Solar Energy 247 (2022) 214–227

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Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Properties analysis of self-luminous cement-based materials with different

colors and their visual comfort evaluation on pavement
Wentong Wang a, b, Aimin Sha a, c, *, Augusto Cannone Falchetto b, Di Wang b, Wei Jiang a, c,
Xinzhou Li a
a
School of Highway, Chang’an University, South 2nd Ring Road Middle Section, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710064, China
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Aalto University Rakentajanaukio 4, 02150 Espoo, Finland
c
Key Laboratory for Special Area Highway Engineering of Ministry of Education, Chang’an University, South 2nd Ring Road Middle Section, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710064,
China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The use of distinctive and decorative self-luminous pavements for motorized traffic has dramatically increased
Cement concrete road worldwide. In this research effort, the composition and optical characteristics of four colors (sky-blue, blue-
Self-luminous pavement green, yellow-green, and red) of luminescent powder (LP) were characterized by chemical and physical
Luminous characteristics
means. Next, the mechanical, luminescent, and hydration characteristics of four colors of self-luminous cement-
Chemo-mechanical properties
Visual comfort
based materials (with and without reflective powder) were tested by compressive and flexural strength, fluo­
Driving safety distance rescence brightness, hydration heat, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy
(FTIR). The results show that the red and yellow-green specimens have the best compressive and flexural
strength, and the addition of reflective powder (RP) partially weakens the mechanical strength of self-luminous
cement-based materials (SLCBM) with a reduction of 30.75% and 40.07% at 28 d. The hydrolytic properties of
red LP will lead to deep chromaticity attenuation of red SLCBM samples. Additionally, this study puts forward a
reasonable method to evaluate the driving comfort of different color self-luminous pavement and quantitatively
analyzes the pupil changes of drivers based on the eye movement test of human–computer interaction. The
experimental results show that, due to the significant visual contrast between the yellow-green self-luminous
road and target obstacles and the brightness enhancement function of the luminous road, the driving safety
distance and visual comfort of the drivers on the yellow-green self-luminous road are the longest and optimum,
respectively.

1. Introduction necessity. Considering the characteristics and cost effectiveness of road

lighting mode, using new pavement materials with lighting functions
In the 21st century, the scale of ancillary lighting facilities along the and low cost to replace street lamps for roads has proved promising
road has gradually expanded due to the continuous increase in the (Ekambaram and Maaza, 2005; Ekambaram et al., 2005). It is beneficial
number of new and reconstructed roads. Road lighting, while improving to reduce the consumption of electric energy, increase the use efficiency
the image of cities and the urban environment, is inevitably associated of land, save resources and promote the economy. This approach can
with an enormous consumption of energy (Akindipe et al., 2022). Ac­ lead to significant energy savings, emission reductions, productivity,
cording to statistics, among the total urban energy consumption, light­ and overall economic advantages.
ing energy can account for 10 %− 12.9 % of the total national power The number of self-luminous pavements used for traffic, especially
generation in China. Meanwhile, road lighting electricity consumption motor vehicle lanes, has increased dramatically worldwide in the past
accounts for about 20 %− 30 % of lighting energy demand, while the 20 years. This type of pavement includes cement concrete road, asphalt
utilization rate of electric energy is relatively low, being less than 65 % road covered with cement paste, and resin functional roads, which can
(Beccali et al., 2018). Therefore, searching for new solutions to reduce absorb solar energy independently in the daytime, and actively emit
electrical energy consumption in the pavement industry becomes a light at night to provide guidance for vehicles (Praticò et al., 2018; van

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Sha).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2022.10.013
Received 13 August 2022; Received in revised form 4 October 2022; Accepted 6 October 2022
Available online 24 October 2022
0038-092X/© 2022 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
W. Wang et al. Solar Energy 247 (2022) 214–227

