CHAPTER 1

UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

KIRAN N

Genius PU College, Mysuru

New, Ring Rd, KBL Layout, Mysuru, Karnataka 570028
 Contents

1 Physical Quantity

2 Measurement

3 Unit

4 System of Units

5 SI System of Units

6 Abbreviations for powers of ten

7 Measurement of Length

8 Measurement of Mass

9 Measurement of Time

10 Significant Figures

11 Accuracy, Precision of Instruments and Errors in Measurement

12 Dimensions of Physical Quantities

 1: Units and Measurements

1 Physical Quantity
A quantity which can be measured and expressed in terms of numerical values is called Physical
Quantity.
Example: Length, Mass, Time, Volume, Velocity etc.,

Non-Physical Quantity
These are quantities, which cannot be measured.
Example: Music, Beauty, Taste, Love, Happy etc.,

Types of Physical Quantity

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• Fundamental Physical Quantity

• Derived Physical Quantity

1.1 Fundamental Physical Quantity

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The Physical Quantities which cannot be derived are called Fundamental Physical Quantity. or
The Physical Quantities which can be defined independently are called Fundamental Physical Quantity.
Example: Length, Mass, Time.

1.2 Derived Physical Quantity

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The Physical Quantities which can be derived using the fundamental physical quantity.
Example: Area, Volume, Velocity, Acceleration etc.,

2 Measurement
The comparison of a physical quantity with a standard quantity is called measurement.
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Measurement of Physical Quantity can be expressed as,

M agnitude of P hysical Quantity = N umerical V alue × Size of the unit

Q=n×u
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3 Unit
A standard amount of a physical quantity chosen to measure the physical quantity of the same kind is
called as Unit.

Types of Physical Unit

• Fundamental Units

• Derived Units

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3.1 Fundamental Units

The units of fundamental quantity which are defined independently are called Fundamental Units. or

The units of Length, Mass and Time are called Fundamental Units
Example: Length, Mass and Time

3.2 Derived Units

The units of measurement of all the physical quantities which are obtained from fundamental units are
called Derived Units. or

The units of other quantities which are derived in terms of fundamental units are called Derived Units.

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Example: Unit of speed m/s, Unit of acceleration m/s2

4 System of Units
A complete set of units which is used to measure the fundamental and derived quantities is called a

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system of units.

Commonly used system of units are,

1. CGS system
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2. FPS system

3. MKS system

4. SI system (extended form of MKS system)

System of units Length Mass Time

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CGS Centimeter Gram Seconds

FPS Foot Pound Seconds
MKS Meter Kilogram Seconds
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5 SI System of Units
SI system stands for System International d’ units.

In 1971, General conference on weights and measurement approved the new system called SI system
of units.

For measuring all physical quantities only three fundamental units are not sufficient. Hence, a new
system having seven fundamental units and two supplementary units has been Internationally adopted.
This system is called SI System of Units.

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 1: Units and Measurements

5.1 Fundamental quantities and their Units

S. No Physical Quantity Unit Symbol
1. Length Meter m
2. Mass Kilogram kg
3. Time Second s
4. Temperature Kelvin K
5. Electric Current Ampere A
6. Luminous Intensity Candela cd

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7. Amount of substance mole mol

5.2 Supplementary quantities and their Units

S. No Physical Quantity Unit Symbol

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1. Plane angle radian rad
2. Solid angle Steradian sr

5.2.1 Plane Angle

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It is the angle subtended at the center of the circle by an arc of a circle.

arc length dl
dθ (P lane angle) = =
Radius r
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5.2.2 Solid Angle

It is the angle subtend at the center of the sphere by the intercepted area of spherical surface.

or

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 1: Units and Measurements

It is a 3D angle enclosed by a conical surface at the vertex (apex of the surface).

Surf ace Area dA

dΩ (Solid angle) = 2
= 2
(Radius) r

5.3 Some derived SI Units

S. No Physical Quantity Defining equation Derived Unit

1. Area (A) A = (length)2 m2

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2. Volume (V) V = (length)3 m3

3. Density (ρ) ρ= mass

volume
kgm−3

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4. Speed (V) v= distance
time
ms−1

velocity
5. Acceleration (a) a= time
ms−2
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6. Force (F) F = mass × acceleration kgms−2 = N (newton)

6. Work or Energy w = f orce × displacement Nm = J (joule)

7. Power (P) P = work

time
Js−1 = W (watt)
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5.4 Advantages of SI Units

1. Coherent system of units.

2. Rational system of units.

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3. Metric system.

