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Cambridge IGCSE

Physics
Revision Guide 2024

Unit 2

Mohammed Ali
[Physics with Mo Ali]

Cambridge IGCSE Physics Revision Guide by Mo Ali – Unit 2

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Kinetic Particle Model of Matter
1 Know the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases
2 Know the terms for the changes in state between solids, liquids and gases (gas to solid and solid to gas transfers are
not required)
3 Describe the particle structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of the arrangement, separation and motion of the
particles, and represent these states using simple particle diagrams
4 Know that the forces and distances between particles (atoms, molecules, ions and electrons) and the motion of the
particles affects the properties of solids, liquids and gases
5 Describe an increase in temperature of an object in terms of an increase in the average kinetic energies of all of the
particles in the object
6 Describe the relationship between the motion of particles and temperature, including the idea that there is a lowest
possible temperature (−273 °C), known as absolute zero, where the particles have least kinetic energy
7 Convert temperatures between kelvin and degrees Celsius; recall and use the equation T (in K) = θ (in °C) + 273
8 Describe melting and boiling in terms of energy input without a change in temperature
9 Know the melting and boiling temperatures for water at standard atmospheric pressure
10 Describe condensation and solidification in terms of particles
11 Describe evaporation in terms of the escape of more energetic particles from the surface of a liquid
12 Know that evaporation causes cooling of a liquid
13 Describe the differences between boiling and evaporation
14 Describe how temperature, surface area and air movement over a surface affect evaporation
15 Explain the cooling of an object in contact with an evaporating liquid

States of Matter
Solid Liquids Gases
Shape and Volume Fixed shape and a fixed volume Fixed volume but not a fixed No fixed shape nor volume
shape
Diagram

Spacing and Molecules have very small Molecules have small spacing Molecules are all far apart with
Arrangement spacing between them. between them. Molecules are very large spacing between
Molecules have regular randomly arranged (no fixed them. There is no arrangement.
arrangement. pattern).
Motion Molecules vibrate about a fixed Molecules slide over each other Molecules move very fast, free
position. randomly. and randomly
Attractive Forces Very strong bonds between the Strong bonds between the Very weak bonds between the
(Bonds) molecules. molecules molecules

Defining Temperature: Average Kinetic Energy of the molecules in a substance (Units: ℃, K)

If the temperature of an object increases, the molecules move faster. If temperature decreases, the molecules move
slower.
Defining Absolute Zero: the lowest possible temperature at which particles have the least kinetic energy (-273℃)
Changing from ℃ to K: 𝑻 (𝒊𝒏 𝑲) = 𝜽 (𝒊𝒏 ℃) + 𝟐𝟕𝟑

Cambridge IGCSE Physics Revision Guide by Mo Ali – Unit 2

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Changes in State

melting boiling

SOLID LIQUID GAS

solidification/freezing condensing

Melting and freezing happen at the same temperature called the melting
point. Melting point of ice is 0℃.
During melting and boiling the molecules gain heat energy to weaken or
break the bond between the molecules and move them farther apart. The
molecules do NOT gain kinetic energy, so the temperature remains
constant.
Boiling and condensing happen at the same temperature called the
boiling point. Boiling point of water is 100℃.
During condensation and freezing the molecules lose heat energy to
strength the bonds between the molecules and move them closer together.
The molecules do NOT lose kinetic energy, so the temperature remains
constant.
Defining Evaporation: the most energetic molecules on the surface of the liquid break their bonds and escape
Cooling Effect of Evaporation: less energetic molecules remain during evaporation, so the temperature of the
remaining liquid decreases.
*Note: if this liquid is on an object, or body, it will absorb heat from the object cooling it down as well.
Increasing the rate of evaporation:
1. Increasing temperature: the molecules have more energy
2. Increasing surface area: more molecules are on the surface that can escape
3. Air movement above surface: wind or air currents push molecules away from liquid surface
Differences between boiling and evaporation
Boiling Evaporation
Bubbles are observed during boiling. No bubbles observed during evaporation.
Occurs only at the boiling point and requires Occurs at any temperature below boiling and does
constant heating. not require heating.
All the molecules throughout the liquid boil and Only the most energetic molecules on the surface of
escape. the liquid escape.
The temperature of the liquid remains constant The temperature of the remaining liquid decreases.
throughout.