der Merwe Steyn, 2008; Voravanicha et al., 2019). The self-luminous comfort studies on self-luminous pavements, whether using field studies
pavement can be paved in whole or coated with local markings to or indoor simulation tests. Before the large-scale application of self-
achieve a variety of functions, such as improving the marking and luminous pavement, it is meaningful and necessary to study the syn­
legibility of the road space, improving the safety of driving, promoting ergy between humans and roads.
the visual difference, and enhancing the aesthetics of the landscape. At present, the road driving comfort evaluation for drivers is mainly
In the research of self-luminous pavement, the functionality of lu­ carried out through road field investigation and driving software
minous materials is generally considered the first issue. Wang and He simulation. These two methods require specific ways of visual tracking
studied that the luminous intensity of cement self-luminous materials to obtain human eye data for quantitative analysis (Cvok et al., 2021;
can reach 8.2 cd/m2, and the afterglow time can last for 8 h, meeting the Wagiman et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2020a; Zhigang et al., 2014). For
vision requirements of drivers at night (Gao et al., 2018; He et al., 2019; example, Li studied the effects of different non-driving-related-task
Wang et al., 2020b; Wang et al., 2021). Praticò mixed epoxy resin and display modes on drivers’ eye-movement patterns during take-over in
luminescent powder (LP) to prepare a self-luminous coating on the road, an automated vehicle and quantitatively analyzed the impact degree
which can emit yellow-green light (Praticò et al., 2018). Voravanicha through pupil diameter and blink rate (Li et al., 2020). Several follow up
demonstrated the potential to use phosphorescent materials with natu­ studies validated the use of eye tracking technology as a promising
ral rubber as pavement materials (Voravanicha et al., 2019). Kousis has method to evaluate the drivers’ visual comfort in a laboratory envi­
developed a new type of pavement using fluorescent materials, which ronment. Darga used eye tracking to detect the roadside traffic signs and
has the effect of reducing the temperature of the pavement while advertisements; the results indicated that the driver’s age is not asso­
emitting light autonomously (Chiatti et al., 2021; Kousis et al., 2020). ciated with the number of roadside objects (Topolšek et al., 2016).
However, it should be noted that no matter which road glowing form is Meanwhile, Ma studied the efficacy of improved traffic signs and
adopted (cement, resin, and rubber), yellow-green luminescent mate­ markings based on driving simulation and eye tracking system (Ma and
rials are generally used as the light-emitting medium, so the corre­ Yan, 2021). Anton used an eye tracker to capture the change of visual
sponding road glow color is mainly yellow-green (Kamal and Bas, 2021; attention and speed of pedestrians and cyclists on the shared Road
Sha et al., 2021). Such selection mainly accounts for the cost and lu­ (Pashkevich et al., 2022). When studying the influence of road changes
minous efficiency of raw materials (Gao et al., 2018; Kamal and Bas, on drivers’ behavior habits, researchers often use an eye tracker to track
2021; Xu et al., 2021). Considering the preparation process, optical drivers’ eye data through human–computer interaction test mode and
characteristics and visual perception of the material, blue, red, and obtain objective comfort evaluation through data analysis. Therefore,
green have been applied to the road surface at present (Autelitano and when considering the influence of self-luminous road color on drivers’
Giuliani, 2019; Hong et al., 2022; Senevirathne et al., 2021; Sha et al., comfort, we can use simulated driving in combination with drivers’ eye-
2017; Wiese et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2019), as shown in Table 1. How­ related data to evaluate their comfort. In this paper, for the first time, the
ever, as a new type of pavement with a luminous function, the con­ performance of different colors of SLCBM is compared. In addition, the
struction cost and performance need to be viewed dialectically visual comfort of drivers by self-luminous pavement color is quantita­
(Ekambaram and Maaza, 2005; Ekambaram et al., 2005). Therefore, tively evaluated, which plays an important role in the application and
optimizing its performance within a reasonable cost range is essential. promotion of self-luminous roads. To our best knowledge, this is the first
Moreover, colored pavement is usually not regarded as a sign or road study to report the optical properties of different colored self-luminous
marking, so it has no legal status and is not subject to chromaticity re­ pavement materials and evaluates the visual comfort of driver driving
quirements. Inevitably, in addition to ensuring its luminous perfor­ on self-luminous roads using a human–machine interaction approach.
mance, scientific and systematic research should also be carried out to
select self-luminous pavement color before the large-scale application of 2. Objectives
self-luminous pavement.
As a new type of functional pavement, whether the self-luminous In order to comprehensively evaluate the luminous and mechanical
pavement can adapt to the visual cognition and habits of drivers and properties of SLCBM with different colors and investigate the visual
passengers is also a crucial factor to be considered. Therefore, in addi­ comfort of drivers on self-luminous pavements, this paper carries out
tion to ensuring the luminous and mechanical properties of pavement research in two directions:
materials, it is also necessary for researchers to study whether the lu­
minous color of self-luminous pavement can meet the comfort of human (1) The hydration and luminescent properties of yellow-green, blue-
vision. Up to the present, there is no precedent for conducting driving green, sky-blue, and red self-luminescent pavement materials
were studied from the micro and macro perspectives using
compressive and flexural strength, XRD, luminescent property,
Table 1 hydration heat, and FTIR tests.
Different colored luminous materials applied to road surface. (2) From the perspective of the coordination of road luminous color
Road surface Road type Literature and driving safety, the DAX Lux brightness simulation software
color and twinmotion 3D real-time rendering software were used to
Blue Road marking made with glow-in- Turnpenny and Crawford, establish night road simulated driving videos with four different
the-dark paint. 2014 (Turnpenny and glowing colors. The eye movement test of human–computer
Crawford, 2014) interaction was designed to collect the eye behavior changes and
Yellow-green (1) Luminescent paint on Rural and (1) Bacero et al., 2014 ( derived indicators of volunteers when simulating driving
Unilluminated Roads. Bacero et al., 2015)
behavior, such as pupil diameter change rate and relative safe
(2) Use of persistent phosphors for (2) Botterman and Smet,
glow-in-the-dark road marks. 2015 (Botterman and distance (RSD), to complete the driver’s visual comfort evalua­
(3) Strontium aluminate/polymer Smet, 2015) tion on the roads with different self-luminous colors. For conve­
composite samples were attached to (3) Mishra et al., 2009 ( nience, the research approach is illustrated in Fig. 1.
the surface of asphalt slabs. Mishra et al., 2009)
Yellow, red Photoluminescent materials for Bullough et al., 2014 (
and green, signage, marking and delineation Bullough et al., 2014) 3. Materials and methods
orange applications in work zones.
Red, green Asphalt surface. Federico Autelitano, 2019 3.1. Raw luminescent powder materials and characterization
and blue (Autelitano and Giuliani,
2019)
The original white cement used in this research was a Portland 42.5

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Fig. 1. Research approach.

