Origin of life

Chemogeny – An overview of pre-biotic conditions and

events

Chemogeny refers to the chemical evolution processes that occurred during the
early history of Earth, leading to the formation of simple organic molecules and,
ultimately, the precursors of life. This field is central to understanding the origin of
life, as it focuses on the prebiotic conditions and events that enabled the transition
from non-living to living matter.

Key Components of Chemogeny

1. Prebiotic Earth Conditions:

Atmosphere: Early Earth's atmosphere was likely reducing, consisting of gases such
as methane (CH₄), ammonia (NH₃), hydrogen (H₂), and water vapor (H₂O). Oxygen
was largely absent.

Energy Sources: Abundant energy sources included ultraviolet (UV) radiation,

lightning, geothermal activity, and shock waves from meteorite impacts.

Hydrothermal Systems: Deep-sea hydrothermal vents provided a rich chemical

environment and stable conditions for reactions.

2. Chemical Building Blocks:

Abiotic Synthesis of Organic Molecules: Laboratory experiments (e.g., Miller-Urey

experiment) demonstrated that simple organic molecules, such as amino acids,
sugars, and nucleotides, could form under prebiotic conditions.

Role of Minerals: Minerals, such as clays, acted as catalysts to promote the

polymerization of simple molecules.

3. Polymerization:
Formation of polymers such as proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides
occurred through processes like dehydration synthesis. Surfaces like clay and ice
might have facilitated these reactions by concentrating molecules.

4. Formation of Protocells:

Membrane Formation: Lipids spontaneously formed bilayers or micelles, creating

compartments that could separate internal chemical reactions from the external
environment.

Metabolic Pathways: Simple metabolic networks may have emerged within

protocells, enabling energy transfer and molecular synthesis.

5. RNA World Hypothesis:

RNA is thought to have been the first self-replicating molecule due to its ability to
store genetic information and catalyze chemical reactions. This is considered a
critical step toward life.

6. Transition to Life:

Genetic Code and Enzymes: The development of a stable genetic code and
enzyme-driven metabolism marked the transition from chemical evolution to
biological evolution.

Natural Selection: Protocells capable of maintaining stability, replicating, and

adapting gained a selective advantage, setting the stage for the emergence of
cellular life.

Key Events in Chemogeny

1. Synthesis of Organic Molecules:

Experiments suggest that amino acids and nucleotides could form under conditions
mimicking early Earth.
2. Concentration and Polymerization:

Molecules became concentrated in environments like tidal pools, ice matrices, or

deep-sea vents, enabling their assembly into polymers.

3. Compartmentalization:

The encapsulation of molecules within lipid membranes created isolated

environments for biochemical reactions.

4. Emergence of Replication:

The appearance of self-replicating RNA set the stage for the development of more
complex biochemistry.

5. Co-evolution of Systems:

The interplay between metabolism, replication, and compartmentalization led to

increasingly complex systems, culminating in the first true cells.

Significance of Chemogeny

Understanding chemogeny provides insights into the origin of life and helps answer
fundamental questions about our existence. It also guides the search for life on other
planets by identifying the chemical and environmental conditions necessary for life to
emerge.

Experimental proofs to abiotic

origin of micro- and macro-molecules.
The abiotic origin of micro- and macro-molecules has been experimentally supported
by numerous studies. These experiments simulate prebiotic conditions to
demonstrate how life's building blocks could form and assemble without biological
intervention.

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1. Formation of Simple Organic Molecules (Micromolecules)

Miller-Urey Experiment (1953)

Setup: Stanley Miller and Harold Urey simulated early Earth's reducing atmosphere
using a mixture of gases (CH₄, NH₃, H₂, and H₂O) and provided energy through
electric sparks to mimic lightning.

Results: The experiment yielded amino acids, including glycine, alanine, and aspartic
acid.

Significance: Demonstrated that simple organic molecules could form under prebiotic
conditions.

Hydrothermal Vent Studies

Observation: Organic molecules like amino acids and hydrocarbons form under
high-temperature and high-pressure conditions similar to those found at deep-sea
hydrothermal vents.

Significance: Suggests vents may have been natural chemical factories on early
Earth.

Comet and Meteorite Studies

Organic molecules such as amino acids, purines, and pyrimidines have been found
on meteorites like the Murchison meteorite, proving their abiotic formation in space.

