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GOVT. DIGVIJAY AUTONOMOUS P.G.

COLLEGE RAJNANDGAON, CG
SESSION 2023-24
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
“INSTRUMENTTATION”

GUIDED BY:- SUBMITTED BY:-

SAGAR SINHA
ASSISTANT
PROFESSOR SUDAMA DUGGA
DR SURESH KUMAR SUNIDHI KANWAR
PATEL
SHWETA SAHU

SHIV SAHU

SOMENDRA VERMA

EXTERNAL INTERNAL
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CERTIFICATE
This is to certified that this
instrumentation has been prepared by
SAGAR SINHA,SUDAMA DUGGA,SUNIDHI
KANWAR,SHWETA SAHU,SHIV SAHU,
SOMENDRA VERMA students of M.Sc.
final year of Govt. Digvijay Autonomous
PG College Rajnandgaon (CG).he has
submitted the instrumentation on ZENER
DIODE AND PN DIODE during the
academic session 2023-24.

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
PHYSICS
DR.PRITI BALA TAUNK

CERTIFICATE
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This is to certified that this

instrumentation has been prepared by
SUDAMA DUGGA a student of M.Sc. final
year of Govt. Digvijay Autonomous PG
College Rajnandgaon CG.he has
submitted the project during the academic
session 2023-24.

CERTIFICATE
 4

This is to certified that this

instrumentation has been prepared by
SUDAMA DUGGA a student of M.Sc. final
year of Govt. Digvijay Autonomous PG
College Rajnandgaon CG.he has
submitted the project during the academic
session 2023-24.

CERTIFICATE
 5

This is to certified that this

instrumentation has been prepared by
SUDAMA DUGGA a student of M.Sc. final
year of Govt. Digvijay Autonomous PG
College Rajnandgaon CG.he has
submitted the project during the academic
session 2023-24.
 6

CERTIFICATE
This is to certified that this
instrumentation has been prepared by
SUDAMA DUGGA a student of M.Sc. final
year of Govt. Digvijay Autonomous PG
College Rajnandgaon CG.he has
submitted the project during the academic
session 2023-24.
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1. Object
2. Zener diode
3. Symbol of Zener diode
4. Contruction of Zener
diode
5. Working of Zener
diode
6. Circuit diagram
7. Specification of Zener
diode
8. Fault in kit
9. Repair in kit
10. Applications
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OBJECT:- To study about the given kit and detect

the fault & repair the kit .
Kit name and detail:- ZENER DIODE ( OMEGA
TYPE ETB-51.
A Zener diode is a type of PN junction diode that is
designed to conduct in both forward and reverse
directions. It has heavily doped regions and is
mainly used to conduct current in the reverse
direction. It starts conducting in the reverse
direction when the reverse voltage exceeds a
certain limit known as the reverse breakdown or
Zener breakdown voltage.
Unlike an ordinary diode, a Zener diode can and
specially designed to operate in the reverse
breakdown region
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Symbol of Zener Diode

The symbol of Zener diode resembles an ordinary
diode except for the change in a little bend at the
edges of the vertical line to make a shape that
resembles “Z” as shown in the given figure.

Construction of Zener Diode

The Zener diode is constructed in a few different

ways such as the diffused structure, diffused and
passivated structure, and alloy diffused structure.
Generally, we use the diffused structure of Zener
diode whose figure is given below.
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In this design, two N and P-type substrates are

diffused together. On both sides, a metallic layer is
used to form the cathode and anode terminals.
Silicon oxide SiO2 layer is used to cover the
junction regions and to prevent the contamination
of the junction.
The structure of passivated Zener diode has its
junction’s edges covered with a SiO2 layer. While
the structure of alloy diffused Zener diode has all
its junctions.
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Working of Zener Diode

The Zener diode can operate in both forward and

reverse bias. In forward bias, it acts as a normal
diode with nominal forward voltage drop and a
large current flow. While in reverse bias, it blocks
current flow until the applied voltage reaches the
Zener breakdown voltage. This region is known as
the Zener breakdown region and the Zener diode
is specifically designed to operate in this region.
The current starts to increase with an increase in
the applied voltage while the voltage across the
Zener remains the same.
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The Zener voltage of the diode depends on the

doping level which can be adjusted during the
manufacturing of the Zener diode. The sudden
increase in reverse current in a Zener diode is
due to either one or both of the following
effects.

Avalanche Breakdown or Effect

The avalanche breakdown can occur in both
normal as well as Zener diode when the reverse
voltage exceeds a certain limit. Due to the reverse
voltage, the depletion region at the PN junction
becomes wider and a potential difference
generates across the depletion region. There is a
small leakage current due to the flow of a small
number of minority carriers through the junction.
With an increase in the reverse voltage, the
minority carrier gets enough energy to accelerate
and starts to collide with the other atoms of the
depletion region resulting in the release of free
electrons. These free electrons collide with other
atoms and release more free electrons which
results in the flow of a huge current.
This mechanism is known as avalanche
breakdown and it is destructive for normal diode
as they cannot recover from this. But the Zener is
constructed with proper doping levels to perform in
this region. However, the avalanche breakdown
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does not provide a sharp voltage-current as does

a Zener breakdown.

