CHEMISTRY LABORATORY

MANUAL

CMR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

I/II Semester (BCHES102/202)

(For CSE and ECE Branch)

CMRIT/CHEL/Man/2024-25
Chemistry Lab Manual
General instructions
• Keep your working table clean and tidy.
• Keep your glassware/apparatus clean.
• Keep the reagents in their proper place after use. Do not alter their order. Do not
contaminate the reagents.
• Turn offgas valve and water taps after use.
• Do not throw any waste paper into the sink. Throw them into the trash bin provided.
• Do not pour concentrated acids into the sink.
• Make note of the observations during experiment and not after completion. Have a
notebook for recording and keep it away from the reagents and sink.
• Use specified quantities of reagents.
• Do not walk bare footed in the laboratory.
• Mix solutions well after addition of every reagent.
• Do not use wet hand during weighing.
During and after experimental data collection:
• Please collect experimental data with extreme caution and patience. Try your best to
avoid all kinds of errors that might creep in and cause deviations in your data. If you
collect the data properly correct results are always assured.
• After collection of experimental data, think whether it makes sense to you and if it is
reasonable. Understand all the equations and calculations. Access critically if the
results are reasonable and do they make any sense at all.
Dos and don’ts, ethics, and safety rules in the chemistry lab:
• Do not make up/fabricate the results. No fake results must be produced.
• Pay full attention to the experiment you are doing and maintain silence.
• Ask your laboratory instructor if you have questions and do not talk with others if not
required.
• Do not copy experimental data and results from others or previous years record book.
• Do not drink or eat food in the lab.
• Handle chemicals with proper care and ask your lab instructor if you have any questions
related to proper handling and disposal of chemicals.
• Operate gas burners carefully and be cautious while dealing with the fire.
• Do not sabotage others experiments.

Observations:
Observations are important physical phenomena occurring within specified experimental
conditions. And you must state only such happenings that take place during the course of
experiment. Observations must not change for a particular experiment but there is a possibility
of addition of new observations that were overlooked before. Example: Say you slowly add
solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to the water containing phenolphthalein indicator. The
basicity of water increases with addition of NaOH solution and that leads to change in the color
of solution from colorless to pink. So the observation you made here is the “change in the color of
the solution from colorless to pink”.

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PRACTICAL MODULE (CSE)
Name of experiment Page No.
A–Demonstration (any two) offline/virtual:
A1. Chemical Structure drawing using software: ChemDraw or ACD/ Chem 5-6
Sketch
A2. Determination of strength of an acid in Pb-acid battery
A3. Synthesis of Iron-oxide Nanoparticles 9-10
A4. Electrolysis of water
B–Exercise (compulsorily any 4 to be conducted):
B1. Conductometric estimation of acid mixture 11-15
B2. Potentiometric estimation of FAS using K2Cr2O7 16-19
B3. Determination of pKa of vinegar using pH sensor (Glass electrode) 20-23
B4. Determination of rate of corrosion of mild steel by weight loss method
B5. Estimation of total hardness of water by EDTA method 24-27
C–Structured Enquiry (compulsorily any 4 to be conducted):
C1. Estimation of Copper present in electroplating effluent by optical sensor 28-32
(colorimetry)
C2.Determination of Viscosity coefficient of lubricant (Ostwald’s viscometer) 33-36
C3. Estimation of iron in TMT bar by diphenyl amine/external indicator 37-39
Method
C4.Estimation of Sodium present in soil/effluent sample using flame 40-43
photometry
C5. Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of industrial waste water sample
D–Open Ended Experiments (any two):
D1. Evaluation of acid content in beverages by using pH sensors and simulation.
D2. Construction of photovoltaic cell.
D3. Design an experiment to Identify the presence of proteins in given 44-45
sample.
D4. Searching suitable PDB file and target for molecular docking 46-47
Additional Experiment
Application of smartphone as an alternative to colorimeter in the estimation 52-54
of copper from copper sulfate solution

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PRACTICAL MODULE (ECE)

Name of experiment Page No.
A–Demonstration (any two) offline/virtual:
A1. Synthesis of polyurethane 7-8
A2. Determination of strength of an acid in Pb-acid battery
A3. Synthesis of Iron-oxide Nanoparticles 9-10
A4. Electroplating of copper on metallic objects
B–Exercise (compulsorily any 4 to be conducted):
B1. Conductometric estimation of acid mixture 11-15
B2. Potentiometric estimation of FAS using K2Cr2O7 16-19
B3. Determination of pKa of vinegar using pH sensor (Glass electrode) 20-23
B4. Determination of rate of corrosion of mild steel by weight loss method
B5. Estimation of total hardness of water by EDTA method 24-27
C–Structured Enquiry (compulsorily any 4 to be conducted):
C1. Estimation of Copper present in electroplating effluent by optical sensor 28-32
(colorimetry)
C2.Determination of Viscosity coefficient of lubricant (Ostwald’s viscometer) 33-36
C3. Estimation of iron in TMT bar by diphenyl amine/external indicator 37-39
Method
C4. Estimation of Sodium present in soil/effluent sample using flame 40-43
photometry
C5. Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of industrial waste water sample
D–Open Ended Experiments (any two):
D1: Estimation of metal in e-waste by optical sensors
D2. Electroless plating of Nickle on Copper
D3. Determination of glucose by electrochemical sensors 48-49
D4. Synthesis of polyaniline and its conductivity measurement 50-51
Additional Experiment
Application of smartphone as an alternative to colorimeter in the estimation 52-54
of copper from copper sulfate solution

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Experiment A1(CSE): Chemical Structure drawing using software:

ChemDraw
About the software:
ChemDraw is a chemical drawing and visualization software developed by PerkinElmer. It is
widely used by chemists and researchers for drawing chemical structures and reactions, designing
molecules, and creating professional-looking scientific illustrations.

Step-by-step guide on how to draw a chemical structure using ChemDraw software:

1. Open ChemDraw software and create a new document.

2. Choose the type of bond that you want to draw (single bond, double bond, triple bond, etc.) by
selecting it from the toolbar.

3. Draw the atoms in the chemical structure by clicking on the appropriate element symbol in the
toolbar, then clicking on the canvas where you want to place it. You can also type the element
symbol directly on the canvas to add it.

4. Add bonds between the atoms by selecting the bond type you want from the toolbar, then
clicking on the atoms you want to connect. To change the length or angle of the bond, click and
drag on the bond.

5. Add charges to the atoms by selecting the "Charge" tool from the toolbar, then clicking on the
atom you want to add a charge to. You can also type the charge directly on the canvas next to the
atom.

6. Add lone pairs to the atoms by selecting the "Lone Pair" tool from the toolbar, then clicking on
the atom you want to add a lone pair to.

7. Add functional groups to the chemical structure by selecting them from the toolbar, then clicking
on the appropriate atom or bond.

8. Save your chemical structure by selecting "File" > "Save As" and choosing the file format you
want.

Application:
• Drawing chemical structures: ChemDraw provides an intuitive and user-friendly interface
for drawing and creating chemical structures and reactions.
• Designing molecules: ChemDraw is widely used for designing molecules, creating new
compounds and exploring their properties.

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• Creating professional-looking scientific illustrations: ChemDraw provides a range of tools
for creating high-quality chemical diagrams and illustrations that can be used for research
papers, presentations, and publications.
• Creating 3D molecular models: ChemDraw can be used to create 3D models of molecules,
which can help researchers to understand the structure and properties of molecules better.
• Calculating properties: ChemDraw offers various tools for calculating properties such as
molecular weight, mass spectra, and UV/Vis spectra.
• Sharing data with other applications: ChemDraw can export chemical structures in various
formats, which can be used in other applications such as Microsoft Office, Adobe
Illustrator, and other scientific software.
• Teaching and learning: ChemDraw is used by educators and students to create and share
chemical structures, reactions, and other illustrations in chemistry and related fields. It is
widely used in chemistry courses at all levels, from high school to graduate school.

Result:
The chemical structures of given aliphatic and aromatic organic compounds are drawn using
Chem Draw software.

Observation
Draw the following chemical structures using Chem Draw software:
1) Diclofenac, 2) Ascorbic Acid, 3) Glyphosate and 4) 1-Hydroxypyrene

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Experiment A1 (ECE) : Synthesis of Polyurethane

Significance of experiment

Polyurethanes are organic polymers that are formed by reacting a polyol (an alcohol with more than two reactive
hydroxyl groups per molecule) with a diisocyanate or a polymeric isocyanate in the presence of suitable catalysts
and additives. Polyurethanes are a versatile class of polymers with great control over their physicochemical
properties based on the chemical composition. Flexible polyurethane forms are used in upholstery, mattresses,
chemical-resistant coatings, adhesives, sealants, and packaging. Rigid foams are used in insulation for buildings,
water heaters, refrigerated transport, and commercial and residential refrigerators. In medical practice,
polyurethane is used in implants. Complications of polyurethane implants are not uncommon, mainly due to
foreign-body reactions, such as with microporous polyurethane (Mitrathane) cardiac patch implants. Segmented
PURs are designed with well-defined degradation and mechanical properties combined with excellent
biocompatibility that makes them attractive for the development of drug delivery, tissue engineering, and medical
devices. Various PURs including PEURs, poly(ester urethanes), PCURs, PSURs, surface-modified PURs, and
composite PURs have been developed for a variety of biomedical applications. Many research efforts are
continued in the development of PURs for specific drug delivery and tissue regeneration application with a
particular emphasis on biocompatibility and biodegradability.