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2. Polymerization of Simple Molecules (Macromolecules)

Amino Acid Polymerization into Proteins

Experiments: Heating amino acids on mineral surfaces like clays or in the presence
of catalysts such as metal ions (e.g., iron and nickel) resulted in peptide bond
formation.

Significance: Demonstrated abiotic protein synthesis through dehydration reactions.

Nucleotide Polymerization into RNA/DNA

Surface Catalysis: Studies showed that nucleotides polymerize on surfaces like

montmorillonite clay to form short RNA-like chains.

Significance: Provided evidence for the RNA world hypothesis and abiotic formation
of genetic material.

Carbohydrate Formation

Formose Reaction: Formaldehyde (HCHO) can polymerize to form sugars like ribose
under alkaline conditions.

Significance: Demonstrates a pathway for sugar formation without biological

processes.

Lipid Self-Assembly

Fatty acids, synthesized through abiotic pathways, can spontaneously form micelles
or bilayer membranes in aqueous environments.

Significance: Shows how cell-like compartments (protocells) could form abiotically.

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3. Experimental Support for Protocell Formation

Encapsulation of Molecules in Vesicles

Experiments: Lipids mixed with water self-assemble into vesicles that can
encapsulate macromolecules like RNA or proteins.

Significance: Demonstrates a plausible step toward the first cell-like structures.

Protocell Metabolism Simulation

Vesicles with encapsulated catalytic molecules can support simple metabolic cycles,
such as the conversion of energy sources into usable chemical forms.

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4. Abiotic Origin of Coenzymes and Catalysts

Studies show that precursors of coenzymes, such as nicotinamide adenine

dinucleotide (NAD+), can form through abiotic processes.

Transition metal ions and mineral surfaces catalyze many of these prebiotic
reactions.

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5. Laboratory Synthesis of Complex Macromolecules

Synthetic RNA Systems: In controlled experiments, researchers synthesized long

RNA strands by continuously adding activated nucleotides.

Proteinoid Formation: Heating amino acids results in the formation of proteinoids

(protein-like polymers).

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Conclusion

Experimental evidence strongly supports the abiotic origin of micro- and

macromolecules under conditions mimicking early Earth. These findings provide a
foundation for understanding the chemical origins of life and reinforce the plausibility
of prebiotic synthesis as the first step toward biological evolution.

Current concept of chemogeny – RNA first hypothesis.

The RNA World Hypothesis is a widely accepted concept in modern chemogeny that
posits RNA as the first self-replicating and functional biomolecule to emerge during
the origin of life. This hypothesis suggests that RNA played a pivotal role in prebiotic
evolution by acting as both a genetic material and a catalyst before the advent of
DNA and proteins.

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Key Features of the RNA World Hypothesis

1. RNA as a Dual-Role Molecule:

Genetic Storage: RNA can store genetic information in its nucleotide sequence, akin
to DNA.

Catalytic Function: Ribozymes (RNA-based enzymes) can catalyze chemical

reactions, including their own replication and basic metabolic functions.

2. Precedence over DNA and Proteins:

RNA is hypothesized to have predated DNA, which later became the stable
repository of genetic information.

Proteins, being more versatile catalysts, evolved subsequently, but RNA initially
fulfilled catalytic and structural roles.

3. Emergence of Protocells:

Encapsulation of RNA in lipid membranes likely formed protocells, creating isolated

environments conducive to chemical evolution and eventual life.
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Supporting Evidence for the RNA World Hypothesis

1. Ribozymes:

RNA molecules like the ribosome's rRNA (a ribozyme) catalyze peptide bond
formation, critical for protein synthesis.

Laboratory experiments demonstrate that ribozymes can perform key reactions such
as splicing, cleavage, and ligation.

2. Abiotic Synthesis of RNA Components:

Simple prebiotic molecules (e.g., hydrogen cyanide and formaldehyde) can form
RNA nucleotides under simulated early Earth conditions.

Polymerization of nucleotides into short RNA strands is catalyzed by surfaces like

clay minerals.

3. Self-Replication:

Short RNA molecules can self-replicate via template-directed synthesis in

experimental conditions, albeit with limitations.

4. Modern Cellular Processes:

RNA retains central roles in modern biology (e.g., mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA), hinting
at its ancestral functions.