Zener Breakdown or Effect

The Zener breakdown occurs in the Zener diodes
when a high reverse voltage is applied. Due to the
heavy doping concentration, the depletion region
has a narrow width. With an increase in the
reverse voltage, the depletion region becomes
wider forming a very strong electric field. Due to
the high electric field, minority carriers accelerate
and leaks through the depletion region and hits
other atoms to release more electrons that take
the form of a large reverse current.The Zener
breakdown is a safe method for Zener
diodeoperation and it is specifically designed to
operate inthis region. The voltage across the
Zener diode remains constant while the current
increases. Therefore, this region is used for
voltage regulation in many applications.

V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

The V-I characteristic curve shows the relation

between the current and the voltage across the
Zener diode. The given curve shows the operation
of the Zener diode in both forward bias and
reverse bias.
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In forward bias, when the applied voltage is lower

than the threshold voltage, the diode does not
allow current through it but only the small leakage
current. Once the applied voltage crosses the
threshold limit, the current increases suddenly
while the voltage remains constant. The
forwardbias operation in the Zener diode is the
same as in any normal diode.
In reverse bias, the diode does not allow current
(but only a small leakage current) until the voltage
reaches the Zener breakdown voltage. In this
region, the current through the diode flows in the
reverse direction. The value of the Zener voltage is
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determined by the doping concentration in the

diode.

Circuit Diagram
The following figure shows the circuit diagram for
connecting a Zener diode which is connected in
parallel to the load.

A voltage source is used whose voltage is higher

than the Zener voltage of the diode. Whereas a
resistor is used in series with the Zener diode and
a load as a current limiting resistor to maintain the
current.The total current depends on the
connected load. However, the voltage across the
load remains constant i.e. the Zener voltage. This
is why the Zener is used in various circuits to
regulate the voltage.

Specifications of Zener Diode

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The Zener diode is available with various

specifications and they are used for different
requirements. Therefore it is necessary to know
the basic specs of a Zener diode.

 Zener Voltage


The Zener voltage Vz is the reverse breakdown

voltage or the Zener breakdown voltage. It is the
reference voltage that appears across the Zener
diode in reverse biased. It can range from 2.4V to
200V.

Current

The rated Zener current is the maximum current

the diode can allow at the rated Zener voltage. It
can range from 200 uA to 200A. The minimum
current is the minimum current required for the
breakdown that ranges between 5 mA to 10 mA.

 Power Rating

This is the maximum rated power the diode can

tolerate. It is the product of Zener voltage and the
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current flowing through it. The power ratings of the

Zener diode can range between 400 mW and 5 W.

 Voltage Tolerance

The voltage tolerance is the % difference that may

occur in the said diode. Generally, the voltage
tolerance of a Zener diode is +- 5%.

 Zener Resistance

The Zener resistance is the resistance of the diode

in the ON state (Zener breakdown region). It is
evident from the IV characteristic curve where the
Curve is not completely vertical in the break
down region.

Fault in kit :

There were two faults in kit:

1.Ametre switch defect.
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2.Lose connection in the power suppy

Repair in kit:
1.Power supply has repaired.and some
connections has tighten.
2.Changed ammeter switch.
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Advantages
Here are some advantages of Zener diode
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 Zener diode protects from voltage spikes and

over-voltage.
 It is smaller in size.
 It can easily and efficiently stabilize the voltage.
 It can handle high voltages.
 It is cheaper and cost-effective.

Disadvantages

Here are some disadvantages of the Zener diode.

 It cannot handle a very large current.

 It provides a fixed output voltage that cannot be
changed.
 The Zener current depends on the load current.

Applications of Zener Diode

The Zener diode is used in various applications.
Here are some of the main applications of the
Zener diode.

As Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator or stabilizer is a circuit that

provides a stabilized and constant voltage even if
the source voltage fluctuates or spikes. It removes
or eliminates the fluctuations or voltage spikes that
may damage the sensitive load connected to it.
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A Zener is connected in parallel with the load to

provide regulated voltage while a series resistor is
used to maintain and limit the current flowing
through the diode. The load voltage is the same as
the Zener voltage VZ of the Zener diode.

 As Switch

Similar to a diode, its impedance changes with the

level of the applied voltage. Due to such transition
in impedance, it is used as a switch in certain
devices.

 Clipper Circuit
A clipper circuit is an electronic circuit that is used
to change the waveform or shape of a signal. It is
done to protect certain sensitive components from
over-voltage. A Zener diode is used in such
circuits to clip off the peak of certain signals.

 Reference Signal
As the Zenerprovide a constant voltage, it is used
as a reference signal for comparing voltage signal.

 Multimeter Protection

Multimeters are sensitive electronic devices that

are often connected in the wrong configuration to
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high voltage or high current circuits. In such cases,

a very high current flow through the meter can
damage it. Therefore, a Zener diode connected in
parallel is used to divert the excess current and
protect the device from damage.