Aim: To synthesize polyurethane from polyol and diisocyanate.

Theory: Diisocyanates are a family of chemicals used to make a wide range of polyurethane
products. Polyurethane foam have wide range of applications in everyday products, including
furniture, bedding, carpet underlay, and packaging.
Polyols, by themselves, can also be considered polymers. However, for the production of
polyurethanes, the chain length of the polyol and the functionality of the polyol must be controlled.
These factors are known to contribute to the properties of the final polyurethane products. For
example, the polyols whose molecular weights lie in the hundreds yield rigid polyurethanes
whereas the polyols whose molecular weights lie in the thousands yield relatively flexible
polyurethanes. Thus, the chain length of the polyol used can be considered a factor that contributes
to the flexibility of the polyurethane product.

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Materials: Toluene diisocyanate (TDI) or methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI), Ethylene

glycol or Polytetramethylene Ether Glycol, 1,4-butanediol.

Procedures: Take 5 ml of polyol in a disposable container. Mix it with 5 ml of diisocyanate and

make sure the substances mixes well using stirrer or glass rod. Slowly add 5 ml of chain extender
to the solution and mix it properly. Transfer reaction mixture immediately to a mold and remove
the air baubles using a hot air gun.

Applications:
1. The primary application of polyurethane is in the production of foams. These foams are
used in a variety of materials such as upholstery fabrics, domestic furniture, and refrigerator
sheets.
2. Polyurethane mouldings are also used in columns and door frames.
3. The low-density foams of polyurethane which exhibit flexibility are widely used in
mattresses and other forms of bedding. They are also used in automobile seats and
upholstery.
4. The low-density elastomers of polyurethane are widely used in the footwear industry.

Result: Weight of polyurethane obtained = ………………g

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Experiment A3 (CSE & ECE): Synthesis of Iron Oxide nanoparticles

Significance of experiment

Nanoparticles (NPs) are at the forefront of rapid development in nanotechnology. Their exclusive size-dependent
properties make these materials indispensable and superior in many areas of human activities.1 Being the most
current transition metal in the Earth’s crust, iron stands as the backbone of current infrastructure. Generally,
iron oxides are prevalent, widely used as they are inexpensive, and play an imperative role in many biological
and geological processes. They are also extensively used by humans, eg, as iron ores in thermite, catalysts,
durable pigments (coatings, paints, and colored concretes), and hemoglobin. The most common forms of iron
oxides in nature are magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (α-Fe2O3) and maghemite (γ-Fe2O3). These oxides are also very
important in the field of scientific technology. In this experiment we are going learn about how to synthesis of γ-
Fe2O3 nanoparticles. This experiment will also make the students familiarize with the synthesis of nanomaterials
through wet chemistry methods.

Aim: Synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles vis co-precipitation method under an alkaline medium.

Theory: Numerous chemical, physical and biological routes have been utilized to produce
appropriate surface chemistry of magnetic nanoparticles. The common chemical methods include
coprecipitation, sol-gel, hydrothermal, microemulsion and thermal decomposition. Among these
methods, the coprecipitation method is the most promising and cost-effective method to produce
γ-Fe₂O3 nanoparticles due to its simplicity and high productivity. The characteristics of the final
product such as surface response, particle size and shape of the IONPs depend upon the preparation
technique. Only the nano-sized maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) nanoparticles with appropriate size, shape
and purity have a noteworthy impact in diverse biomedical applications and different scientific
research areas.

Materials: Iron (II) chloride (FeCl2.4H2O, 99% pure), Iron (III) chloride (FeCl3, 98% pure,
anhydrous), and NH4OH.

Procedures: In this experiment, γ-Fe2O3 nanoparticles have been prepared by co-precipitation

method. 0.7954 g of iron (II) chloride /sulphide, and 1.2974 g of iron (III) chloride, FeCl 3 were
each dissolved in distilled water. The solution was then stirred at 50°C for 30 minutes. After that,
ammonia is added to the solution and the mixed solution was washed/separated by filtering or
centrifugation. The separated precipitate was dried in the oven at temperature of 100°C for 24
hours. Finally, the dried dark brown precipitated sample was collected and crushed into powder
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form by using a pestle and mortar. The chemical balanced equation for the reaction FeCl 2.4H2O
and FeCl3 is shown in Equation 1-3 where γ-Fe2O3 was the final product and water was the by-
product.

Fe2+ + 2Fe³+ + 8 OH- → Fe3O4 + 4H₂O (1)

Fe3O4 + 0.25 O2 +4.5 H₂O → 3 Fe(OH)3 (2)
2 Fe(OH)3 → γ-Fe₂O3 + 3H₂O (3)

Characterization: γ-Fe2O3 nanoparticles formed from all the processing conditions can be
systematically characterized in terms of functional groups, phase composition and crystallite size
as well as morphology structure by using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray
diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) respectively.

Applications: Development of superparamagnetic materials and Supercapacitor materials. Also

used for catalysts, durable pigments, coatings, paints and coloured concretes.

Result: Weight of iron oxide nanoparticle obtained = ………………g

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Experiment B1 (CSE & ECE): Conductometric estimation of acid mixture

Significance of the experiment:
Conductivity (or specific conductance) of an electrolyte solution is a measure of its ability to conduct
electricity.1 The SI unit of conductivity is siemens per meter (S/m). Conductivity measurements are used
routinely in many industrial and environmental applications as a fast, inexpensive and reliable way of
measuring the ionic content in a solution. For example, the measurement of product conductivity is a
typical way to monitor and continuously trend the performance of water purification systems. In many
cases, conductivity is linked directly to the total dissolved solids (T.D.S.). High quality deionized water has
a conductivity of about 5.5 μS/m, typical drinking water in the range of 5-50 mS/m, while sea water about
5 S/m. (i.e., sea water's conductivity is one million times higher than that of de-ionized water).Conductivity
is traditionally determined by measuring the AC resistance of the solution between two electrodes. Dilute
solutions follow Kohlrausch's Laws of concentration dependence and ionic contributions. Lars Onsager
gave a theoretical explanation of Kohlrausch's law by extending Debye–Hückel theory

Aim: To estimate HCl and CH3COOH by conductometry using standard sodium hydroxide
solution.
Principle: Conductometry is based on Ohm’s law.
• Ohm’s law states that the current I (amperes) flowing in a conductor is directly
proportional to the applied electromotive force, E (volts), and inversely proportional
to the resistance R (ohms) of the conductor.
E
I=
R
• The reciprocal of the resistance is called the conductance. The resistance of a
homogeneous material of uniform cross-section with an area of a sq. cm. and length l
cm is given by
ρl
R= ; k = C [l/a]
a
Where ‘’ is the specific resistance. The reciprocal of the specific resistance is termed the
specific conductance, к.

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Specific conductance: Specific conductance of a solution is defined as the conductance of
a solution present between two parallel electrodes which have 1 cm2 area of cross section
and which have kept 1 cm apart.
During the conductometric titration process, one ion is replaced with another and the
difference in the ionic conductivities of these ions directly impacts the overall electrolytic
conductivity of the solution. Therefore, the conductance of the solution depends on the
number of mobility of ions. The equivalence point is determined graphically by plotting
conductance against titer values.
Let V1 and V2 ml be the volume of NaOH corresponding to the first and second neutralization
respectively then 'a' ml of NaOH = HCl and (V2 - V1) ml of NaOH = CH3COOH.

Instrumentation: Conductometer consists of a conductivity cell having two platinum

electrodes and a conductance measuring device. The two electrodes have a unit area of cross
section and are placed unit distance apart. A simple arrangement of conductometric titration
is depicted in the figure. The solution to be titrated is taken in the beaker.

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Procedure: Exactly 50 ml of the given acid mixture was pipette out into a clean 100 ml
beaker, and the conductivity cell was immersed into the beaker containing the acid mixture.
The conductivity was noted before adding the titrant, then 1N NaOH solution was added
from the burette in the increment of 1 mL and the conductivity was noted at each time. Then
the graph was plotted with the volume of NaOH along the X-axis and the conductivity along
the Y-axis. From the graph, the volume of NaOH required to neutralize the acid mixture was
found. Using the normality equation N1V1 = N2V2, we can find out concentrations of strong
acid and weak acid.
Applications:
i) Mixture of acids with a Strong base [(HCl+CH3COOH) vs NaOH]: Conductometric
titration may be applied for the determination of acids present in a mixture.1,2 In the titration
of a mixture of week acid (CH3COOH) and strong acid (HCl) with a strong base (NaOH), the
conductance decreases upon adding NaOH to acid mixture owing to the substitution of highly
mobile H+ ions by the less mobile Na+ ions. This trend continues till all the H+ ions of HCl are
replaced i.e., the strong acid is neutralized. Continued addition of NaOH raises the
conductance moderately, as the weak acid (CH3COOH) is converted into its salt (CH3COONa).
Further addition of NaOH raises the conductance steeply due to the presence of OH-ions. The
titration curve in the graph given determines the location of the equivalence points.