4. They are comprehensive.

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6 Abbreviations for powers of ten

Multiple Prefix Symbol Sub-multiple Prefix Symbol
101 deca da 10−1 deci d
102 hecta h 10−2 centi c
103 kilo k 10−3 milli m
106 mega M 10−6 micro µ
109 giga G 10−9 nano n
1012 tera T 10−12 pico p

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1015 peta P 10−15 femto f
1018 exa E 10−18 atto a
Example:

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1 mega ohm = 1M Ω = 106 Ω

1 milliamphere = 1mA = 10−3 A

1 kilometer = 1km = 103 m

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1 microvolt = 1µV = 10−6 V

1 nanosecond = 1ns = 10−9 s

7 Measurement of Length
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There are two methods of measurement of length

1. Direct Method.
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2. Indirect Method.

7.1 Direct Method

This method is used for measurement of small distances.

For Example:

(a) Meter scale - Range of lengths 10−3 m to 102 m.

(b) Vernier clipper’s - used to measure lengths to an accuracy of 10−4 m.

(c) Screw gauge and Spectrometer - to an accuracy of 10−5 m.

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7.2 Indirect Method

This method is used for measurement of very large distances.

For Example: Parallax method.

7.3 Parallax Method

It’s the relative shift (apparent shift) in the position of an object with respect to background.

7.3.1 Parallax angle or Parallactic angle

The angle subtended at the object between the two directions through which the distant object is

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viewed is called Parallax angle or Parallactic angle.

7.3.2 Basis in Parallax Method

In Parallax Method, the distance between the two points of observation is called the basis.

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7.4 Parallax Method for the determination of large distances
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To measure the distance D of a far away planet P, we observe it simultaneously from two positions A
and B on the Earth separated by a large distance AB = b.
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Since b ≪ a, θ is very small.

So we can take,

b - arc length of a circle with centre at P.

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D - radius of the circle.

Arc length
Parallax angle =
Radius
b
θ=
D
b
D=
θ

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7.5 Determine the diameter (size) of a planet using parallax method

Let AB be the diameter d of the planet which is to be measured by an observer on the earth and θ be
the angle subtended by the two opposite ends of A and B at point E on the Earth.

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As, d ≪ D, θ is very small.

So we can take,

d - arc length of a circle with centre at E.

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D - radius of the circle.

Arc length
Parallax angle =
Radius
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d
θ=
D
Diameter of the planet,
d = Dθ

7.6 Units of Length used in Astronomy

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1. Astronomical Unit (A.U)

1 A.U is the average distance between the Sun and the Earth.

1A.U = 1.496 × 1011 m = 1.5 × 1011 m

1A.U = 1.5 × 1011 m
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2. Light Year (ly)

It is the distance travelled by light in vacuum in one year.

1 ly = (speed of light in vacuum) × 1 Y ear

1 ly = 3 × 108 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60
1 ly = 9.46 × 1015
1 ly ≈ 9.5 × 1015
1ly = 9.5 × 1015 m

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3. Parsec
The distance by which arc length of 1A.U subtends by an angle of 1” .

1P arsec = 3.1 × 1014 m

7.7 Range of Length

The range of lengths vary from the size of the order of 10−15 m (size of a proton) to 1026 m (size of the
observable universe).

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Note: Conversations
Degree to radian Minute of arc to radian Seconds of arc to radian
πc
1= 180
1 = 60′ 1′ = 60”
1= 22
= 0.0174 1 = 60 × 1′ 1′ = 60 × 1”

&
7×180
1′
1 = 1.74 × 10−2 rad 1′ = 1
60
1” = 60
1.74×10−2 2.9×10−4
1′ = 60
1” = 60

1′ = 2.9 × 10−4 rad 1” = 4.83 × 10−6 rad

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8 Measurement of Mass
Mass is a basic property. of matter. It is the quantity of matter. SI unit of mass is kilogram.