cement; the basic physical composition of white cement and reflective

powder (RP) are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Table 3
The physical composition of RP.
Since the color, composition, and properties of LP are closely related,
the elemental composition, compound content, and fluorescence char­ Refractive index Average particle size Chemical Composition/%
(um)
acteristics of sky-blue, yellow-green, red, and blue-green LP are char­ SiO2 Na2O CaO MgO
acterized. The results are shown in Figs. 2-5. 1.98 150 70.10 14.23 9.75 3.97
The element contents of the four-color LPs obtained by the XRF test
are shown in Fig. 2. It can be seen visually that LPs of different colors
have their characteristic elements. Obviously, the content of Sr in sky-
blue and yellow-green LP is the highest; the presence of Sr in yellow-
green LP is even more than 49 %. Meanwhile, the highest element in
the blue-green LP is Al, accounting for more than half of the total ele­
ments, reaching 59 %. In contrast, the elements in the red LP are the
most complex; the content of Si is the highest, accounting for about half,
followed by S, reaching 25 %. The type and content of elements affect
the composition and reaction law of LP and then determine the chemical
properties of compounds (Rojas-Hernandez et al., 2018). It should be
stressed that the four LPs contain the rare earth element Eu, which in­
dicates that, regardless of the glow color of the LP, the luminescent main
body of the LP mainly displays the banded spectral characteristics of
Eu+. In other words, when the divalent Eu+ is in the excited state, the
electronic transition in the crystal field produces the luminescent phe­
nomenon. However, the glow color of LP is mainly determined by the
superposition of the color of matrix and activator (Huang and Lin, 2017;
Lü,2005; Lü et al., 2007; Rojas-Hernandez et al., 2016; Wan et al., 2014;
Wu et al., 2011; Xiao et al., 2010).
The XRD patterns of different colors of LP are shown in Fig. 3. Sky-
blue LP is mainly composed of Sr2MgSi2O7:Eu2+, Dy3+, which is a
long afterglow material of silicate system. This material makes up for the
Fig. 2. Element content results of LPs.

Table 2
poor water resistance of the aluminate system, and the afterglow
The physical composition of white Portland cement.
property is better than that of the aluminate system on the whole (Jun
Whiteness Density Initial Final Flexural Compressive
et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2022b). The phase composition of yellow-green
(g/ setting time setting strength strength
cm3) (h) time(h) (MPa) (MPa) LP is SrAl2O4:Eu2+, Dy3+, and the blue-green main components are
Sr4Al14O25:Eu2+, Dy3+. They are aluminate luminescent materials
3 28 3d 28 d
d d
widely used in various industries due to their high luminous efficiency,
excellent afterglow property, good oxidation resistance, and radiation
89 3.075 3 3.67 5 7.5 28 46
resistance (Wu et al., 2021; Yegane et al., 2022). The main component of

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The luminous intensity and afterglow time of four colors of LPs are
shown in Fig. 4. It can be clearly seen that LPs of different colors have
significantly different luminous brightness and better afterglow time.
Specifically, the yellow-green LP has the largest luminous intensity and
afterglow time, reaching 6 h. The second is the Blue-green and the sky-
blue LP, whose initial fluorescent intensity can reach 0.22 cd/m2 and
0.19 cd/m2; meanwhile, the blue-green phosphor has an excellent
afterglow time (more than 10 h). However, the red LP has the minimum
fluorescence intensity and afterglow time, which is less than 20 min.
As shown in Fig. 5, it can be found that the fluorescence spectra of
different LPs all have an optimal peak point, but the emission peak point
and intensity of different phosphors are different. Specific analysis
shows that the best spectral positions of blue-green and sky-blue among
the four LPs are between 460 and 480 nm, and the maximum peaks are
8.4 × 105 and 9.6 × 105, respectively, while the yellow-green peak is at
519 nm with the peak value is 1.4 × 106, the maximum peak wavelength
is 640 nm of the red phosphor, but the peak strength of the material is
only 230. A possible explanation might be that different light colors
Fig. 3. XRD analysis of different color of LP. absorb ultraviolet rays at different frequencies, resulting in an optimal
emission wavelength for each color (Kim et al., 2019). By analyzing the
peaks of different colors LPs, it can be found that the intensity order of
the emission spectrum of the LP under the same excitation time is yel­
low-green > sky-blue > blue-green > red, which is consistent with the
results of the emission intensity of the LP.

3.2. Sample preparation and testing methods

3.2.1. Sample preparation

The LPs of different colors were mixed with RP and white cement to
prepare four SLCBM of different colors, as shown in Fig. 1. Specifically,
the SLCBM with RP are marked as LR, and those without RP are marked
as L. The water-cement ratio of the SLCBM is 0.4, and the particle size
specification of the LP and RP are 150 mesh and 100 mesh, respectively.
The curing condition for SLCBM are temperature is 20 ± 2 ℃, and
relative humidity is 95 ± 3 % [40].

3.2.2. Mechanical properties

The mechanical strength is an important indicator to characterize the
road performance of the self-luminous pavement material. The
compressive and flexural strength of SLCBM specimens were tested at 3,
Fig. 4. Luminous intensity and afterglow time of different phosphors. 7, 14, and 28 days. The flexural strength of the SLCBM specimens (160
× 40 × 40 mm) was investigated with a SANSY Universal Testing Ma­
chine (loading speed = 1 mm/min), while the compressive strength was
detected by a punching machine (2.42 ± 0.1 kN/s) on 40 × 40 × 40 mm
cubes. Three replicates were used in these tests.