Advantages:
i) Mixture of acids can be titrated more accurately by conductometric titration.
ii) Conductometric titrations may be applied where potentiometric methods fail.
iii) Accurate in dilute solution as well as in more concentrated solution.
iv) It can be employed with colored solutions.
v) Very weak acids which cannot be titrated potentiometrically in aqueous solutions can be
titrated conductometrically with relative ease.

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Observation and calculations
Sl No. Volume of NaOH (mL) Conductivity (Ohm-1cm-1)
1
2
3
…
…

Normality of NaOH solution =………………. (Will be provided to you)

𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑥 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 (𝑉1)
Normality of HCl = = ……..N (c)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝐻𝐶𝑙 (50)
𝐻𝐶𝑙
Weight of = 'c' x Equivalent weight of HCl (36.5)
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝐿)

= ………….g
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑥 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 (𝑉2−𝑉1)
Normality of CH3COOH = =..............N (d)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 (50)
𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
Weight of = ‘d’ x Equivalent weight of CH3COOH (60.5)
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝐿)

= ……..g of CH3COOH

Result:
Weight of HCl in given acid mixture =…………..g /L
Weight of CH3COOH in given acid mixture =…………..g/L

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Model procedure
Experiment B1: Conductometric estimation of acid mixture

Pipette out 50 mL acid mixture into a beaker. Immerse the conductivity cell into it. Connect
the conductivity cell to a conductivity meter and measure the conductance by adding NaOH
from the burette by an increment of 1 mL. Plot a graph of conductance against volume of
NaOH. Determine the two neutralization points from the graph as shown below and find the
weight of HCl and CH3COOH.

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Experiment B2 (CSE & ECE): Potentiometric estimation of FAS using
K2Cr2O7

Significance of experiment:
In potentiometry we measure the potential of an electrochemical cell under static conditions. Because no current
or only a negligible current flows through the electrochemical cell, its composition remains unchanged. For this
reason, potentiometry is a useful quantitative method. The first quantitative potentiometric applications
appeared soon after the formulation, in 1889, of the Nernst equation, which relates an electrochemical cell’s
potential to the concentration of electroactive species in the cell. Turbid, fluorescent, opaque or coloured
solutions can be titrated. Mixture of solutions or very dilute solutions can be titrated. The results are more
accurate because the actual end point is determined graphically.

Aim: To estimate FAS potentiometrically using standard potassium dichromate solution.

Theory: The estimation of concentration of substances in solution by the measurement of emf is

known as potentiometric titration. Here, emphasis is laid on the changes in emf of an electrolytic
cell as a titrant of known concentration is added.
When a metal M is immersed in a solution containing its own ions Mn+, the electrode potential is
given by Nernst equation.

0.0591
Ecell = E° + log [M+n]
𝑛
Thus, the concentration can be calculated, provided Eo of the electrode is known. If an electrode
of the metal reversible with respect to the corresponding ions is placed in the solution, the potential
will vary throughout the titration. Initially, the change in potential will be small. At the equivalence
point, there will be a steep rise in the potential. The equivalence point can be determined by
plotting the change in potential against volume of titrant added.

Instrumentation: A potentiometer consists of: (i) Calomel electrode as a reference electrode, (ii)
Platinum electrode as an indicator electrode, (iii) a device for measuring the potential and (iv)
magnetic stirrer.

Procedure: Pipette out 25 ml of the given FAS solution into a clean beaker and add 1 test tube of
dil H2SO4. Immerse a platinum electrode and saturated calomel electrode and connect it to a
potentiometer. Fill a clean burette with the given standard K2Cr2O7 solution. Add K2Cr2O7 from
the burette in the increment of 0.5 ml and mix the solution. Measure the EMF of the solution after
every addition till there is a rise in the EMF. Take a few more readings. Plot a graph of ∆E/ ∆V

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(ordinate) against the volume of K2Cr2O7 . From this graph volume of K 2Cr2O7 at an equivalent
point is found. The following reaction takes place during titration.
Cr2O72- + 14 H+ + Fe2+→ Fe3+ + Cr3+ + 7H2O

Advantages of potentiometric titrations are:

(i) They give results more reliable than those obtained from titrations using indicators
(ii) The method applies to both coloured and turbid solutions also

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Observation and calculations

Volume of K2Cr2O7 E (mV) ΔE ΔV 𝜟𝑬

added (mL) 𝜟𝑽
--- -- --

(mL)

From the graph, volume of K2Cr2O7 at the equivalence point = ……… (x) mL
Normality of K2Cr2O7 = ……………… (a) (will be provided to you)
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑋 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝐾2𝐶𝑟2𝑂7 𝑎𝑥𝑋
Normality of FAS (NFAS)= = = …………(say b)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝐹𝐴𝑆 25

Weight of FAS / L = NFAS x equivalent weight of FAS = b x 392 = …….g (say c)

𝑐
Weight of FAS / 25 mL = =..……..g
40

Result: (i) Normality of FAS (NFAS) = ………….N

(ii) Weight of FAS present in given solution = ………… g

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Model procedure
Experiment B2: Potentiometric estimation of FAS using K2Cr2O7
Pipette out 25 ml of FAS into a beaker. Add 1 test tube dil. H2SO4, immerse calomel electrode &
platinum electrode into it. Connect the assembly to a potentiometer and measure the potential by
adding K2Cr2O7 in increments of 0.5 ml.

Plot graph ∆E/∆V against the volume of K2Cr2O7, and determine the equivalence point. From the
normality and volume of the K2Cr2O7 solution, calculate the normality and the weight of FAS in
the given solution.

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Experiment B3 (CSE & ECE): Determination of pKa of vinegar using pH

sensor (Glass electrode)

Significance of the experiment:

The acid dissociation constant (pKa) is among the most frequently used physicochemical parameters, and its
determination is of interest to a wide range of research fields.1,2 The related concept of the acid dissociation
constant (pKa) as a substance property is recognized as being among the most commonly used parameters in
modern-day chemistry. Both pH and pKa are essential for understanding the behavior of chemical substances in
everyday life. The quantitative behaviour of acids and bases in solution can be understood only if their pKa values
are known.3 In particular, the pH of a solution can be predicted when the analytical concentration and pKa values
of all acids and bases are known; conversely, it is possible to calculate the equilibrium concentration of the acids
and bases in solution when the pH is known. These calculations find application in many different areas of
chemistry, biology, medicine, and geology. For example, many compounds used for medication are weak acids or
bases, and a knowledge of the pKa values, together with the water–octanol partition coefficient, can be used for
estimating the extent to which the compound enters the blood stream. Acid dissociation constants are also essential
in aquatic chemistry and chemical oceanography, where the acidity of water plays a fundamental role. In living
organisms, acid-base homeostasis and enzyme kinetics are dependent on the pKa values of the many acids and
bases present in the cell and in the body. In chemistry, a knowledge of pKa values is necessary for the preparation
of buffer solutions and is also a prerequisite for a quantitative understanding of the interaction between acids or
bases and metal ions to form complexes. Experimentally, pKa values can be determined by potentiometric (pH)
titration using pH meter.pH meter is one of the most innovative equipments of 20th century. This instrument is an
essential component of any pharmaceutical lab, clinical lab, research labs of biochemistry, molecular biology and
chemistry. The main application of pH meter is determination of pH of buffers. Due to its accuracy, this is an
essential component in every place where aqueous buffers are used.

Aim: To determine pKa value of vinegar (a weak acid) using pH meter.

Principle: The strength of an acid is experimentally measured by determining its equilibrium

constant or dissociation constant (Ka). Since strong acids are strong electrolytes, they are ionized
almost completely in aqueous solutions. It is not meaningful to study the ionic equilibrium of
strong acids and calculate their equilibrium constants, as the un-ionised form is present to such a
small extent. Hence, the study of ionic equilibrium and the calculation of Ka applies only to weak
acids.
Vinegar (Acetic acid) dissociates into ions but not completely as shown below.
CH3COOH (aq.) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq.) + CH3COOH (aq.)
[𝐇𝟑𝐎+ ][𝑪𝑯𝟑𝑪𝑶𝑶− ]
𝑲𝒂 =
[𝑪𝑯𝟑𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑯]

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pKa is a modern method of expressing acid strength pKa= - log [Ka]

pKa is determined by measuring the changes in pH of acid solution at different amounts of the base
added. During the titration of an acid with a base, the pH of the solution rises gradually at first,
then more rapidly and until at the equivalence point, there is a very sharp increase in pH for a very
small quantity of added base. Once past the equivalence point, the pH increases only slightly on
addition of excess base. The titration curve is obtained by plotting changes in pH at different
amounts of the base added and the equivalence point is determined.
According to Henderson- Hasselbalch equation,
[𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕]
pH = pKa + log
[𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅]
At half equivalence point, [salt] = [acid] and therefore, pH at half equivalence point gives the pKa
of weak acid.