Mass of commonly available objects can be measured by common balance like the one used in a
grocery shop.
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Large masses in the universe like planets, stars etc can be measured using Newton’s law of gravi-
tation.

Mass of atomic and sub atomic particles can be measured using mass spectrograph method.
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Atomic mass unit (u):

This unit is used to express mass of atoms and molecules.

1 th
of mass of C 12 atom = 1.66 × 10−27 kg


1U = 12

8.1 Range of Mass

The masses of objects vary from 10−30 kg (mass of an electron) to 1055 kg (mass of the known universe).

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9 Measurement of Time
It is based on the principle vibrations produced in the cesium atom.

9.1 Range of Time

The range of time varies from 10−24 s (life span of most unstable particles) to 1017 s (age of the universe).

Note:
1. The device used to measure time accurately is Cesium clock or atomic clock.
2. The laboratory to maintain the Indian standard of time is National Physical Laboratory (NPL).

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10 Significant Figures
The digits required to express a physical quantity correctly are called significant figures or significant
digits.
or

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Significant figures in the measured value of a physical quantity tell the number of digits which are
trustworthy.

10.1 Rules for counting significant figures

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1. All non-zero digits are significant.
Example: X = 1234 has four significant figures.

2. All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant.

Example: X = 1007 has four significant figures.

3. Leading Zeros: All zeros to the right of the last non-zero digits are not significant.
Example: X = 0.001245 has four significant figures.
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4. Trailing Zeros:

(a) In a number without a decimal point, trailing zeros are not significant.
Example: X = 2110 has three significant figures
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(b) The trailing zeros in a number with a decimal point are significant.
Example: X = 2.500 has four significant figures

10.2 Rules for arithmetic operations with significant figures

1. Addition or Subtraction
The final result should retain as many decimal places as are there in the number with the least
decimal places.

Example: If l1 = 2.1 m, l2 = 1.78 m and l3 = 2.046 m the sum of three measurement of length is
5.926 m.

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Since l1 = 2.1 m has measured up to one decimal places, then the sum of measurement is rounded
off to 5.9 m.

2. Multiplication or Division
The final result should retain as many significant figures, as are there in the original number with
the least significant figures.

Example: If length = 12.5 m and breadth = 4.125 m then Area is,

Area, A = length × breadth = 12.5 × 4.125 = 51.5625 m2

Since, length has only 3 significant figures therefore A = 51.6m2

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11 Accuracy, Precision of Instruments and Errors in Mea-
surement
11.1 Accuracy

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The closeness of a measurement to the True Value is called Accuracy.

11.2 Precision of Instruments

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Precision refers to the resolution or limit in measurement. or

It means how the measured values are close to each other.

11.3 Errors in Measurement

The difference between the True value and the Measured value of a quantity is called the Errors of
Measurement.
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In general, the errors in measurement can be broadly classified into two types,

• Systematic Errors

• Random Errors
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11.3.1 Systematic Errors

Those errors that appear in a measurement due to known causes are called Systematic Errors. or

The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either positive or negative.

• Instrumental errors

• Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure

• Personal errors

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1. Instrumental errors:

The errors due to imperfect design or calibration of the measuring instrument etc. are called
instrumental errors.

2. Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure:

The error arises when imperfect experimental procedure is followed.

For Example:
To determine the temperature of a human body, a thermometer placed under the armpit will
always give a temperature lower than the actual value of the body temperature.

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3. Personal errors:

The errors due to individual carelessness in taking measurements.

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Method to minimize the systematic error:
1. by improving experimental techniques.

2. by selecting better instruments.

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3. by removing personal errors.

11.3.2 Random Errors

Those errors which appear in a measurement due to the unknown causes are called Random Errors.

11.4 Least count errors

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The error associated with the resolution of the instrument is called least count error. or
The minimum value which an instrument can measure. For Example:

• Least count of a vernier calipers is 0.01 cm.

• Least count of a screw gauge is 0.001 cm.

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• Least count of a spherometer is 0.001 cm.