3.2.3. Luminescent property measurement

The luminescence property test can characterize the optical proper­
ties of different colors of self-luminous materials, which is the most
intuitive indicator used to compare the differences in the performance of
luminous materials. The screen luminance meter was used in the test to
evaluate the luminescent properties of SLCBM. The fluorescence imag­
ing of the SLCBM surface was analyzed by a fluorescence microscope
(FM) to study the surface optical mechanism of the material lumines­
cence deeply. The TOPCON BM-7a color luminance meter is used to
measure chromaticity. The chromaticity accuracy is controlled within
Dx, Dy ± 0.002. Before testing, the geometric position of the luminance
meter and the test area shall be calibrated to ensure that the included
angle between the optical axis of the luminance meter and the horizontal
plane of the measurement area is 1◦ . The photoluminescence spectra of
Fig. 5. Emission spectra of different phosphors. the SLCBM specimens were recorded by FluoroLog-3 of HORIBA In­
struments Incorporated made in America. A Xenon arc lamp was used as
an excitation source.
red LP is CaSrS:Eu2+, which belongs to rare earth sulfide luminescent
material, and the fluorescence effect is mainly attributed to the banded
3.2.4. Heat of hydration test
spectral characteristics of Eu2+ (Wu et al., 2022).
The heat of hydration test can quantitatively describe the chemical

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changes of SLCBM during the mixing process to determine the degree of display platform, 3D eye tracker, and has the advantages of dynamic
hydration reaction between different mixtures. The heat of hydration of display of simulation scene and high data acquisition accuracy (60 Hz).
cement slurry was studied by isothermal microcalorimeter TAM Air (TA The setup of the driving simulator system is shown in Fig. 7.
Instruments). During the measurement, the temperature is 20 ◦ C, and The data acquisition frequency of the 3D smart eye is 60 Hz. Through
the measuring time is 72 h. the smart eye built-in data processing system, the eye movement data of
volunteers during the simulated driving process can be obtained. The
3.2.5. FTIR test position of the pupil tracking point at a specific time is shown as the blue
The compound of four different kinds of SLCBM samples was ob­ dot in Fig. 8. In view of the high data acquisition frequency and large
tained using a Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (NICOLET amount of data from the eye tracker, the derived real-time eye move­
6700TM, Semerfly). The infrared radiation of 500 to 4000 cm− 1 was ment data were compared with the test video using 60 Hz frame by
passed through the sample. The state of the reflected peaks in the FTIR frame frequency decomposition to determine the eye movement data of
test can determine whether a chemical reaction has occurred between volunteers at a specific time. Each test video can be decomposed into
the mixed materials, which is important for evaluating the chemical 3000 pictures.
stability of the SLCBM of different colors.
4. Results and discussion
3.2.6. XRD test
The crystal structure of the cement slurry was characterized by XRD 4.1. Mechanical property
on a Rigaku Ultimate I diffractometer (40 kV/30 mA).
It can be seen from Fig. 9 that the SLCBM specimens of different
3.2.7. Eye movement test colors show noticeable mechanical differences in various curing ages.
When driving on self-luminous roads with different colors, drivers Compared with LR specimens, the L specimens’ compressive strength
will be stimulated and visually guided by different degrees of light (color and flexural strength significantly increased, raising 5.49 %, 7.79 %,
and intensity). Driving behavior and psychological state will fluctuate 7.21 %, and 7.13 % of flexural strength with blue-green, yellow-green,
with changes in visual perception and external light environment. From sky blue, and red at 28 d, respectively. Meanwhile, the compressive
the perspective of the luminous color of pavement materials and driving strength results show that with the increase in curing time, the strength
safety, by measuring the chromaticity coordinates and brightness co­ difference between LR and L specimens gradually increases, especially
efficients of different luminous pavement materials, the night road
videos of four different luminous colors and normal roads can be
established by using Dia Lux brightness simulation software and twin­
motion 3D real-time rendering software, as shown in Fig. 6.
Through the eye movement experiment of human–computer inter­
action, data such as PDCR and RSD are obtained to quantitatively judge
the driver’s mobility response and study drivers’ safety and comfort
evaluation on different color self-luminous roads. A total of 30 volun­
teers participated in this study. To ensure the rigor of the test, the sub­
jects selected for this study should have the following conditions: 1) be
in good health, have a small car driver’s license C2, and have some
driving experience; 2) have sufficient sleep within 24 h before the test,
and have not consumed alcohol or psychotropic drugs. Among the vol­
unteers, 22 (73.33 %) were male, and 8 (26.77 %) were female; the
average age of male volunteers was 25.2 years, and the average driving
experience was about 5.0 years; the average age of female volunteers
was 23.5 years, and the average driving experience was about 3.5 years.
The volunteers’ ages ranged from 22 to 27.
The driving simulator system is used to collect the eye movement
Fig. 7. Setup of the driving simulator system.
data; the device is composed of the cockpit, data transmission D-Lab,

Fig. 6. Video screenshots of five different types of self-luminous pavement (a) sky-blue (b) blue-green (c) yellow-green (d) red (e) normal. (For interpretation of the
references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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Fig. 8. Location of pupil tracking points on different luminous pavements.