Cambridge IGCSE Physics Revision Guide by Mo Ali – Unit 2

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From June 2023 Paper 42 Question 4

From June 2023 Paper 22

From June 2023 Paper 21

From June 2022 Paper 41 Question 3

Cambridge IGCSE Physics Revision Guide by Mo Ali – Unit 2

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Thermal Expansion and Gases
1 Describe, qualitatively, the thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases at constant pressure
2 Describe some of the everyday applications and consequences of thermal expansion
3 Explain, in terms of the motion and arrangement of particles, the relative order of magnitudes of the expansion of
solids, liquids and gases as their temperatures rise
4 Describe the pressure and the changes in pressure of a gas in terms of the motion of its particles and their collisions
with a surface
5 Know that the random motion of microscopic particles in a suspension is evidence for the kinetic particle model of
matter
6 Describe and explain this motion (sometimes known as Brownian motion) in terms of random collisions between the
microscopic particles in a suspension and the particles of the gas or liquid
7 Describe the pressure and the changes in pressure of a gas in terms of the forces exerted by particles colliding with
surfaces, creating a force per unit area
8 Know that microscopic particles may be moved by collisions with light fastmoving molecules and correctly use the
terms atoms or molecules as distinct from microscopic particles
9 Describe qualitatively, in terms of particles, the effect on the pressure of a fixed mass of gas of:
a. a change of temperature at constant volume
b. a change of volume at constant temperature
10 Recall and use the equation pV = constant for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, including a graphical
representation of this relationship

Thermal Expansion
Defining Thermal Expansion: increase in volume of a substance when its temperature increases (opposite of
expansion is contraction, decrease in volume when temperature decreases).
Explaining Thermal Expansion: when the temperature increases, the molecules move faster and farther apart
(spacing between molecules increases)
Properties that affect the amount of thermal expansion:
1. State, gases expand more than liquids, liquids expand more than solids, because gases have weaker bonds than
liquids, and liquids weaker than solids.
2. Temperature, the higher the temperature the more a substance expands.
3. Initial volume, the higher the volume the more a substance expands.
Applications of Thermal Expansion:
1. Thermometers use liquid expansion to show temperature
2. Fitting rings over rods (rings over wheels), heating iron rings make them expand so they can fit on wheels
3. Bimetallic strips are made of two different solid strips stuck together. When heat one expands more than the
other so the strip bends. Used in thermostats and old fire alarms.
Consequences of Thermal Expansion:
1. Railway tracks can deform (buckle) at very high temperatures. Solved by leaving small gaps between sections
of a railway track.
2. Bridges and roads can deform and fracture at very high temperatures. Solved by leaving small gaps between
sections of bridges.
3. Hanging electric cables can expand if it gets too hot and touch cars on the road. They can also contract during
cold seasons and tear if they contract too much.

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Brownian Motion
Describing Brownian Motion: The random and irregular motion of smoke particles (pollen grains) in air (water).
Explaining Brownian Motion: Due to the random collisions of the air molecules (water molecules) with the smoke
particles (pollen grains) from all directions.

Gas Pressure
Explaining how gas particles apply pressure: Gas particles move freely, colliding with the walls of the container,
experiencing a change in momentum over time, which applies force over the area of the walls.
Effect of Temperature on Gas Pressure (constant volume)
Describe: Temperature and pressure of a gas, in a closed container, are directly proportional.
Explain, in terms of molecules: Gas molecules move faster, colliding harder and more frequently with the walls of
the container.
Effect of Volume on Gas Pressure (constant temperature)
Describe: Volume and pressure of a gas, at a constant temperature, are inversely proportional.
Explain, in terms of molecules: Spacing between gas molecules decreases, so they collide more frequently with the
walls of the container.
Calculate: 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 or 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐

Cambridge IGCSE Physics Revision Guide by Mo Ali – Unit 2

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From June 2023 Paper 42 Question 4

From June 2023 Paper 43 Question 3

From June 2023 Paper 21

Cambridge IGCSE Physics Revision Guide by Mo Ali – Unit 2

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Specific Heat Capacity
1 Know that a rise in the temperature of an object increases its internal energy
2 Define specific heat capacity as the energy required per unit mass per unit temperature increase; recall and use the
equation c = ∆E/ m∆θ
3 Describe experiments to measure the specific heat capacity of a solid and liquid

Define Internal Energy: total kinetic energy of the molecules in a substance

Define Specific Heat Capacity: Energy needed to raise the temperature of a unit mass (1kg) by a unit temperature
(1℃).
∆𝑬
Calculating Specific Heat Capacity (c): 𝒄 = 𝒎∆𝑻 (J/kg℃) or just remember ∆𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄∆𝑻 (J)

Experiment to measure c of a solid object or liquid

Measure the:
1. Mass of the object or liquid (𝒎) using a balance
2. Initial temperature of the iron (𝑻𝟏 ) using a thermometer
3. Power of the heater (𝑷) using P=VI (or is given)
4. Final temperature of the iron (𝑻𝟐 )
5. Time taken to cause the change in temperature (𝒕) using a stopwatch
𝑷𝒕
6. Calculate c using 𝒄 = 𝒎(𝑻
𝟐 −𝑻𝟏 )

*Note: (just remember that to get the mass of a liquid, you need the difference between the mass of the empty
container and the mass of the container with the liquid)

From June 2023 Paper 43 Question 3

Cambridge IGCSE Physics Revision Guide by Mo Ali – Unit 2

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From June 2023 Paper 42 Question 5