11.5 True value or Mean value or Absolute value (amean )

The true value of a physical quantity is the arithmetic mean of a large number of readings of that
physical quantity.
If a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . . . . , an are the n different readings of a physical quantity in a experiment, then the true
value of that quantity is,
a1 + a2 + . . . · · · + an
amean or ā =
n

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n
P
ai
i=1
amean =
n

11.6 Absolute errors (∆a)

The magnitude of the difference between the individual measured value of the quantity and the true
value is called absolute error of the measurement.

Absolute error of each trail is,

∆ a1 = |a1 − amean |

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∆ a2 = |a2 − amean |
∆ a3 = |a3 − amean |
..
.
..
.

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∆ an = |an − amean |

11.7 Mean Absolute errors (∆amean )

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The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is known as mean absolute error.

|∆a1 | + |∆a2 | + . . . · · · + |∆an |

∆amean =
n

11.8 Relative errors or Fractional errors (δa)

The ratio of the mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity measured is called relative error
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or fractional error.

mean absolute error

Relative error =
mean value
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∆amean
δa =
amean

11.9 Percentage error ( δa %)

When the relative error is expressed in percent, it is called the percentage error.

P ercentage error = Relative error × 100%

δa % = δa × 100%

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11.10 Combination of Errors

1. Error of a sum or a difference.
2. Error of a product or a division or a quotient.
3. Error in case of a measured quantity raised to a power.

1. Error of a sum or a difference.

Let us take, Z = A + B
Here, A and B are the two observed quantities.

∆A and ∆B are the absolute errors in the measurements of quantities A and B the measurement will

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be recorded as, A + ∆A and B + ∆B.

If ∆Z is the absolute error in Z, then

(Z ± ∆Z) = (A ± ∆A) + (B ± ∆B)

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(Z ± ∆Z) = (A + B) ± (∆A + ∆B)
Z ± ∆Z = Z ± (∆A + ∆B)
±∆Z = ± (∆A + ∆B)
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±∆Z = ± (∆A + ∆B)

Rule: When two quantities are added or subtracted, the absolute error in the final
result is the sum of the absolute errors in the individual quantities.

2. Error of a product or a division.

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Let us take, Z = A × B
Here, A and B are the two observed quantities.

∆A and ∆B are the absolute errors in the measurements of quantities A and B the measurement will
be recorded as, A + ∆A and B + ∆B.
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If ∆Z is the absolute error in Z, then

(Z ± ∆Z) = (A ± ∆A) × (B ± ∆B)

(Z ± ∆Z) = AB ± A∆B ± B ± ∆A ± ∆A∆B
Z ± ∆Z = Z ± A∆B ± B ± ∆A ± very small∆A∆B
±∆Z = ±B∆A ± A∆B
dividing both side by Z
∆Z ±B∆A ± A∆B
± =
Z Z

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∆Z B∆A A∆B
± =± ±
Z AB AB
∆Z ∆A ∆B
± =± ±
Z A B
 
∆Z ∆A ∆B
± =± +
Z A B
Rule: When two quantities are multiplied or divided, the relative error in the result
is the sum of the relative errors in the multipliers.

3. Error in case of a measured quantity raised to a power.

Suppose Z = A2

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Then, Z = A × A

∆Z ∆A ∆A
= +
Z A A
∆Z ∆A
=2×

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Z A
∆Z ∆A
=2×
Z A
In General,
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Ap B q
Z=
Cr 
    
∆Z ∆A ∆B ∆C
=p +q +r
Z A B C
     
∆Z ∆A ∆B ∆C
=p +q +r
Z A B C
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Rule: The relative error in a physical quantity raised to the power k is the k times the
relative error in the individual quantity.

12 Dimensions of Physical Quantities

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12.1 Dimensions of Physical Quantities

The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental quantities are raised
to represent that quantity.
Example:
mass
Density =
volume
m
Density =
V
[M ]
= 3
[L ]
= [M 1 L−3 T 0 ]

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12.2 Dimensional formula and Dimensional equation

The equation with which the physical quantities can be expressed in terms of fundamental units are
called dimensional formula

Example:
The dimensional formula of acceleration is [M 0 L1 T −2 ]

The equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is called the di-
mensional equation of the given physical quantity.