Fig. 9. Mechanical strength of SLCBM specimens of different colors.

for yellow-green and red. Specifically, the compressive strength of LR Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 show the changing trend of compressive and
has reduced by 40.07 % and 30.75 % at 28 d, compared with L, flexural strength of LR and L specimens, respectively. It can be found
respectively. The reason for this phenomenon is that the surface of RP is that the yellow-green specimens show the best flexural and compressive
smooth, forming a certain range of contact surface when reacting with strength in different curing ages, followed by red specimens; blue-green
cement and LP. Although part of the SiO2 free from the RP will partic­ and sky blue are the worst. The phenomenon can be explained that the
ipate in the hydration reaction of cement and promote the occurrence of yellow-green and red LP have a more thorough chemical reaction in
pozzolanic reaction, there will be a weak mechanical layer on the con­ combination with cement, which also is related to the component dif­
tact surface between cement stone and RP, and the specimen will crack ferences of different colors of LP. Previous studies have proved that
or even fracture with the contact part under the action of external force. during the reaction between Al2SO4 in yellow-green LP and cement, the
Therefore, the addition of RP weakens the mechanical strength of the self-hydrolysis and cement hydration process will occur simultaneously.
material to a certain extent (Yang et al., 2021). Under the effect of this dual factor, the strength of the specimen will be

Fig. 10. Variation trend in the mechanical strength of the LR specimens.

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Fig. 11. Variation trend in the mechanical strength of the L specimens.

effectively improved (Wang et al., 2020b; Wang et al., 2021). Mean­ to a certain extent, which affects the luminous efficiency (Luitel et al.,
while, because red LP is rich in silica, it can react with cement in a 2010; Qi et al., 2017); on the other hand, the hydration product C–S–H
pozzolanic reaction, giving rise to the strength of the red SLCBM sample. of cement has a certain shielding effect on LP, limiting the excitation and
emission of LP (Sikandar et al., 2019). Further analysis also shows that
4.2. Luminescent properties the afterglow time of the SLCBM specimens of four colors decreases
slightly compared with LP particles. An explanation for this is that the
4.2.1. Luminous intensity and afterglow time afterglow depends more on the persistence of the electronic transition of
Fig. 12 shows the brightness attenuation of SLCBM specimens with the material itself, and the hydration characteristics of external mate­
different colors. It can be found that the yellow-green specimen has the rials will not have too much impact on it.
highest initial brightness, followed by the sky blue, blue-green, and red Compared with SLCBM specimens without RP, it can be found that
regardless of the addition of RP or not. In terms of luminous persistence, the fluorescence intensity of the four SLCBM specimens is improved
the yellow-green and blue-green specimens have the longest afterglow after adding RP. The increment of the yellow-green samples can even be
time, which can reach 600 min, followed by the sky-blue samples, 6.7 %. The reason is that the RP in the SLCBM specimen can play a role in
reaching 480 min, while the red samples have an afterglow time of only regression reflection to the external incident light (Jani and Hogland,
30 min. The phenomenon of SLCBM sample of yellow-green has the best 2014). According to the principle of light reflection and refraction, when
luminous intensity, and afterglow brightness can be explained that the the external light shines on the RP on the surface of the specimens, it will
yellow-green LP in the cement paste has a low degree of hydrolysis be divided into three parts: surface reflected light I1, internal reflected
under the current material mixing ratio, which ensures the luminous light I2, and transmitted light I3 (Christensen et al., 2004), as shown in
effect. Previous studies have proved that (Wang et al., 2022a; Wang Fig. 13. If the light enters the inside of the specimens to excite the LP, it
et al., 2020b). However, the overall luminous intensity decreases when needs to be completed through the transmitted light I3. In this case, the
the LP is mixed with cement. An explanation for this phenomenon RP can be used as a light transmission medium to transmit and output
chiefly originates in two aspects: first, the raw materials are hydrolyzed the internal light emitted after LP excitation while guiding the external
light. The schematic diagram of light transmission in the SLCBM spec­
imen is shown in Fig. 13.
On the whole, the overall luminous intensity of SLCBM specimen

Fig. 12. Variation trend of brightness attenuation of SLCBM specimens with Fig. 13. The schematic diagram of glow light transmission in the
different colors. SLCBM specimen.