Procedure:
Pipette out of 25 ml of the given vinegar solution into a beaker. Immerse a glass electrode-calomel
electrode assembly into the acid and connect the cell to a pH meter. Measure the pH of the. Fill a
burette with the sodium hydroxide solution, add 0.5 ml increments of NaOH and Stir the solution
thoroughly and measure the pH after each addition, continue till there is rapid increase in pH and
take another 4 or 5 values after rapid increase.
Plot a graph of pH (ordinate) against the volume of sodium hydroxide added (absicissa). Determine
the equivalence point and hence the pH at half equivalence point. This gives the pKa value of the
acid.

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Observation and Calculations

Volume of NaOH (mL) pH ΔpH ΔV 𝚫𝐩𝐇/𝚫𝐕

-- -- --

Equivalence point = ……………

Half-equivalence point = ………………
pH at half-equivalence point = ………………
pKaof weak acid = pH at half-equivalence point

Result:
The pKa value of the given vinegar is = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Model procedure
Experiment B3 (CSE & ECE): Determination of pKa of vinegar using pH
sensor (Glass electrode)

Pipette out 25 ml of given vinegar solution into a beaker. Immerse the glass electrode + Calomel
electrode assembly into it. Connect the electrodes to pH meter and measure the pH. Now add
NaOH from the burette in increments of 0.5 ml and measure the pH after each addition.
Plot graph ∆pH/ ∆V against the volume of NaOH. Determine the equivalence point. Plot another
graph of pH against volume of NaOH and determine pKa of the given weak acid as shown below.

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Experiment B5 (CSE & ECE): Estimation of total hardness of water by EDTA

method
Significance of experiment

Water from many natural sources contain a variety of dissolved salts which comprise ions such as Na+, K+,
Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, HCO3-.1According to U.S. geological survey any water that has less than 60 mg/L of CaCO3
mass equivalents (i.e. less concentrations of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions) is considered soft water.2Higher
concentrations of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions in water render hardness and such water is referred to as hard water.
Hard water may lead to (a) inefficient and dysfunctional boilers due to formation of scales; (b) excessive
consumption of soap that arises due to the reaction of sodium soap with multivalent metal cations in turn leading
tothe formation of precipitate and the loss of its surfactant property. To increase the energy efficiency in
industries3 and to minimize wastage of soap for cleaning purposes it is essential to use soft water, which therefore
means there is a need for a method to identify which is hard and which is soft water? And to estimate how hard
the tested water is? This experiment is all about one such easy methods.

Aim: To determine the total hardness of given water sample using standard Na2EDTA solution
Principle: Hardness of water is due to the presence of calcium and magnesium salts in water.
Ethylene diaminetetraaceticacid (EDTA) forms complexes with a large number of cations
including Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions. Accordingly, it is possible to determine the total hardness of water
using EDTA reagent. The EDTA molecule (H4Y) has two easily replaceable hydrogen atoms and
resulting ion after ionization may be represented as H2Y2-. It forms complexes with metal ions as
follows.
M2+ + H2Y2- MY2- + 2H+ …………………………… (1)

Where M2+ is Ca2+ and Mg2+ present in water. Reaction (1) can be carried out quantitatively at a
pH of 10 using Eriochrome Black T indicator. Since the reaction involves the liberation of H+ ions,
a buffer mixture has to be used to maintain pH of 10. The buffer mixture used in the titration is
NH3-NH4Cl. The hardness of water is usually expressed in terms of ppm (parts per million) of
CaCO3. Since EDTA (free acid) is sparingly soluble, its disodium salt, Na2H2Y is used for
preparing the reagent.

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Procedure:
Part A: Preparation of standard solution of disodium salt of Na2EDTA

Weigh Na2EDTA salt accurately and transfer to a 100 mL volumetric flask through a funnel. Add
around 5 mL of ammonia (NH3) solution. Dissolve the crystals in ion exchange water, dilute up to
the mark and mix well. Calculate the molarity of Na2EDTA solution.

Part B: Determination of total hardness of given water sample

Pipette out 25 mL of the given water sample into a clean conical flask. Add 3 mL of NH 3-NH4Cl
buffer and a pinch of EBT indicator. Titrate against Na2EDTA solution till the color changes
sharply from wine red to clear blue. Perform the titration slowly towards the end point and repeat
the experiment for agreeing values.

Result: The total hardness of given water sample is = ----------------ppm of CaCO3

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Observation and Calculations

Part A: Preparation of standard solution of disodium salt of EDTA (Na2EDTA).

1. Weight of bottle + Na2EDTA salt = W2= ---------- g
2. Weight of empty bottle = W1 = -------------------------g
3. Weight of Na2EDTA salt = W2-W1= ---------------- g

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 (𝑊2 − 𝑊1) X 10

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓𝑁𝑎2𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 = ---- (Z)
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑁𝑎2𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 (372.24𝑔)

Part B: Determination of total hardness of given water sample

Burette Reading Trial I Trial II Trial III
Final Reading
Initial Reading
Volume of Na2EDTA run down (mL)

Volume of Na2EDTA consumed = ----------- mL (a)

1000 mL of 1M Na2EDTA = 100 g of CaCO3 (molar mass of CaCO3 = 100 g)
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑥 𝒁 𝑥 𝒂
`a’ mL of `Z’M Na2EDTA = = ------------- g of CaCO3 (b)
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑥 𝟏
Amount of CaCO3 in 25 mL of hard water solution = ------------ g (b)
Total hardness of the given water sample
𝒃 𝑥 𝟏𝟎,𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎 ---- ppm of CaCO3
= =
𝟐𝟓
Result: The total hardness of given water sample is = ----------------ppm of CaCO3

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Model procedure
Experiment B5 (CSE & ECE): Estimation of total hardness of water by EDTA
method
♦ Part A

Weigh out the given Na2EDTA crystals accurately into a 100 ml volumetric flask and add 5 ml of
Ammonia solution. Dissolve in distilled water and make up to the mark. Mix well and find the
Molarity.

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 (𝑊2 − 𝑊1) X 10

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓𝑁𝑎2𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑁𝑎2𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 (372.24𝑔)

♦ Part B

Burette : Standard Na2EDTA solution

Conical flask: 25ml of water sample + 3ml of (NH3NH4Cl) buffer solution to maintain pH
=10
Indicator : Eriochrome Black-T (a pinch)
End point : Wine red to clear blue

Conclusion : From the volume of Na2EDTA consumed calculate the total hardness of given
water sample

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Experiment C1(CSE & ECE): Estimation of Copper present in
electroplating effluent by optical sensor (colorimetry)

Significance of experiment:

Electroplating industrial activities are among the major pollutants to the environment. Such activities led to the
formation of hazardous wastewater associated with toxic heavy metals that threaten the environment and
aquatic lives. The electroplating effluents are monitored using various analytical techniques for the presence
of these toxic metals. Colorimetry is an important analytical technique used to monitor electroplating effluents.
It is used in chemistry and in other sorts of places such as in industries like colour printing, textile
manufacturing, paint manufacturing and in food industries. Colorimetry is also used in asprin. Colorimetry can
detect the smallest colour difference that the human eye cannot pick up. Under the action of chemical agents,
samples develop a specific colour that shows the concentration of the substance being tested. Colorimetry is
just one of the types of photometric analysis techniques i.e. it is a way of measuring light. Colorimetry can be
used to find out the concentration of any coloured substance. Such as in Food & Beverage Quality Control -
Alpha Amylase Activity - Milk Quality - Miscellaneous Quality Tests etc. Colorimetry measurements are made
by using a light which passes through a colour filter. The light then passes through a little box (cuvette) with
the actual chemical substance. The light leaving the actual sample should be less than the light that actually
entered the compound. The loss of light always reflects the concentration of the compound.

Aim: To determine copper present in electroplating effluent by optical sensor (colorimeter)

Principle: When a monochromatic light of intensity I0 is incident on a transparent medium, a part
Ia of is absorbed, a part Ir is reflected and the remaining part is transmitted It.
I0 = Ia + Ir + It
For a glass-air interface Ir is negligible, therefore,
I0 = Ia + I t
It / I0 = T called the transmittance, log 1/T = log I0 / It is called the absorbance or optical density.
Colorimetry measurements are based on Beer-Lambert’s law. This law gives the relation between
absorbance A, concentration c (expressed in mo1/dm3) and path length t, (expressed in cm).
Beer-Lambert’s law: When monochromatic light passes through a transparent medium, the
amount of light absorbed is directly proportional to the concentration and path length of the
solution.
A∝C
A= logI0/It = εct

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Where ε is the molar extinction coefficient, c is the concentration, t is the path length and is a
constant for a given substance at a given wavelength. If the length is kept constant (t),
A∝c
Hence a plot of absorbance against concentration gives a straight line.
Instrumentation: The instrument used to measure the absorbance of a solution is called
photoelectric colorimeter.
It consists of
(i) Tungsten lamp as the light source.
(ii) A filter which provides the desired wavelength range wherein the solution gives the
maximum absorbance.
(iii) A sample cell
(iv) A photocell detector

Fig: Schematic layout of colorimeter

Application: Colorimetry is a versatile method of determining the concentration of metals and

nonmetals in small quantities in ores, soil, samples and alloys. eg., Colorimetric estimation of Cu
in CuSO4.

