1 Shadow –Mask

2 Beam-Penetration
BEAM-PENETRATION METHOD
Used with random- scan monitors.

Two layers of phosphor, usually RED and GREEN, are coated onto the inside of the CRT
screen, and the displayed color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates into
the phosphor layers.

A beam of slow electrons excites only the outer RED layer.

A beam of very fast electrons penetrates through the RED layer and excites the inner
GREEN layer.

At intermediate beam speeds, combinations of red and green light are emitted to show
two additional colors, ORANGE and YELLOW.

The speed of the electrons, and hence the screen color at any point, is controlled by the
beam-acceleration voltage.
BEAM-PENETRATION METHOD(contd.)

Advantage: Beam penetration has been an inexpensive way to produce color in

random-scan monitors,
Disadvantage: only four colors are possible, and the quality of pictures is not as
good as with other methods.
SHADOW-MASK METHODS
Shadow-mask methods are commonly used in raster scan systems (including color
TV) because they produce a much wider range of colors than the beam penetration
method.

A shadow-mask CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel position.

One phosphor dot emits a RED Light, another emits a GREEN light, and the third
emits a BLUE light.

This type of CRT has three electron guns, one for each color dot, and a
shadow-mask grid just behind the phosphor-coated screen.
SHADOW-MASK METHODS
Delta-Delta Shadow-Mask method, commonly used in color CRT systems.
The three electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the
shadow mask, which contains a series of holes aligned with the phosphor-dot
patterns.
When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate
a Dot Triangle, which appears as a small color spot on the screen.
The phosphor dots in the triangles are arranged so that each electron beam
can activate only its corresponding color dot when it passes through the
shadow mask.
SHADOW-MASK METHODS
2.In-Line arrangement in which the three electron guns, and the corresponding red-green-blue color dots on the
screen, are aligned along one scan line instead of in a triangular pattern.

This in-line arrangement of electron guns is easier to keep in alignment and is commonly used In high-resolution color
CRTs.
The color variations in a shadow-mask CRT by varying the intensity levels of the three electron beams.

By turning OFF the RED and GREEN guns, gets the color coming from the BLUE

phosphor.

Other combinations of beam intensities produce a small light spot for each pixel position, since our eyes tend
to merge the three colors into one composite.

The color depends on the amount of excitation of the red, green, and blue phosphors.

White (or gray) area is the result of activating all three dots with equal intensity.

Yellow is produced with the green and red dots only.

Magenta is produced with the blue and red dots.

Cyan shows up when blue and green are activated equally.

In some low-cost systems, the electron beam can only be set to on or off, limiting displays to Eight Colors.
Direct-View Storage Tubes

● Alternative method for maintaining screen image

● Store picture information inside the CRT instead of refreshing the screen
● A Direct-view storage tube stores the picture information as charge
distribution just behind phosphor coated screen
● Two electron guns are used
○ Primary-gun: -Used to store picture pattern
○ Flood-gun:- Maintains picture display
A DVST monitor has both disadvantages and advantages compared to the refresh CRT.

Advantages

1. Because no refreshing is needed.

2. Very complex pictures can be displayed at very high resolutions without flicker.

Disadvantages

1. DVST systems are that they ordinarily do not display color and that selected parts of a
picture cannot be erased.

2. To eliminate a picture section, the entire screen must be erased and the modified picture

redrawn.