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depends not only on the self-luminous characteristics of the LP but also 5.5 w/g, which means that the reaction between red phosphor, cement
on whether the accumulation and arrangement of the RP in the spec­ and RP is the most intense compare with other groups. This phenome­
imen are orderly; meanwhile, whether it can contact with the LP to form non can be explained by the fact that the red LP contains rich SiO2 and
an effective light channel will also affect the luminous effect of SLCBM SO2, which can react with cement in water (Fan et al., 2020; Tian et al.,
specimen. 2021). By contrast, the reaction between yellow-green or blue-green LP
and cement is not as distinct as compared with red. The maximum heat
4.2.2. Emitting color release rate has been reduced by 29.35 %. While the reaction between
In general, the color of material is represented by brightness and sky-blue LP and cement is mainly the SiO2 component, the content does
chroma. Chroma is a characteristic of color, reflecting the material’s hue not exceed 25 % of LP, so the heat release rate is the lowest. However, it
and saturation. In order to quantitatively evaluate the optical charac­ should be noted that the cumulative hydration heat of yellow-green
teristics of LP and SLCBM specimens of different colors, the XYZ chro­ SLCBM after 24 h exceeds that of the red specimen, which indicates
maticity coordinates of raw materials and specimens are measured with that the yellow-green specimen still reacts at the later stage of hydration.
a color luminance meter, and the chromaticity coordinates are shown in An explanation for this phenomenon is that the secondary effect of the
Fig. 14. pozzolanic reaction shows an increasing effect on the specimen (Wang
As shown in Fig. 14, serial numbers 1 and 2 are chromaticity coor­ et al., 2021), thus improving the strength of the specimen. This result is
dinate positions of LP and SLCBM specimens, respectively. By consistent with the strength change trend of the yellow-green SLCBM
comparing the chromaticity coordinate points of eight samples of four specimen.
colors, it can be found that the samples are scattered in four different Compared with the specimens mixed with RP, SLCBM specimens
chromaticity regions. Additionally, there are coordinate differences without RP have a similar hydration heat release rate and cumulative
between LP and SLCBM specimens in the same area. Specifically, the heat release trend, as shown in Fig. 16, but the heat value is significantly
chromaticity coordinate difference of yellow-green, blue-green, and sky- increased. Specifically, the heat release rate of the red specimen
blue LP and corresponding SLCBM specimens are small. The position increased by 18.2 % at the second hydration heat peak, while the cu­
difference of the X coordinate is 21, 7, and 23, and the position differ­ mulative heat release of the yellow-green specimen increased by 11.4 %
ence of the Y coordinate is 14, 23, and 20, respectively. By comparison, within 72 h, which indicates that the addition of RP inhibits the hy­
the difference of red LP is large, reaching 30 and 41 in terms of X and Y dration reaction rate and degree of the cement paste to a certain extent.
coordinate axes, respectively, which indicates that the red LP has a In addition, it can also be noted that the yellow-green sample produced a
significant color change after it is mixed with cement. The reason for this third hydration heat peak at 14 h. This phenomenon can be explained by
phenomenon is that the yellow-green, blue-green, and sky-blue LP the fact that cement hydrolysis occurs in the LP and cement blend so­
belong to aluminate and silicate compounds, whose water stability is lution, and the alkaline environment generated by the hydration reac­
outstanding, especially in an alkaline water environment; it can still tion inhibits the hydration of SrAl2O4. When the hydration reaches a
maintain the independence of luminous particles after hydration reac­ certain degree, the interaction between C–S–H gel, Ca(OH)2, remain­
tion with cement. However, red LP belongs to sulfide, which will hy­ ing water, and cement particles slow down (Gao et al., 2018; Wang et al.,
drolyze after mixing with water (Tian et al., 2021); thus, the red LP will 2021). The reaction temperature is 20 ◦ C because the experiment takes
decay to a large extent, resulting in the change of the color gamut. place in an indoor maintenance chamber. Accordingly, If the test is
carried out outdoors, the corresponding hydration reaction rate will be
delayed due to the difference from the optimal reaction temperature
4.3. Heat of hydration (Pang et al., 2022). Meanwhile, the free water begins to act on SrAl2O4,
causing it to undergo a hydration reaction and generate SrAl4O7, thus
The hydration heat release rate and cumulative hydration heat of releasing heat to form the third (Aich et al., 2013; Gao et al., 2018; Guo
four colors of SLCBM specimens with RP are shown in Fig. 15. It is et al., 2007). Correspondingly, the accumulated hydration heat of the
obvious that the heat release rate of red SLCBM is the highest, reaching yellow-green specimen also increased to a certain extent, which exceeds
the red SLCBM specimen.

4.4. Xrd

The XRD patterns of SLCBM specimens with four colors at 3 d of

curing are presented in Fig. 17. As can be seen, the phase composition of
four SLCBM specimens with different colors is different regardless of the
proportion of RP. The hydration product of the red SLCBM sample is
mainly composed of Ca(OH)2, KAlSl3O8, SiO2, and C3S, among which
SiO2 is the component of the red LP, while KAlSl3O8 is formed by the
interaction between K ions in cement and LP hydrolysates. Furthermore,
after hydration, the main phases of the yellow-green SLCBM sample are
Al2Mg4(OH)2(CO3)(H2O)3, Ca(OH)2, C3S, and C2S, among which Al
(OH)3 in Al2Mg4(OH)2(CO3)(H2O)3 is mainly generated by the hydro­
lysis of SrAl2O4. Meanwhile, the blue-green specimen after hydrolysis
are composed of Ca(OH)2, C3S, and C2S, which are the products of
cement hydration.
The diffraction patterns of sky-blue SLCBM specimens are
Sr2MgSi2O7, Ca(OH)2, C3S, and MgO, and the appearance of Sr2MgSi2O7
indicates that the cement slurry is not too much involved in the hy­
dration reaction. However, the main components of Sr2MgSi2O7 are
MgO and SrO, which are not easy to react with water. Therefore, the
hydration of cement mainly occurs in the sky-blue sample, which also
Fig. 14. Chromaticity coordinates of LP and SLCBM specimens with explains the reason for the low mechanical strength of the sky-blue
different colors. SLCBM sample.

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Fig. 15. Hydration heat release rate (a) and cumulative hydration heat (b) of different color SLCBM with RP.

Fig. 16. Hydration heat release rate (a) and cumulative hydration heat (b) of different color SLCBM without RP.

Fig. 17. XRD patterns of L (a) specimens and LR (b) specimens in 3 d of curing.