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Transfer of Thermal Energy
A Conduction
1 Describe experiments to demonstrate the properties of good thermal conductors and bad thermal conductors (thermal
insulators
2 Describe thermal conduction in all solids in terms of atomic or molecular lattice vibrations and also in terms of the
movement of free (delocalised) electrons in metallic conductors
3 Describe, in terms of particles, why thermal conduction is bad in gases and most liquids
4 Know that there are many solids that conduct thermal energy better than thermal insulators but do so less well than
good thermal conductors
B Convection
1 Know that convection is an important method of thermal energy transfer in liquids and gases
2 Explain convection in liquids and gases in terms of density changes and describe experiments to illustrate
convection
C Radiation
1 Know that thermal radiation is infrared radiation and that all objects emit this radiation
2 Know that thermal energy transfer by thermal radiation does not require a medium
3 Describe the effect of surface colour (black or white) and texture (dull or shiny) on the emission, absorption and
reflection of infrared radiation
4 Know that for an object to be at a constant temperature it needs to transfer energy away from the object at the same
rate that it receives energy
5 Know what happens to an object if the rate at which it receives energy is less or more than the rate at which it
transfers energy away from the object
6 Describe experiments to distinguish between good and bad emitters of infrared radiation
7 Describe experiments to distinguish between good and bad absorbers of infrared radiation
8 Describe how the rate of emission of radiation depends on the surface temperature and surface area of an object
D Consequences of thermal energy transfer
1 Explain some of the basic everyday applications and consequences of conduction, convection and radiation,
including:
a. heating objects such as kitchen pans
b. heating a room by convection
2 Explain some of the complex applications and consequences of conduction, convection and radiation where more
than one type of thermal energy transfer is significant, including:
a. a fire burning wood or coal
b. a radiator in a car

Conduction
Describe Conduction (in non-metals): When heated, the atoms (molecular lattice) vibrate and transfers heat to
nearby atoms (lattices).
Describe Conduction (in metals): When heated, the atoms (molecular lattice) vibrate and transfers heat to nearby
atoms (lattices) AND free electrons move to transfer heat to distant atoms (lattices).
Good conductors of heat: copper, iron, steel, aluminium (all metals)
Poor conductors of heat (good insulators): plastic, rubber, wood, glass, cloth, wool. Liquids and gases are poor
conductors of thermal energy because their molecules are farther apart.

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Experiment to demonstrate good and poor conductors of heat
1. Stick balls to both rods using wax
2. Heat the rods from one at the same rate
3. The better conductor will melt the wax faster so more balls will fall.
4. The worse conductor will melt the wax slower so less balls will fall.

Convection
Describing and explaining convection: Hot liquids (or gases) rise, and cold liquids (or gases) sink, because hot
liquids (and gases) are less dense than cold liquids (and gases).
Why are hot liquids/gases less dense than cold? Because when liquids/gases are heated their volume increases,
without a change in mass, so their density decreases.

Radiation
What is radiation? Thermal energy transferred using infrared waves (electromagnetic waves). They can travel
through a vacuum, travel in straight lines and in all directions.
What affects the rate of emission or radiation?
1. Surface area, as area increases the rate of emission of infrared waves increases
2. Surface temperature, as the temperature increases the rate of emission of infrared waves increases
How do colours affect the absorption, emission and reflection of radiation from a surface?
DULL BLACK colours are the BEST absorbers and emitters (WORST reflectors) of infrared radiation.
SHINY WHITE colours are the WORST absorbers and emitters (BEST reflectors) of infrared radiation. This includes
shiny silver.
Experiment to distinguish between good and bad emitters of
infrared radiation
1. Put hot water into the container.
2. Place a thermometer in front of each surface.
3. The thermometer that increases the fastest is the best
emitter of radiation (dull black surface).
4. The thermometer that increases the slowest is the worst
emitter of radiation (shiny white surface).

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Experiment to distinguish between good and bad absorbers of infrared radiation
1. Get four identical metal cans and paint each one a different color.
2. Fill each can with equal volumes of water at the same temperature and put
a thermometer in each can.
3. Place a heater in the middle of the cans. Make sure that the distance
between each can and the heater is equal for a fair comparison.
4. Turn on the heater and measure the temperature of each can at equal time
intervals.
5. The can with the fastest rate of temperature increase is the best absorber
(dull black can).
6. The can with the slowest rate of temperature increase is the worst absorber
(shiny white can).
Effect of radiation emission and absorption on the temperature of an object
Energy transferred away is equal to energy received Temperature stays constant

Energy transferred away is less than energy received Temperature increases

Energy transferred away is more than energy received Temperature decreases

Common everyday examples of multiple thermal energy transfers

Cambridge IGCSE Physics Revision Guide by Mo Ali – Unit 2

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From June 2023 Paper 42 Question 5

From November 2023 Paper 41 Question 2

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From June 2022 Paper 41 Question 6

Cambridge IGCSE Physics Revision Guide by Mo Ali – Unit 2