Procedure: Transfer the given copper sulphate solution (stock solution) to a burette and draw out
2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mL of the solution into a 50 mL volumetric flask. Add 5 mL of ammonia solution

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to each of them and dilute up to the mark with ion exchange water. Stopper the flasks and mix the
solutions well. add 5 mL of ammonia solution to the given test solution and then dilute up to the
mark with ion exchange water and mix well.
Prepare a blank solution by diluting 5 mL of ammonia solution in a 50 mL measuring flask up to
the mark with ion exchange water and mixing well. Measure the absorbance of the solutions
against the blank at 620 nm using a photoelectric colorimeter. Tabulate the readings as shown.
Draw a calibration curve by plotting the absorbance against the volume of copper sulphate
solution. Using the calibration curve, find out the volume of copper sulphate solution given i.e.,
the volume of the test solution and calculate the amount of copper in the given solution.
Advantage
i) Colorimetry gives accurate results at low concentrations.
ii) Colorimetry is also applied to biological samples.

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Observation and calculations
Volume of CuSO4 (mL) Absorbance (Optical density)
2
4
6
8
10
Test solution

1000 mL of stock solution contains `a’ g of CuSO4 (`a’ value will be given).
249.54 g of CuSO4 = 63.54 g of Cu.
63.54
`a’ g of CuSO4 = xa = ………. g of Cu in 1000 mL.
249.54
1 mL of CuSO4 =…………… g of Cu
So, 1 mL of CuSO4 =…………… mg of Cu (say b)

`c’ mL of test solution = b x c = ……..mg of Cu

Result:
From graph, volume of copper sulfate in test solution = ……..mL
The weight of copper in the given test solution = …….. mg

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Model procedure
Experiment C1: Estimation of Copper present in electroplating effluent by
optical sensor (colorimetry)

Draw out 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 ml of the copper sulphate solution into a 50 ml volumetric flask. Add
5 ml of ammonia solution to each of them, dilute up to the mark with distilled water, and mix well.
Prepare a blank solution by diluting 5 ml of ammonia solution in 50 ml volumetric flasks. For the
test solution add 5 ml of NH3 and make up to the mark. Measure the absorbance of each of these
against a blank solution at 620 nm. Plot a graph of absorbance (OD) against the volume of copper
sulphate solution, determine the volume of copper sulphate solution in the test sample as shown in
the figure, and find the amount of copper present in it.

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Experiment C2 (CSE & ECE): Determination of Viscosity coefficient of

lubricant (Ostwald’s viscometer)

Significance of the experiment:

Viscosity gives us precisely how fast a liquid/fluid flows. Ever wondered why chocolate melts if it is not kept at
cold temperature. The reason for this is the change in viscosity of the chocolate syrup with temperature. Viscosity
is sensitive to temperature and in some fluids its value doubles for a mere 5°C increase in temperature. A
measure of viscosity is very important in the food industry to increase the consistency, quality, production
efficiency, and texture in foods. Similarly, viscosity is precisely maintained at specific value in paints and
varnishes so that they can be evenly and smoothly applied over the surface with brush roller or a paintbrush.
For easy flow of the products such as toothpaste, syrups, and lubrication oils they should have a particular value
of viscosity to be useful. Viscosity coefficient is same as dynamic viscosity. The ratio of shearing stress to the
velocity gradient gives viscosity coefficient. The SI unit of dynamic viscosity is pascal second and cgs unit is
poise. 1 millipoise = 1/1000 poise and 1 poise = 1/10 pascal second (Poise unit is named after Jean Poiseuille,
scientist who first observed the factors that influence the flow of fluids in circular tubes and derived an equation
for Viscosity). In this particular experiment you are only interested in the flow of non-turbulent (steady) and
non-pulsatile (no periodic variations) fluids in circular tubes. The blood has viscosity value between 3 to 4 milli
Pascal second (mPa s) or 0.3-0.4 millipoise at 37°C. Similarly food/liquid items that are used in your daily life
such as water at 20 oC, milk at 25 oC, honey at 20°C, and ketchup at 20°C have viscosity values of 0.1, 0.3,
1000, and 5000 respectively.

Aim: To determine viscosity co-efficient of a given liquid using Ostwald’s viscometer

Principle: Viscosity arises due to internal friction between moving layers of molecules. A liquid
flowing through a cylindrical tube of uniform diameter is expected to move in the form of
molecular layers. A layer close to the surface is almost stationary while that at the axis of the tube
moves faster than any other intermediate layer. A slow moving layer exerts a drag or friction on
its nearest moving layer backwards. This property of a liquid by which it retards or opposes motion
between layers is called viscosity. The co-efficient of viscosity is the tangential force per unit area
required to maintain a unit velocity gradient between any two successive layers of a liquid situated
unit distance apart. The coefficient of viscosity of a liquid is given by Poiseuille’s formula.
In this experiment you will be determining the viscosity by studying the flow of fluid through a
circular tube. Jean Poiseuille and Gotthilf Hagen first carried out these studies independently on
various fluids. By studying the various factors that influence the flow of non-turbulent (steady)

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and non-pulsatile (no periodic variations) fluids through circular tube they arrived at an equation
𝑣
(1) given below for volume flow rate ( )[volume (v) that flows after a specified time (t)].
𝑡
𝑣 𝜋𝛥𝑃𝑟 4 𝜋𝛥𝑃 t𝑟 4
Volume flow rate ( )= …….(1) alternatively, η=
𝑡 8 𝜂𝑙 8 𝑣𝑙
Where v = volume of the liquid, r = radius of the tube, l = length of the tube, ΔP = pressure
difference between the two ends of the tube, Ƞ = co-efficient of viscosity of the liquid.
If equal volumes of two different liquids (one being water) are allowed to flow through the same
tube under identical conditions, then
𝜼𝐥 𝒕𝐥𝒅𝐥
=
𝜼𝒘 𝒕𝒘𝒅𝒘

Procedure: Clean the given viscometer with water, rinse with acetone and dry it. Fix the
viscometer vertically to a stand. Using a pipette, transfer a known volume of ion exchange water
into the wider limb. Suck it above the upper mark of the viscometer. Allow it to flow freely through
the capillary. When the level of water just crosses the upper mark, start a stop clock. Stop the stop
clock when the water just crosses the lower mark. Record the time of flow in seconds. Repeat for
3 times.
Pour out the water, rinse the viscometer with acetone and dry it. Clamp it vertically to a stand and
transfer the same volume of test liquid into the wider limb. As described above, record the time
taken in seconds by the liquid to flow through tha same distance. Determine the coefficient of
viscosity of liquid using the relation.
𝛈𝐥𝐢𝐪 𝒕𝒍𝒊𝒒 𝒅𝒍𝒊𝒒
=
𝛈𝐰 𝒕𝒘 𝒅𝒘

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Observation and calculations

Liquid number: Time of flow (in seconds)

Trail 1 Trail 2 Trail 3 Average
Test liquid (tliq)
Water (tw)

Laboratory temperature =……….°C (T)

Density of water at ……°C = ……….g/mL (will be provided to you)
Viscosity co-efficient of water at …. °C = …… millipoise (will be provided to you)
Density of the given liquid at ………. °C = ……….g/mL (will be provided to you)
Viscosity co-efficient of the given liquid,
𝒕𝒍𝒊𝒒 𝒅𝒍𝒊𝒒
ηliq = ηw
𝒕𝒘 𝒅𝒘
Where,
ηliq= coefficient of viscosity of the test liquid.
ηw= coefficient of viscosity of the water.
tw= time taken (in seconds) by the water to flow from point A to B.
tliq= time taken (in seconds) by the liquid to flow from point A to B.
dliq= density of the given liquid.
dw= density of water.

Result:
The coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid = ……………… millipoise

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Model procedure

Experiment C2: Determination of Viscosity coefficient of lubricant

(Ostwald’s viscometer)

Pipette out 10 ml of the given liquid in to the wide limb of the dried viscometer and suck the
liquid through the other limb. Determine the time of flow between two fixed points, one above
and one below the bulb in the narrow limb of the viscometer. Repeat and calculate the average
time of flow. Pour out the liquid, rinse the viscometer with Acetone and dry it. Now pipette
out 10 ml of water into the wider limb and determine the average time of flow for water as
before. From the density of the liquid and of water and the viscosity coefficient of water,
determine the viscosity coefficient of the given liquid.