Fig. 18 shows the XRD patterns of different colors SLCBM specimens the pozzolanic reaction of the system, thus consuming Ca(OH)2, which is
at 3 d of curing. It can be found that the diffraction peaks of Ca(OH)2, also the reason for the decrease of all peaks. It can be inferred that the
C3S, C2S, and SiO2 decrease in the red SLCBM specimen after adding RP. decrease in the mechanical strength of the red sample is that the strength
The reason can be explained by the fact that the addition of RP promotes fracture layer is formed in the cement mortar after the addition of RP
the hydration of C3S and C2S; meanwhile, the presence of SiO2 promotes (Wang et al., 2021). Deeper observation also showed that the variation

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Fig. 18. The XRD patterns of (a) red, (b) yellow-green, (c) bule-green, and (d) sky-blue SLCBM specimen. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

law of the diffraction peak of the blue-green SLCBM sample is similar to

that of the red sample, but the attenuation degree is weak after adding
RP. The phenomenon can be explained that the blue-green LP does not
contain SiO2, so the pozzolanic reaction degree is low. By analyzing the
yellow-green SLCBM sample, it can be found that after adding RP, the
diffraction peak of C3S increases while the Ca(OH)2 decreases. In addi­
tion, the LP and cement hydration product Al2Mg4(OH)2(CO3)(H2O)3
increase. It is speculated that the addition of RP limits the hydrolysis of
cement, increasing C3S, while the hydration product of cement and the
hydrolysis product of LP promotes the formation of hydrotalcite pre­
cipitation under the action of RP so that the strength will be reduced. It
can be seen from the sky-blue SLCBM specimen after the addition of LP
that the diffraction peak of C3S increases while the Ca(OH)2 decreases,
indicating the degree of hydrolysis of cement decreases. At the same
time, the peak value of Sr2MgSi2O7 also decreases. It is hypothesized
that the addition of RP inhibits the hydration of cement and the hy­
drolysis of LP to a certain extent.

4.5. Ftir
Fig. 19. FTIR of SLCBM specimens with different colors.
The FTIR of the cement paste and SLCBM specimen without RP are
shown in Fig. 19. It can be seen that the peak positions of sky-blue and place after the addition of LP. However, only simple physical cementa­
blue-green SLCBM specimens are substantially the same as cement tion, the phenomenon also explains that the mechanical strength of the
paste, indicating that there is no significant chemical reaction has taken specimens with these two colors is relatively low. However, several new

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peaks appeared in the yellow-green SLCBM specimen, which indicates

that the yellow-green LP reacts with cement to produce new substances.
Specifically, the characteristic peaks in 665 cm− 1 refer to the stretching
vibration mode of SrAl2O4, the presence of a broad peak at 3440 cm− 1 is
due to the OH groups, which lead to the formation of Al-OH bonds, and
the characteristic peak at 1377 cm− 1 is belong to stretching of Al-O
bond. In addition, the red SLCBM specimen also showed a peak at
605 cm− 1 after adding LP, which contributed to the stretching and
bending vibes of S–O bonds. The combination of more chemical bonds
also makes the yellow-green and red SLCBM specimens show better
mechanical properties compared with sky-blue and blue-green.

4.6. Visual comfort evaluation

4.6.1. Relative safe distance

In order to more accurately simulate the driver’s visual difference
caused by the self-illumination and color change of the road surface
during the driving process, road obstacles are implanted in the night
driving simulation video (see Fig. 20) (Kolekar et al., 2020). Two pa­
rameters, the relative safe time (RST) and the relative safe distance Fig. 21. The average RSD of different kinds of pavements.
(RSD), are introduced to quantitatively analyze the degree of safe
braking when driving on different roads. The RST represents the time
and black obstacles is higher.
interval between the driver discovering the obstacle and the vehicle
In addition, the luminescent properties of pavement materials with
head reaching the obstacle position, and the RSD represents the longi­
different colors also play an important role. Compared with how a
tudinal distance difference between the driver’s location and the loca­
normal pavement obtains pavement visibility through external lighting,
tion of the obstacle when the driver finds the obstacle. At a certain
a self-illuminated pavement surface relies on the LP to emit light inde­
speed, the longer the RST is, the farther the RSD is, and the safer the
pendently. The contrast with the existing light will be more visible in the
driving will be.
presence of external obstacles. Therefore, the self-luminous road surface
The average RST of 30 volunteers’ simulated driving on different
has a higher degree of obstacle recognition than the normal road surface.
roads was obtained by comparing the decomposed pictures and the eyes’
Road self-luminous technology makes the road itself a light source. In
movement data. The corresponding RSD was calculated according to the
general, the closer the light source is, the easier the obstacle recognition
design speed of 60 km/h on urban roads, as shown in Fig. 21.
is, so the luminous pavement has a better obstacle discrimination rate
Compared with normal pavement, the average RSD of drivers driving
compared to traditional roads. In addition, this also has a strong rela­
on the self-luminous pavement of sky-blue, blue-green, and yellow-
tionship with the color of the roadway’s luminescence. However, the red
green have increased to a certain extent. Specifically, the RSD of
self-luminous pavement has low luminous performance, and the wave­
yellow-green self-luminous pavement has increased by 36.76 %, fol­
lengths of red and black light are closer, so the visual contrast with black
lowed by blue-green and sky-blue, while the value of red pavement has
obstacles is small. In addition, there is no external light to provide
decreased by 57.88 %. It can be inferred that the different driving safety
illumination brightness, so the recognition degree of obstacles is the
distances are due to the visual difference between different pavement
lowest, and the RST and RSD are also the smallest.
colors and obstacles. There is a greater difference in color contrast be­
tween yellow-green and black obstacles. When the human eye perceives
4.6.2. Pupillary change
objects with an obvious color difference, the line of sight will get a more
The change in pupil diameter reflects the visual sensitivity of vol­
sensitive stimulation. In contrast with sky blue and blue-green, exhib­
unteers in driving. When the driver is in a good mental state, the change
iting smaller color temperatures, the difference between yellow-green

Fig. 20. Obstacles of different kinds of pavement.