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Challenges to the RNA World Hypothesis

1. Formation of RNA:

Abiotic synthesis of ribose and nitrogenous bases, and their assembly into
nucleotides, remains difficult to demonstrate under plausible prebiotic conditions.

2. Stability of RNA:

RNA is chemically unstable compared to DNA, especially in aqueous environments,

raising questions about its long-term viability in prebiotic settings.

3. Error-Prone Replication:

RNA replication is prone to errors, which could hinder the evolution of functional
sequences.

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Current Advances and Modifications

1. Hybrid Hypotheses:

The "RNA-peptide world" hypothesis suggests that simple peptides co-evolved with
RNA, enhancing its stability and catalytic efficiency.

2. Pre-RNA World:

Some researchers propose that simpler molecules (e.g., PNA, TNA, or other
nucleotide analogs) might have preceded RNA and later evolved into RNA-based
systems.
3. Synthetic Biology:

Researchers have successfully synthesized self-replicating RNA systems in

laboratories, lending credence to the RNA-first model.

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Conclusion

The RNA World Hypothesis remains a cornerstone of chemogeny, providing a

plausible framework for the transition from non-living chemistry to life. While
challenges remain, ongoing experimental and theoretical research continues to
refine our understanding of RNA's role in the origin of life.

Biogeny – Cellular evolution based on proto-cell models

(coacervates and proteinoid micro-
spheres)

Biogeny, or the study of the origin of living organisms, focuses on the transition from
prebiotic chemistry to the formation of the first living cells. Cellular evolution in this
context explores proto-cell models, such as coacervates and proteinoid
microspheres, which provide insights into how simple, self-organizing systems could
have evolved into primitive cells.

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Proto-Cell Models

Proto-cells are hypothetical precursors to modern cells. They are defined as

self-organized, membrane-bound structures capable of compartmentalizing
biochemical reactions. Two widely studied proto-cell models are coacervates and
proteinoid microspheres.

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1. Coacervates

Definition:
Coacervates are droplets formed by the phase separation of complex organic
molecules, such as proteins, polysaccharides, or nucleic acids, in aqueous solutions.

Formation:

Created by mixing oppositely charged polymers (e.g., proteins and nucleic acids) in
water.

They spontaneously assemble into spherical structures due to hydrophobic and

electrostatic interactions.

Key Features:

Compartmentalization: Coacervates can encapsulate molecules, creating isolated

microenvironments.

Selective Permeability: Molecules can diffuse in and out of the coacervates,

mimicking primitive membranes.

Metabolic-like Activity: Enzymatic reactions occur within coacervates, as they can

concentrate substrates and catalysts.

Significance:
Coacervates demonstrate how simple molecules could self-assemble into structures
capable of rudimentary metabolic activities, providing a potential pathway to early
cellular life.

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2. Proteinoid Microspheres

Definition:
Proteinoid microspheres are spherical structures formed by the self-assembly of
proteinoids, which are polymerized amino acids.

Formation:
Created by heating a mixture of amino acids under dry conditions to form
proteinoids, which then self-assemble into microspheres when exposed to water.

Key Features:

Membrane-like Structures: Proteinoid microspheres form bilayer-like boundaries,

similar to modern cell membranes.

Encapsulation: They can trap small molecules and ions inside their structures.

Growth and Division: Microspheres can grow by absorbing additional proteinoids and
divide into smaller spheres.

Metabolic Reactions: Enzymatic-like activity can occur on the surfaces of proteinoid

microspheres.

Significance:
Proteinoid microspheres provide a plausible model for how primitive cells might have
formed, with membranes that compartmentalized and facilitated early biochemical
processes.

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Comparison of Coacervates and Proteinoid Microspheres

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Importance of Proto-Cell Models in Cellular Evolution

1. Compartmentalization:
Proto-cell models show how primitive systems could compartmentalize reactions,
protecting fragile molecules from the external environment.

2. Emergent Properties:
Both models exhibit properties akin to living cells, such as selective permeability,
chemical reactions, and growth, hinting at possible evolutionary pathways.

3. Bridge to Modern Cells:

These structures provide a framework for understanding how life transitioned from
simple molecular assemblies to complex, organized cellular systems.