Example:
Momentum = mass × velocity = [M 0 L1 T −2 ]

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12.3 Dimensional formulae of some physical quantities
1. Area = length × breadth
= [L] × [L]

&
= [L2 ]
= [M 0 L2 T 0 ]
2. Volume = length × breadth × height
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= [L] × [L] × [L]
= [L3 ]
mass
3. Density = V olume
[M ]
= [V ]
[M 1
=
N

[L3 ]

= [M 1 L−3 T 0 ]
distance
4. Speed or velocity = time
[L]
= [T ]
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= [M 0 L1 T −1 ]
velocity
5. Acceleration = time
distance
= time
time
distance
= time×time
[L1 ]
= [T 2 ]

= [M 0 L1 T −2 ]

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6. Force = mass × acceleration

velocity
= mass × time
distance
= mass × time
time
distance
= mass × time×time
[L1 ]
= [M ] × [T 2]

= [M 1 L1 T −2 ]
Sl. Physical Relation with other Dimensional SI Unit
No Quantity Physical Quantity Formula Unit

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1. Velocity displacment/time [M 0 L1 T −1 ] ms−1
2. Acceleration velocity/time [M 0 L1 T −2 ] ms−2
3. Force mass ×acceleration [M 1 L1 T −2 ] N or kgms−2
4. Linear Momentum mass ×velocity [M 1 L1 T −1 ] kgms−1

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5. Work or Energy or Heat force × displacement [M 1 L2 T −2 ] Nm
6. Power work/time [M 1 L2 T −3 ] watt (w)
7. Pressure force/area [M 1 L−1 T −2 ] N m−1
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8. Frequency 1/time [M 0 L0 T −1 ] Hz
9. Angular Momentum Momentum ×radius [M 1 L2 T −1 ] kgm2 /sec
10. Moment of Inertia mass ×(distance)2 [M 1 L2 T 0 ] kg m2
11. Torque or force ×distance [M 1 L2 T −2 ] Nm
Moment of a force
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12. Impulse force ×time [M 1 L1 T −1 ] Ns

13. Surface Tension force/length [M 1 L0 T −2 ] N/m
14. Stress force/area [M 1 L−1 T −2 ] Pascals or Nm−2
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F d2
15. Gravitational G= m1 m2
[M −1 L3 T −2 ] Nm2 /kg 2
Constant (G)
16. acceleration g= GM
r2
[M 0 L1 T −2 ] m/s²
due to gravity (g)
17. Kinetic Energy 1
2
mv 2 [M 1 L2 T −2 ] Joules
18. Potential Energy mgh [M 1 L2 T −2 ] Joules
energy
19. Plank’s constant f requency
[M 1 L2 T −1 ] Js
20. Radius of gyration distance [M 0 L1 T 0 ] m

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12.4 Principle of homogeneity of dimensions

The principle of homogeneity of dimensions states that the dimensions if all the terms on both sides of
any physical equation must be same.

12.5 Dimensional analysis

Dimensional analysis means the use of dimensional equations based on the principle of homogeneity of
dimensions.

12.6 Applications of Dimensional analysis

A To check the correctness of an equation connecting physical quantities.

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B To derive an equation connecting physical quantities.

C To derive an equation connecting physical quantities.

A. To check the correctness of an equation connecting physical quantities.

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Step I. Dimensions of each term in LHS and RHS is written.

Step II. Powers of L, M, T should be separately equal for each term in LHS and RHS. Then the
equation is dimensionally correct. Otherwise it is wrong.
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Problems:
1. Check the correctness of an equation s = ut + 21 at2 by the method of dimensions. where s is the
displacement of the body, u is its velocity, a is acceleration and t is the time. Solution
Step I.

[s] = [L]
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[ut] = [LT −1 × T ] = [L]

 
1 2
at = [at2 ] = [LT −2 × T 2 ] = [L]
2

Here, 1/2 has no dimensions since it is a number.

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Step II.

[LHS] = [L]
[RHS] = [L] + [L]

All the terms in LHS and RHS have same dimensions. Hence the equations is correct.

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B. To derive an equation connecting physical quantities.

Problems:
1. Derive the equation for period (T) of a simple pendulum assuming that it may depend on the mass
(m) of the bob, length (l) of the pendulum and acceleration due to gravity (g) at the place.