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in pupil diameter will be more stable; when the driver is fatigued, the
human body mechanism makes the pupil shrink to alleviate fatigue,
whereas, when the light conditions are stable, the pupil diameter will
expand with the increase of cognitive load. Therefore, the change in
pupil diameter can reflect the driver’s fatigue characteristics and the
driver’s cognitive load.
Fig. 22 shows the evolution of pupil diameter of volunteers when
driving on different self-luminous roads. It can be seen that the pupil
diameter of the same volunteer changes differently on various self-
luminous roads, and there are differences in the visual response to
different self-luminous roads.
Considering that there are some differences in the pupil diameter of
various drivers, the pupil diameter of drivers cannot be effectively used
as an analysis index of visual stress characteristics and drivers’ mental
state. Taking time as the independent variable to describe the change of
a physical quantity is the most basic and intuitive means in signal
analysis. Two types of indicators are selected as the object of investi­
gation. The first index represents the average change degree of pupil
diameter data. The second index represents the dispersion of the pupil Fig. 23. Average pupil diameter and standard deviation of volunteers driving
diameter data, which is associated with the standard deviation. Ac­ on different colored pavement.
cording to the eye movement data collected by the eye tracker, the pupil
diameters of 30 volunteers who simulated driving on self-luminous From the trend of standard deviation, the change in the dispersion of
roads of different colors were obtained for statistical analysis. The the pupil is less than that on normal roads only when driving on yellow-
average value and standard deviation results of volunteers are shown in green and blue-green roads. It is speculated that the self-luminous road
Fig. 23. surface has a good luminous effect. Compared with normal roads,
It can be seen from Fig. 23 that the pupil diameter of the driver drivers can easily find obstacles without hard observation, even if there
driving on the yellow-green, blue-green, and sky-blue self-luminous is no external light. In addition, as the self-luminous road is a new type of
pavement is smaller than that of the normal pavement. When driving road, compared with the traditional pavement structure, drivers are
simulation on the yellow-green, blue-green, and sky-blue self-luminous more likely to suffer from tension, visual discomfort, and other phe­
pavements, the driver’s pupil diameter is the largest on the blue-green nomena that affect the driver’s mental state when driving on the self-
road, followed by the sky-blue, and the smallest on the yellow-green luminous pavement due to the influence of previous driving and visual
road. Obviously, the trend is the same as that of the luminous bright­ habits. Especially in poorly lit environments, drivers struggle not only to
ness intensity of different roads, which indicates that the better the get light to guide their vision, but also to accept changes in the
lighting effect of the road, the easier it is for the driver to find obstacles. perception of the driving experience due to changes in road color.
In the case of the blue-green road with poor luminous brightness, the Therefore, drivers are more likely to suffer fatigue when driving on self-
driver needs to work harder to observe obstacles during driving, so the luminous pavement. The luminous brightness of the red self-luminous
pupil diameter is the largest. Compared with ordinary pavements that road surface is low. When there is no external light, the driver needs
obtain illumination through external light source irradiation, self- to expand his pupils to obtain the line-of-sight information of obstacles,
luminous pavements rely on material properties to achieve self- so the pupil diameter and change rate are the largest.
luminescence, and the higher the luminance, the less visual compensa­ Given the continuous development of fluorescent materials, a wider
tion is provided to the driver. Therefore, there is a positive correlation choice of fluorescent materials for pavements is available (Kaviyarasu
between the pavement brightness and the pupil diameter of the driver. et al., 2016; Khenfouch et al., 2012). Standard luminescent nano-oxides

Fig. 22. Change trend of pupil diameter of volunteer when driving on different self-luminous roads (a) sky-blue (b) blue-green (c) yellow-green (d) red (e) normal.
(For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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are favored by researchers due to their excellent chemical stability, high interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
luminescence and different luminescent colors (Ngom et al., 2016; the work reported in this paper.
Ngom et al., 2009; Sathyaseelan et al., 2015). In the future, the appli­
cation of luminescent nanomaterials oxides to pavements becomes Acknowledgments
promising and meaningful research.
This research was supported by the National Key R&D Program of
5. Summary and conclusions China (No. 2018YFB1600200). Sponsored by Fundamental Research
Funds for the Central Universities-Excellent doctoral dissertation culti­
In this paper, a comprehensive study was performed to investigate vation project of Chang’an University (300203211212). The first author
the hydration and luminescent properties of yellow-green, blue-green, also has to acknowledge the China Scholarship Council (CSC) for sup­
sky-blue, and red self-luminescent pavement cement materials. For this porting his visiting Aalto University, Finland (No. 202006560081).
purpose, compressive and flexural strength, X-ray diffraction (XRD),
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