3. The erasing and redrawing process can take several seconds for a complex picture.

4. For these reasons, storage displays have been largely replaced by raster systems.
FLAT-PANEL DISPLAYS
Although most graphics monitors are still constructed with CRTs, other technologies
are
emerging that may soon replace CRT monitors. The term flat-panel display refers to
a class of video devices that have
1. Reduced volume
2. Weight
3. Power requirements
compared to a CRT. A significant feature of it is that they are thinner than CRTs, and
can hang them on walls or wear them on our wrists.
Current uses for flat-panel displays include small TV monitors, calculators, pocket
video games, laptop computers, armrest viewing of movies on airlines, as
advertisement boards in elevators, and as graphics displays in applications requiring
rugged, portable monitors and pocket notepads.
Flat-panel displays into two categories: 1. Emissive displays 2. Non-Emissive
displays.
1. Emissive displays (or emitters): These devices that convert electrical energy into
light.
Examples: 1. Plasma panels.
2. Thin-film electroluminescent.
3. Light-Emitting Diodes (LED).
Flat CRTs have also been devised, in which electron beams arts accelerated parallel
to the screen, then deflected 90' to the screen. But flat CRTs have not proved to be
as successful as other emissive devices.
2. Non-emissive displays (or non-emitters): These device use optical effects to
convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns.
Example: 1. Liquid-Crystal Device (LCD)
Plasma Panels
Plasma panels also called gas-discharge displays
These are constructed by filling the region between two glass plates with a mixture of
gases that usually includes neon.
A series of vertical conducting ribbons is placed on one glass panel, and a set of
horizontal ribbons is built into the other glass panel .
Firing voltages applied to a pair of horizontal and vertical conductors cause the gas at
the intersection of the two conductors to break down into glowing plasma of electrons
and ions.
Disadvantage of plasma panels has been that they were strictly monochromatic devices,
but systems have been developed that are now capable of displaying color and
grayscale.
Thin-Film Electroluminescent:

Thin-film electroluminescent displays are similar in construction to a plasma panel.

The difference is that the region between the glass plates is filled with a phosphor,
such as zinc sulfide doped with manganese, instead of a gas.

When a sufficient high voltage is applied to a pair of crossing electrodes, the

phosphor becomes a conductor in the area of the intersection of the two electrodes.

Electrical energy is then absorbed by the manganese atoms, which then release the
energy as a spot of light similar to the glowing plasma effect in a plasma panel.

Disadvantage: These displays require more power than plasma panels, and good
color and gray scale displays are hard to achieve.
Liquid-Crystal Device (LCD):

These are commonly used in small systems, such as calculators and portable, laptop computers

These non-emissive devices produce a picture by passing polarized light from the surroundings or from an
internal light source through a liquid-crystal material that can be aligned to either block or transmit the light.

The term liquid crystal refers to the fact that these compounds have a crystalline arrangement of molecules,
yet they flow like a liquid.

Flat-panel displays commonly use nematic (threadlike) liquid-crystal compounds that tend to keep the long
axes of the rod-shaped molecules aligned.

A flat-panel display can then be constructed with a nematic liquid crystal.

Passive-Matrix LCD: Two glass plates, each containing a light polarizer at right angles to the-other plate,
sandwich the liquid-crystal material.
Active-Matrix Displays: Another method for constructing LCD is to place a
transistor at each pixel location, using thin-film transistor technology.

The transistors are used to control the voltage at pixel locations and to
prevent charge from gradually leaking out of the liquid-crystal cells.

These devices are called active-matrix displays.

Up to 24 bits per pixel are included in high-quality systems, which can require
several megabytes of storage for the frame buffer, depending on the resolution of
the system.

A system with 24 bits per pixel and a screen resolution of 1024 bv 1024 requires 3

Mega Bytes of storage for the frame buffer.

Bitmap: On a black-and-white system with one bit per pixel, the frame buffer is
commonly called a Bitmap.

Pixmap: Systems with multiple bits per pixel, the frame buffer are often
referred to as a Pixmap.

Refreshing on raster-scan displays is carried out at the rate of 60 to 80 frames

per second, although some systems are designed for higher refresh rates.
Sometimes, refresh rates are described in units of cycles per second, or Hertz
(Hz), where a cycle corresponds to one frame.
A refresh rate of 60 frames per second as simply 60 cycle per second or 60 Hz.

At the end of each scan line, the electron beam returns to the left side of the screen to

begin displacing the next scan line.

Horizontal Retrace: The return to the left of the screen, after refreshing each scan line, is
called the horizontal retrace of the electron beam.

Vertical Retrace: At the end of each frame (displayed in 1/80th to 1/60th of a second), the
electron beam returns (vertical retrace) to the top left comer of the screen to begin the
next frame.

On some raster-scan systems (and in TV sets), each frame is displayed in two passes using
an interlaced refresh procedure. In the first pass, the beam sweeps across every other scan
line from top to bottom. Then after the vertical retrace, the beam sweeps out the
remaining scan lines