Solution
Step I.
T ∝ mx ly g z (1)
T = kmx ly g z (2)
where k is the proportionality constant which is dimensionless.

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Step II.
[T ] = [T ]
[m] = [M ]
[l] = [L]

&
[g] = [LT −2 ]
R.H.S = M x Ly (LT −2 )z = M x Ly+z T −2z
Step III. According to principle of homogeneity
[L.H.S] = [R.H.S]
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[M 0 L0 T 1 ] = [M x Ly+z T −2z ]
x=0
y+z =0
1
−2z = 1 or z = −
2
1
y=+
2
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Step IV. Substituting in Eq.(2),

1 1
T = k.m0 l 2 g − 2
1
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l2
T =k 1
g2
  12
l
T =k
g
s
l
T =k
g

s
l
T =k
g

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1 and 2 Marks Questions

1. What is a physical quantity?

2. What is meant by measurement of a physical quantity?

3. Mention the terms required to measure a physical quantity?

4. Define unit of physical quantity?

5. Mention two types of units?

6. What are fundamental units? Give one example.

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7. What are derived units? Give one example

8. What is a system of units?

9. Mention the system of units?

10. What is the expansion of SI system?

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11. Give the basic units of length in CGS / MKS / FPS SI system.

12. Given the base units of mass in CGS / MKS / FPS SI system.

13. Name the unit of time in all systems.

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14. Write the advantages of SI units.

15. Mention the two supplementary units in SI system?

16. Define the supplementary units of ”plane angle’ and ’solid angle.

17. What is a parallax?

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18. What is basis in parallax method?

19. What is parallax angle? or What is parallactic angle?

20. Name the unit which can be used for the measurement of very small masses.
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21. Define atomic mass unit?

22. Distinguish between the terms ’accuracy’ and precision’ of a measurement.

23. What is meant by error in a measurement?

24. What are systematic errors? Mention any two sources of systematic errors.

25. What is meant by least count error?

26. What are the dimensions of a physical quantity?

27. What is meant by dimensional analysis?

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28. State the principle of homogeneity?

29. Mention a physical quantity represented by the dimensional formula [M 1 L2 T −2 ]

30. Mention a pair of dimensionless physical quantities.

31. Mention a pair of physical quantities of same dimensions.

32. Obtain the dimensions of gravitational constant.

33. Write the dimensional formula for (i) force and (ii) Pressure.

34. Mention two uses of dimensional analysis. or

Mention any two applications of dimensional analysis.

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35. Mention any two limitations of dimensional analysis.

3 and 5 Marks Questions

1. Mention the seven basic units in SI system.

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2. Explain parallax method of determining the large distance.

3. Explain parallax method of determining the size of moon/planet. or

How to determine the diameter (size) of a planet using parallax method? Explain
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4. What are True value, absolute error, mean absolute error, relative error and percentage error?
Explain.

5. Check the correctness of the equation v = v0 + at or (y = u + at) by the method of dimensions,

where v - final velocity, vo - initial velocity, a - uniform acceleration, t - time.

6. Check the dimensional consistency of the equation v 2 = u2 + 2as where the symbols have their
usual meaning.
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7. Check the correctness of an equation x = ut + 21 at2 by the method of dimensions. where x is the
displacement of the body, u is its velocity, a is acceleration and t is the time.
mv 2
8. Check the equation F = r
using dimensional analysis.
K

9. Check the correctness of an equation 12 mv 2 = mgh by the method of dimensions, where m is the
mass of the body, v is its velocity, g is acceleration due to gravity and h is the height.

10. The period (T) of a simple pendulum depends on the length (l) of the simple pendulum and
the acceleration due to gravity (g) at a place. Obtain an expression for (T) by the method of
dimensions.

11. Derive an expression for centripetal force (F ) assuming that it depends on mass of the rotating
body (m), its linear velocity (v) and radius of the circular path (r) using dimensional analysis.

12. The frequency of vibration of a stretched string (v), depends on length (l), tension (T ) and mass
per unit length (m) of the string. By dimensional analysis, arrive at the expression for frequency.

Genius PU College, Mysore 20 KIRAN N