𝒕𝒍𝒊𝒒 𝒅𝒍𝒊𝒒
ηliq = ηw
𝒕𝒘 𝒅𝒘
Where,
ηliq= coefficient of viscosity of the test liquid.
ηw= coefficient of viscosity of the water.
tw= time taken (in seconds) by the water to flow from point A to B.
tliq= time taken (in seconds) by the liquid to flow from point A to B.
dliq= density of the given liquid.
dw= density of water.

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Experiment C3 (CSE & ECE): Estimation of iron in TMT bar by diphenyl
amine/external indicator method
Aim: To determine the percentage of iron in the TMT bar using standard K2Cr2O7 solution.

Principle:

Iron (TMT) bar reacts with dil. HCl and forms its corresponding metal chloride salt (FeCl 2) and
hydrogen gas. The balanced chemical reaction of dilute hydrochloric acid with TMT bar
Fe (s) + 2HCl (aq) → FeCl2 (s) + H2 (g)……………. (1)

In this experiment, a standard solution of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) is used to determine

the percentage by weight of iron (as Fe2+) in an unknown TMT bar sample.
Dichromate ion reduces to two chromium (III) ions.
Therefore, 1 mole of Cr2O72- (the oxidizing agent) reacts with 6 moles of Fe2+ (the reducing agent)
to form 6 moles of Fe3+ and 2 moles of Cr3+.
Thus, the overall redox reaction is:
Cr2O72-+ 6Fe2+ + 14H+ → 6Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O ……………… (2)
The reaction of Fe+2 with potassium ferricyanide K3[Fe(CN)6] (use as an external indicator) results
in the formation of a blue precipitate of Turnbull’s blue (ferrous ferricyanide), but no blue colour
formation with Fe+3 ion.

Fe+2 + K3[Fe(CN)6] KFe[Fe(CN)6] + 2K+

Procedure:
Prepare 100 mL std K2Cr2O7 solution by taking known wt of salt and dissolving in distilled water.
Pipette out 25 ml of the FeCl2 solution (TMT Bar) from the stock solution into a clean conical
flask. Place a few numbers of drops of freshly prepared potassium ferricyanide indicator on wax
paper. Add 1 mL of standard potassium dichromate from the burette to the conical flask containing
FeCl2 solution and mix well. Remove a drop of the solution from the conical flask and bring it in
contact with a drop of the indicator on the wax paper. The colour of the indicator turns blue.
Continue the titration by adding increments of 1ml of K2Cr2O7 at a time and testing as above till a
drop of the mixture fails to produce any colour with the indicator drop.

(Note: Clean the glass rod after every test). Repeat the titration by taking another 25 ml of
ferrous chloride solution. This time add most of the potassium dichromate solution required at a
stretch and then titrate drop-wise. Mix the flask's content after every addition and test a drop of the
titrated solution with a drop of the indicator as described above till the indicator's color does not
change.

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Observation and Calculations
Part A: Preparation of standard solution of K2Cr2O7.
1. Weight of bottle + K2Cr2O7 salt = W2= ---------- g
2. Weight of empty bottle = W1 = -------------------------g
3. Weight of K2Cr2O7 salt = W2-W1= ---------------- g
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 (𝑊2 − 𝑊1) X 10
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓K2Cr2O7 = ---- (Z)
𝑬𝒒. 𝒘𝒕 𝑜𝑓 K2Cr2O7(49 𝑔)

Part B: Determination of percentage of Fe

Burette reading Pilot reading Trial I Trial II
Final reading
Initial reading
Volume of K2Cr2O7 run down (mL)

Volume of K2Cr2O7 consumed = ----------- mL (a)

Weight of TMT bar in 250 mL = ------------- g (W) (‘W ’ will be provided to you).
1000 mL of 1N K2Cr2O7 = 55.85 g of iron (1 equivalent of Fe = 55.85 g).
𝟓𝟓.𝟖𝟓 𝒙 𝒁 𝒙 𝒂
`a’ mL of `Z’ N K2Cr2O7 = of Fe = ------------- g (b).
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
25 mL of sample solution contains = ------------- g of Fe (b).
250 mL of sample solution contains = 10 x b ------------- g of Fe (`c ’ ).
𝒄 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
The percentage of iron in given sample =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑀𝑇 𝑏𝑎𝑟 (𝑊)(𝒈)

Result:
The percentage of iron in the given iron solution taken from TMT bar is …………%

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Model procedure
Experiment C3. Estimation of iron in TMT bar by diphenyl amine/external
indicator method
♦ Part A

Weigh out the given K2Cr2O7 crystals accurately into a 100 ml volumetric flask, dissolve in
distilled water and make up to the mark. Mix well and find the normality.

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 (𝑊2 − 𝑊1) X 10

𝑁𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 K2Cr2O7 =
𝐸𝑞. 𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 K2Cr2O7(49 𝑔)

♦ Part B

Burette : Standard K2Cr2O7 solution

Conical flask: 25 ml of TMT bar solution
Indicator : Potassium ferricyanide [K3Fe(CN)6] used as an external indicator
End point : No change in colour of indicator with the test solution drop
Conclusion : From the volume of K2Cr2O7 consumed calculate the % of iron in TMT bar in the
given sample.

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Experiment C4 (CSE & ECE): Estimation of Sodium present in soil/effluent

sample using flame photometry

Significance of experiment

A photoelectric flame photometer is a device used in inorganic chemical analysis that uses the intensity of light
emitted from a flame.1 It has lots of applications.2 It is used in Potash and fertilizer industry for highly accurate
determination of sodium concentrations, Soil and environmental analysis for laboratory measurements for
determination of alkali and alkaline earth elements, drinking water treatment: measurement of calcium and sodium
concentrations in drinking water, glass industry for measurement of sodium concentration in glass and in clinical
applications such as electrolyte determinations in blood and urin in areas without laboratory automation.

Aim: To estimate sodium from a soil/effluent sample solution using flame photometer.

Theory: Emission of characteristic radiation by an element and the correlation of the emission
intensity with concentration of the element form the basis of flame photometry. When a solution
containing sample element or ion is aspirated into the flame, following changes takes place, Firstly,
solvent gets evaporated leaving behind salt in the flame. Then, salt gets evaporated into salt vapors,
which further undergo dissociation into its constituent atoms. Some of the gaseous atoms formed
may absorb heat energy from flame and get electronically excited to their higher energy level.
Being unstable in the excited state, atoms fall back to their ground state, in form of light radiation.
Intensity of emitted light is proportional to number of atoms in the excited state, which in turn is
proportional to the concentration of solution fed into the flame.
Different metals emit their characteristic radiations at different wavelength; they do not interfere
with each other, even when they are present together.
Series of changes taking place at the flame are summarized as follows:
Evaporation Vaporization Dissociation
M+X- → M+X- → MX → MX → M (gas) + X (gas)
Solution Mist Solid Gas

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Instrumentation: A flame photometer consists of an atomizer, mixing chamber, burner, filter,

detector and a display device. Pressurized air is passed into atomizer and due to suction sample
solution is drawn into the atomizer. Inside atomizer it mixes with air stream as a fine mist and
passes into the mixing chamber, it mixes with gas and then passes into burner where mixture is
burnt. The emitted radiation from flame passes through lens and then through a filter which allows
only radiation characteristic of element under study to pass through detector. The output from
detector is read out on a display device.

Procedure for determination of sodium: Transfer 10, 20, 30, and 40 ml of standard sodium
solution into different 100 ml volumetric flasks from a burette. Make up all the solutions using
distilled water and mix the solution well. To the given unknown soil/effluent solution add distilled
water and shakes well. Switch on the instrument, turn the gas supply on and light the gas at the
burner. Place the sodium filter (589 nm) in position. Now dip the capillary tube in a cell containing
distilled water. Adjust the flame photometer to zero with respect to distilled water and hundred
with respect to 100 ppm sodium solution.
Feed the various sodium solutions and test solution through the flame. Note down the flame
photometer reading. Plot a graph of flame photometer readings against concentrations or volume
of the solution to form the calibration curve. Using the curve obtained find out the volume of the
unknown solution containing sodium ions .and calculate the amount of sodium ions in it.

Result:
I) Concentration of sodium in the given unknown solution.................................ppm
II) The Amount of sodium in the unknown solution........................................gm

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Observation and calculations

The concentration of solution:1000 ppm of solution contains 2.54 g NaCl ≡ 1g of Na

Sodium (Na+) ion Flame Photometer Weight of sodium

concentration (ppm) reading (g)
10
20
30
40
Test solution =

Amount of sodium present in test solution = Sodium (Na+) ion concentration /1000 ….g

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Model procedure
Experiment C4. Estimation of Sodium present in soil/effluent sample using
flame photometry

Transfer 10, 20, 30 and 40 ml of standard sodium solution into different 100 ml volumetric flasks
from a burette. Make up all the solutions including unknown soil/effluent solution using distilled
water. After adjusting the air supply from the compressor, ignite the gas burner. Place the sodium
filter (589 nm) in position and dip the capillary tube in a cell containing distilled water. The color
of the flame completely turns to blue. Then, adjust the flame photometer reading to zero for
calibration. After calibration, feed the various sodium solutions prepared through the flame by
spraying with atomizer one by one including the unknown solution. Plot a graph of flame
photometer readings against volume of the Na+ ion solution. From the curve find out the volume
of the unknown solution containing sodium ions and calculate the amount of sodium ions in it.