4. Foundation for Evolution:

Proto-cells might have evolved through natural selection, favoring those with
improved stability, metabolic efficiency, and replicative capabilities.

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Limitations and Current Advances

Limitations:

Coacervates lack true membranes, reducing stability.

Proteinoid microspheres have limited complexity and functionality.

Current Advances:

Synthetic biology and studies on lipid vesicles (liposomes) are expanding our
understanding of proto-cell evolution.

Hybrid models, incorporating RNA, lipids, and peptides, provide more robust
pathways to life.

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Conclusion

Coacervates and proteinoid microspheres serve as plausible models for early

cellular evolution. They highlight mechanisms of self-organization,
compartmentalization, and primitive biochemical activity that could have led to the
emergence of life. These studies bridge the gap between chemical evolution
(chemogeny) and biological evolution (biogeny), shedding light on the origin of life.
Evolution of eukaryotes from pprokaryotes

The evolution of eukaryotes from prokaryotes marks one of the most significant
transitions in the history of life. This process, which unfolded over billions of years,
involved the acquisition of complex cellular structures and functions. Central to this
evolution is the endosymbiotic theory, which explains the origin of key eukaryotic
organelles.

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Key Steps in the Evolution of Eukaryotes

1. Loss of the Prokaryotic Cell Wall:

Early prokaryotes are believed to have lost their rigid cell walls, enabling greater
flexibility.

This allowed the cell membrane to expand and fold inwards, leading to the formation
of internal membranes and compartments, including the nucleus.

2. Formation of a Cytoskeleton:

A dynamic cytoskeleton composed of actin and tubulin evolved, allowing for

structural support, intracellular transport, and changes in cell shape.

Enabled processes like phagocytosis, where the cell could engulf particles or other
cells.

3. Development of the Nucleus:

Infoldings of the plasma membrane around the DNA created a double-membraned

nuclear envelope.

This separation allowed for more efficient regulation of transcription and translation,
a hallmark of eukaryotic cells.
4. Endosymbiosis:

The endosymbiotic theory, proposed by Lynn Margulis, explains how mitochondria

and chloroplasts originated from free-living prokaryotes:

Mitochondria: An ancestral eukaryote engulfed an aerobic alpha-proteobacterium,

which became a symbiotic organelle for energy production.

Chloroplasts: In photosynthetic eukaryotes, a second endosymbiotic event occurred,

where the cell engulfed a photosynthetic cyanobacterium.

Evidence for endosymbiosis includes:

Double membranes surrounding these organelles.

Their own circular DNA and ribosomes, similar to those of prokaryotes.

Division by binary fission, independent of the host cell.

5. Evolution of Endomembrane Systems:

Organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus developed from
membrane invaginations.

Enabled compartmentalization of metabolic processes, improving efficiency.

6. Linear Chromosomes and Mitosis:

Eukaryotes evolved linear chromosomes packaged with histones and developed the
mitotic spindle for organized cell division.

7. Multicellularity:

Eukaryotic cells began forming colonies, leading to specialization of cells and the
evolution of multicellular organisms.
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Evidence Supporting the Evolution of Eukaryotes

1. Genetic Similarities:

Mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA are similar to bacterial genomes, supporting the
endosymbiotic origin.

2. Biochemical Pathways:

Enzymes and metabolic pathways in mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar to

their prokaryotic counterparts.

3. Comparative Morphology:

Structural similarities between some extant prokaryotes and eukaryotic organelles

(e.g., cyanobacteria and chloroplasts).

4. Phylogenetic Studies:

Genetic analyses suggest eukaryotes share a common ancestor with archaea,

particularly in genes related to information processing (e.g., replication,
transcription).

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Stages of Eukaryotic Evolution

1. Last Eukaryotic Common Ancestor (LECA):

LECA had a nucleus, mitochondria, cytoskeleton, and internal membrane systems.

Likely evolved around 1.8–2 billion years ago.

2. Diversification of Eukaryotes:

Major lineages such as plants, animals, fungi, and protists evolved through further
symbiotic events, gene transfers, and environmental adaptations.

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Conclusion

The evolution of eukaryotes from prokaryotes was a gradual, stepwise process

driven by structural innovations, metabolic adaptations, and symbiotic relationships.
The transition to eukaryotic complexity laid the foundation for the emergence of
multicellular life and the vast diversity of life forms we see today.