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Experiment D3 (CSE): Design an experiment to identify the presence of proteins
in given sample
Significance

Proteins are a very versatile group of macromolecules and they form the fundamentals of critical
processes in the body. At the cellular level, they control cell division, metabolism and the movement
of a variety of material and information into and out of cells. These macromolecules ultimately have
an impact on the structure, function and regulation of the tissues and organs in the body. So, it is
important to elucidate the function of proteins and understanding the impact of their presence, absence
and alteration. This is a key to advancing knowledge about diseases, providing the opportunity for
biomarker discovery and development of therapeutics. Also the correct determination of the protein
content of foods is important as, often, as is the case with milk, it determines the economic value of the
food product and it can impact the economic feasibility of new industries for alternative protein
production.

Aim: Identification of the presence of protein molecules via simple wet chemistry methods

Theory: Protein has a high molecular mass long chain polymer composed of α-amino acids.
Proteins are polypeptides of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Proteins are
constituents of cells and hence present in living bodies. Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen and sometimes phosphorus and sulphur. The following are the tests carried to
find the presence of proteins in a given sample.

(a) Biuret Test: The compounds with peptide linkage undergoes this test. An alkaline solution of
protein is treated with a drop of aqueous copper sulfate when a bluish violet color of complex is
obtained. This test can be used for the identification of proteins and also for protein estimation.

(b) Xanthoproteic Test: Proteins on treatment with nitric acid gives a yellow or orange colour.
Concentrated nitric acid is used for nitration. On the treatment of nitric acid, proteins give yellow
precipitate which turns to orange colour on treatment with alkali.

(c) Ninhydrin Test: Proteins reacts with pyridine solution of ninhydrin gives coloured solution

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from deep blue to violet pink sometimes even red colour in some cases. Ninhydrin solution is
prepared by dissolving 0.1gm of ninhydrin in about 100ml of distilled water. But this solution of
ninhydrin is unstable and can be kept for two days.
The chemical reaction is given below.

Procedure
(a) Biuret Test:
Take the given sample to be tested in a clean test tube. Add 2ml of sodium hydroxide solution to
it. To that add 5 to 6 drops of copper sulfate solution to it. The appearance of bluish violet colour
indicates the presence of protein.

(b) Xanthoproteic Test:

Take 2ml of given sample compound in a test tube. Add a few drops of concentrated sulfuric
acid and heat. If there is formation of yellow precipitate then the presence of protein is confirmed.

(c) Ninhydrin Test:

Take the sample solution to be tested in a clean test tube. Add 1-2ml of ninhydrin (0.2 grams of
ninhydrin in 10ml of either ethanol or acetone) solution to it. Boil the mixture and observe the
change. If there is the appearance of blue colouration then the presence of protein is confirmed.

Results
The given sample contains _________.

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Experiment D4 (CSE): Searching suitable PDB file and target for molecular
docking
Aim: To have a basic idea about proteins and its structure. Searching suitable PDB file and target
for molecular docking.

Protein: Proteins are large, complex molecules that are essential to the structure, function, and
regulation of the body's cells, tissues, and organs. They are made up of long chains of smaller
molecules called amino acids, which are linked together in a specific sequence via peptide bond
to form a unique three-dimensional structure.

PDB file
The Protein Data Bank (PDB) is a public repository of three-dimensional structural data of
biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and complex assemblies. The PDB is
managed and maintained by the Worldwide Protein Data Bank organization (wwPDB), which is a
partnership among several organizations from around the world. The data in the PDB is obtained
from experimental techniques such as X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
spectroscopy, and cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM).
The PDB provides access to the coordinates and other important data for more than 200000
macromolecular structures. This information is freely available to the scientific community, and it
is widely used for a variety of purposes, including drug discovery, protein engineering, and
molecular modeling. The PDB is constantly updated with new structures, and it is an essential
resource for researchers in the field of structural biology

Contents of a PDB file

A PDB (Protein Data Bank) file is a file format used to store information about the three-
dimensional structure of biological molecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and small
molecules.
The contents of a PDB file typically include:

• Header: The header contains general information about the file, including the name of the
molecule, the name of the authors who solved the structure, and the date of deposition.
• Atom coordinates: The coordinates of each atom in the molecule are listed in the file.
These coordinates are typically derived from X-ray crystallography or NMR spectroscopy.
• Connectivity information: Information about the connectivity between atoms is also
included in the PDB file. This information is used to build a three-dimensional model of
the molecule.
• Secondary structure information: The PDB file may also contain information about the
secondary structure of the molecule, such as alpha helices and beta sheets.

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• Chemical information: The PDB file may contain information about the chemical
composition of the molecule, including the names and types of amino acids or nucleotides.
• Crystallographic information: If the molecule was solved using X-ray crystallography,
the PDB file may contain information about the crystal structure, such as unit cell
dimensions and symmetry.

How to search a PDB file?

Search by PDB ID: The most straightforward way to search for a PDB file is to use the unique
PDB ID assigned to each entry in the database. You can search for a PDB ID using the search bar
on the PDB website (www.rcsb.org), or by including the PDB ID in your search query on other
databases or search engines.

Instructions for PDB downloading

• -Type in name of protein (examples at bottom of the page).
• Click on Name icon (first name in purple box).
• -On the left side of the screen, click on Download/Display Structure
• -Under Download the Structure File, right click on the X where the PDB (top) meets with
none, under compression (on left) in the table and save target as.
• Save under any filename you would like on your hard drive.

AIM of molecular docking

Molecular docking is a computational technique used to predict the binding orientation and
affinity of a small molecule ligand to a target macromolecule, such as a protein, nucleic acid, or
enzyme.
The goal of molecular docking is to predict the best conformation of a ligand molecule
when it is bound to a receptor protein or other macromolecule, and to estimate the strength of the
binding interaction between the two molecules. This information is important in drug discovery,
where the goal is to find small molecules that can bind selectively and tightly to a target protein or
enzyme to modulate its activity.
There are many different software tools available for molecular docking, which use a
variety of computational algorithms to predict ligand binding. Molecular docking is a useful tool
for identifying new drug candidates, as well as for understanding the mechanisms of protein-ligand
interactions in biological systems.

Result
Structure of Pantothenate Kinese (ID = 2GEV) has been searched in PDB and is as follows.
(Take a print out of Pantothenate Kinese structure taken from PDB and paste it below)

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Experiment D3 (ECE): Determination of glucose by electrochemical Sensor
Significance
Glucose is the most important carbohydrate fuel in the body. In the fed state, the majority of circulating glucose comes
from the diet; in the fasting state, gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis maintain glucose concentrations. Very little
glucose is found in the diet as glucose; most is found in more complex carbohydrates that are broken down to
monosaccharides though the digestive process. About half of the total carbohydrates in the diet are in the form of
polysaccharides and the remainder as simpler sugars. About two-thirds of the sugar in the diet is sucrose, which is a
disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Glucose is classified as a monosaccharide because it cannot be broken down
further by hydrolysis. It is further classified as a hexose because of its six-carbon skeleton and as an aldose, because of
the presence of an aldehyde group on carbon 1. The aldehyde group condenses with a hydroxyl group so that glucose
exists as a hemiacetal ring structure. This ring structure explains many of the reactions of glucose.Ordinarily the
concentration of glucose in the blood is maintained at a relatively stable concentration from 80 to 120 mg/dl. The strong
reducing properties of glucose made it relatively easy to measure and thus the clinical estimation of circulating glucose
was one of the earliest tests available to the clinician. The recent introduction of microglucose oxidase technology has
now made it possible for the patient to measure his or her own blood glucose concentration and undoubtedly makes the
estimation of blood glucose the most widely used test of blood chemistry. An understanding of the methods of blood
glucose measurement will help the clinician to interpret values and avoid the pitfalls of inaccurate testing.

Aim: To determine the level of glucose in blood samples

Working principle of glucose sensor The glucose sensor, determines the concentration of
glucose in the solution. Most glucose meters, are based on electrochemical technology, they use
electrochemical test strips to perform the measurement. In amperometric method, the
electrochemical test strip contains an enzyme electrode containing an enzyme such as Glucose
Oxidase. Glucose undergoes a chemical reaction (oxidation) in the presence of enzymes and
electrons are produced during the chemical reaction, which leads to the generation of current.
These electrons i.e., the charge passing through the electrode (Current) are measured which is
proportional to the concentration of glucose in the solution.

Procedure:
Following steps are used to record the blood glucose level using glucometer
Step 1: Preparation of lancing device
✓ Prepare the lancing device by twisting and removing the mounting part.
✓ Internal cap is then re-attached to the mounting part of the device
✓ Select the depth of the blood sample between the range 1 and 5 where 5 means the deepest
penetration

Step 2: Cleaning glucometer

Step 3: Preparation of glucometer and the strips
✓ Switch off the glucometer before inserting the sample sugar strips. Now insert the glucose
test strip in the glucometer’s test strip port. The glucometer will start automatically with a
beep sound when the strip gets in its contact.

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Step 4: Take the sample and monitor sugar level
✓ A blood sample is applied on the narrow end of the already inserted sugar testing strip.
✓ Wait for around 5 seconds to get the most accurate results. You will get the results given
in g/l, mg/dl, or mmol/l.

Result
Concentration of sugar in the sample: 100 mg/dL

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Experiment D4 (ECE): Synthesis of polyaniline and its conductivity
measurement
Significance of experiment:

The experiment will help to understand and familiarize with the synthesis process of polymeric materials, through the
various aspects of reactants selection, stages of addition, washing and storage. PANI is a conducting polymer, so this is an
application oriented synthesis process in which the product material will be characterized through its conductivity property.
Conductivity (or specific conductance) of an electrolyte solution is a measure of its ability to conduct electricity. The SI unit
of conductivity is siemens per meter (S/m). Conductivity measurements are used routinely in many industrial and
environmental applications as a fast, inexpensive and reliable way of measuring the ionic content in a solution. For example,
the measurement of product conductivity is a typical way to monitor and continuously trend the performance of water
purification systems. Conductivity is traditionally determined by measuring the AC resistance of the solution between two
electrodes. Dilute solutions follow Kohlrausch's Laws of concentration dependence and additivity of ionic contributions.
Lars Onsager gave a theoretical explanation of Kohlrausch's law by extending Debye–Hückel theory.

Aim: Synthesis of polyaniline using ammonium peroxydisulfate oxidizing agent at room

temperature and measurement of its electrical conductivity

Principle:
The synthesis is based on mixing aqueous solutions of aniline hydrochloride and ammonium
peroxydisulfate at room temperature, followed by the separation of PANI hydrochloride precipitate by
filtration and drying. The goal of this study was to prepare PANI with a defined conductivity. The
efficient polymerization of aniline is achieved only in an acidic medium, where aniline exists as an
anilinium cation. For the present study, we have selected hydrochloric acid in equimolar proportion to
aniline, i.e., aniline hydrochloride was used as a monomer. Peroxydisulfate is the most commonly used
oxidant. The Polymerization is completed within 10 min at room temperature and within 1h at 0 –2
°C.

Conducting polymers like PANI has free electron in their matrix due to which they show electrical
conductivity. Conducting polymers have been widely utilized in various applications due to their
conductivity, compatibility and low-cost processability. In addition, compared with traditional metal

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or semiconductor materials, conducting polymers are more biocompatible. These advantages make
conducting polymers more attractive to bioengineering researchers. The mechanism of electrical
conductivity of conducting polymers is based on the transmission of polarons and bipolarons.

Procedure:
PANI is chemically synthesized by oxidative polymerization. A monomer solution is prepared by
adding 6 mL of aniline monomer into 7.5 mL of 1.5 M hydrochloric acid (HCl). Next, 0.75 g of
ammonium persulfate (APS) powder is mixed with 10 mL of 1.5 M HCl solution to form the
initiator solution. The mixture is stirred for 8 h at room temperature. The transformation of the
solution to a blackish-green color indicates the formation of PANI emeraldine salt (PANI-ES).
The addition of 0.1 M ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) into the PANI-ES solution formed PANI
emeraldine base (PANI-EB). The obtained precipitate wash and dry to store.
To measure its electrical conductivity exactly 1g of synthesized PANI can be added into the given
DI water taken in a clean 100 ml beaker and the electrode of the conductivity cell was immersed
into the beaker and conductivity is measured using conductivity meter. Alternatively, make a
coating of synthesized PANI on the electrode surface through drop casting using 1mg in 1ml
solution of PANI from a micropipette and check the conductivity.
Result:
(i) Weight of polyaniline obtained =…………..g
(ii) Color of polyaniline obtained =……………..
(iii) Conductivity of PANI is =………………..Ohm-1

Links to the external sources of information about the topic:

https://doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1442/1/012003

https://doi:10.1088/1757-899X/772/1/012048

https://doi.org/10.1039/D1NJ03198H

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductometry

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Additional Experiment 1 (CSE & ECE): Application of smartphone as an

alternative to colorimeter in the estimation of copper from copper sulfate
solution
Significance of experiment:

Smartphone-based digital image colorimetry represents a powerful and accessible tool with broad applications across various
industries and research disciplines. It holds significant importance in various fields due to its accessibility, convenience, and
relatively low cost compared to traditional colorimetry methods. This makes colorimetry more accessible to individuals,
educational institutions, and small businesses.
.

Aim: Estimation of copper from copper sulfate solution using smartphone-based colorimetry

Principle: When an intense monochromatic light (I0) is incident on a transparent medium, a

portion (Ia) of it is absorbed, while other fractions are reflected (Ir) and (It) is transmitted.
Therefore,
I0 = Ia + I + I t
r

For a glass-air interface, Ir is negligible therefore,

I0 = Ia + It
It/I0=T called the transmittance, log 1/T = log I0/It is called the absorbance or optical density.
The relation between absorbance (A), concentration (c mol/dm3) and path length (cm) is given by
Beer-Lambert’s law
A = logI 0 /I t = ε cl

Where ‘ε’ is the molar extinction coefficient, ‘c’ refers to the concentration and ‘l’
corresponds to the path length which is constant for a given substance at the specified wavelength.
If the length is kept constant, then absorbance of the solution is directly proportional to its
concentration. Thus, plot of ‘A’ vs ‘C’ will always be linear passing through the origin. The
absorbance is measured by the analytical instrument Colorimeter, which generally outlines the
quantitative estimation of colored species in the solution (intensity is recorded as absorbance).

Objectives: The objectives of this experiment are to:

(a) Define the absorbance of the solution;
(b) Relate the light absorption phenomenon to the solution concentration;
(c) Discuss the Beer- Lambert’s law;
(d) Calculate the concentration of unknown solution colorimetrically

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Apparatus: Colorimeter, beaker, burette and volumetric flasks (50 & 100 ml).

Procedure: A standard solution of [Cu(NH3)6]SO4 is obtained by dissolving the specified quantity

of CuSO4 in dilute acid medium and followed by adding aqueous NH3 in 100 ml volumetric flask.
A known volume from this standard solution is diluted with water in 50 ml standard flask and
solutions of increased color intensity is prepared. The absorbance of these solutions is measured
using colorimeter (λmax = 620 nm) followed by monitoring the absorbance of unknown solution.

In the preparative method, color of the aqueous CuSO4 solution is deepened or changes
from light to dark blue with the addition of aqueous NH3 solution. As NH3 is strong field ligand,
d-d transition becomes significant intensifying the color. The solution needs to be acidified
properly to prevent the precipitation of Cu(OH)2.

As colorimeter is not portable and low sensitive to record the absorbance of moderately
concentrated solution (not applicable when high concentrated solutions are used), smart phone
(with color grab app) is employed in our laboratory to record the HSV values of the same solution.
Also, calibration step prior to the measurements can be eliminated. Irrespective of the
configuration of the smart phone used and resolution of the lens (pixels), the HSV values hardly
changed for the ammoniacal solution of copper ions. The accuracy however was found to depend
on distance between the lens of the camera and solution together with minimum influence of
external light sources in the operating area. The enlarged area of the volumetric flask at constant
distance was focused and HSV values were noted only after the displaying of ‘tick mark (√)’ on
the screen. The extra care was taken to record the HSV values using smart phone to avoid errors.

The absorbance recorded from colorimeter and HSV from smart phone are plotted against
the volume of CuSO4 taken from the standard solution (X-YY plot). The graphical values estimated
for the unknown solution found to be almost like that of experimental values, further emphasizing
the application of smart phone as an alternative to colorimeter in the chemistry laboratory.

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Observation and Calculation:

Volume of CuSO4(ml) Absorbance (O.D) HSV (smart phone)

5
10
15
20
25
Unknown ‘c’

100 mL of stock solution contains ‘a’ g of CuSO4

249.54g of CuSO4 = 63.54 g of Cu
63.54
 ‘a’ g of CuSO4 =  a = ………… g of Cu in 100 mL
249.54
=………….. g of Cu in 100 mL
 1 mL of CuSO4= ……………..mg of Cu ( b)
 ’c’ mL of test solution= b  c mg of Cu

=………………. mg of Cu

References:
1. Marc Montagero, Determining the amount of copper (II) ions in a solution using a Smart
phone, Journal of Chemical Education 92 (2015) 1759-1762.
2. Eric Kehoe and R. Lee Penn, Introducing Colorimetric analysis with camera phones and
digital cameras: An Activity for High school or General Chemistry. Journal of Chemical
Education 90 (2013) 1191-1195.

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