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Theory of Stabilization
for Linear Boundary
Control Systems
Theory of Stabilization
Fermented Meat Products
Health Aspects
for Linear Boundary
Control Systems

Edited by
Nevijo Zdolec
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Department of Hygiene
TechnologyTakao
and FoodNambu
Safety Heinzelova 55
Professor Emeritus
10000 Zagreb, Croatia
Department of Applied Mathematics
Kobe University
Kobe, Japan
CRC Press
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 To my family,
Mariko, Ryutaro, and Hiromu.
Preface

This monograph studies the stabilization theory for linear systems governed by
partial differential equations of parabolic type in a unified manner. As long as
controlled plants are relatively small, such as electric circuits and mechanical
oscillations/rotations of rigid bodies, ordinary differential equations,
abbreviated as ode(s), are suitable mathematical models to describe them. When
the controlled plants are, e.g., chemical reactors, wings of aircrafts, or other
flexible systems such as robotics arms, plates, bridges, and cranes, however,
effects of space variables are essential and non-neglegeble terms. For the set up
of mathematical models describing these plants, partial differential equations,
abbreviated as pde(s), are a more suitable language. It is generally expected that
control laws based on more accurate pde models would work effectively in
actual applications.
The origin of control theory is said to be the paper, “On governors” by
J.C. Maxwell (1868). For many years, control theory has been studied mainly
for systems governed by odes in which controlled plants are relatively small.
Control theory for pdes began in 60’s of the 20th century, and the study of
stabilization in mid 70’s to cope with much larger systems. Fundamental
concepts of control such as controllability, observability, optimality, and
stabilizability are the same as in those of odes, and translated by the language of
pdes. The essence of pdes consists in their infinite-dimensional properties, so
that control problems of pdes face serious difficulties in respective aspects,
which have never been experienced in the world of odes: However, these
difficulties provide us rich and challenging fields of study both from
mathematical and engineering viewpoints.
Among other control problems of pdes such as optimal control problems,
etc., we concentrate ourselves on the topic of stabilization problems.
Stabilization problems of pdes have a new aspect of pdes in the framework of
synthesis (or design) of a desirable spectrum by involving the concept of

vii
viii  Theory of Stabilization for Linear Boundary Control Systems

observation/control, and are connected not only with functional analysis but
also non-harmonic analysis and classical Fourier analysis, etc. The monograph
consists of eight chapters which strongly reflects the author’s works over thirty
years except for Chapter 2: Some were taught in graduate courses at Kobe
University. The organization of the monograph is stated as follows: It begins
with the linear tabilization problem of finite dimension in Chapter 1.
Finite-dimensional models constitute pseudo-internal structures of pdes.
Although the problem is entirely solved by W. M. Wonham in 1967 [70], we
develop a much easier new approach, which has never appeared even among the
community of finite-dimensional control theory: It is based on Sylvester’s
equation. Infinite-dimensional versions of the equation appear in later chapters
as an essential tool for stabilization problems throughout the monograph.
Chapter 2 is a brief introduction of basic results on standard elliptic differential
operators L and related Sobolev spaces necessary for our control problems:
These results are well known among the pdes community, but proofs of some
results are stated for the readers’ convenience. As for results requiring much
preparation we only provide some references instead of proofs. In Chapters 3
through 7, the main topics discussed are, where stabilization problems of linear
parabolic systems are successfully solved in the boundary observation/boundary
feedback scheme. The elliptic operator L is derived from a pair of standard (but
general enough) differential operators (L , τ ), and forms the coefficient of our
control systems, where L denotes a uniformly elliptic differential operator and
τ a boundary operator. The operator L is sectorial, and thus −L turns out to be
an infinitesimal generator of an analytic semigroup. One of important issues is
certainly the existence or non-existence of Riesz bases associated with L: When
an associated Riesz basis exists, a sequence of finite-dimensional approximation
models of the original pde is quantitatively justified, so that the control laws
based on the approximated finite-dimensional models effectively works. There
is an attempt to draw out a class of elliptic operators with Riesz bases (see the
footnote in the beginning of Chapter 4). However, is the class of pdes admitting
associated Riesz bases general enough or much narrower than expected? We do
not have a satisfactory solution to the question yet. Based on these observations,
our feedback laws are constructed so that they are applied to a general class of
pdes, without assuming Riesz bases.
There are two kinds of feedback schemes: One is a static feedback scheme,
and the other a dynamic feedback scheme. In Chapter 3, the stabilization
problem and related problems are discussed in the static feedback scheme, in
which the outputs of the system are directly fed back into the system through
the actuators. While the scheme has difficulties in engineering implementations,
it works as an auxiliary means in the dynamic feedback schemes. In Chapter 4,
we establish stabilization in the scheme of boundary observation/boundary
feedback. The feedback scheme is the dynamic feedback scheme, in which the
outputs on the boundary are fed back into the system through another
 Preface  ix

differential equation described in another abstract space. This differential

equation is called a dynamic compensator, the concept of which originates from
D. G. Luenberger’s paper [33] in 1966 for linear odes. In his paper, two kinds of
compensators are proposed: One is an identity compensator, and the other a
compensator of general type. We formulate the latter compensator in the
feedback loop to cope with the stabilization problem, and finally reduce the
compensator to a finite-dimensional one. All arguments are algebraic, and do
not depend on the kind of boundary operators τ . In Chapter 5, the problem is
discussed from another viewpoint when the system admits a Riesz basis. Since a
finite-dimensional approximation to the pde is available as a strongly effective
means, an identity compensator is installed in the feedback loop. Most
stabilization results in the literature are based on identity compensators, but
have difficulty in terms of mathematical generality. In Chapters 4 and 5,
observability and controllability conditions on sensors and actuators,
respectively, are assumed on the pseudo-internal substructure of finite
dimension. We then ask in Chapter 6 the following: What can we claim when
the observability and controllability conditions are lost? Output stabilization is
one of the answers: Assuming an associated Riesz basis, we propose sufficient
conditions on output stabilization. A related problem is also discussed, which
leads to a new problem, that is, the problem of pole allocation with constraints.
To show mathematical generality of our stabilization scheme, we generalize in
Chapter 7 the class of operators L, in which −L is a generator of eventually
differentiable semigroups: A class of delay-differential equations generates such
operators L.
In our general stabilization scheme, we solve an inverse problem associated
with the infinite-dimensional Sylvester’s equation. The problem forms a so
called ill-posed problem lacking of continuity property. Finally in Chapter 8, we
propose a numerical approximation algorhism to the inverse problem, the
solution of which is mathematically ensured. The algorhism consists of a simple
idea, but needs tedious calculations. Although the algorhism has some
restrictions at present, it is expected that it would work in more general settings
of the parameters. Numerical approximation itself is a problem independent of
our stabilization problem. However, the latter certainly leads to a development
of new problems in numerical analysis. The author hopes that willing readers
could open a new area in effective numerical algorhisms.
The author in his graduate school days had an opportunity to read papers by
Y. Sakawa, by H. O. Fattorini, and by S. Agmon and L. Nirenberg ([2, 17, 18,
57]) among others, and learned about the close relationships lying in differential
equations, functional analysis, and the theory of functions. Inspired by these
results, he had a hope to contribute to deep results of such nature, since then. He
x  Theory of Stabilization for Linear Boundary Control Systems

is not certain now, but would be happy, if the monograph coould reflect his hope
even a little.

Takao Nambu
December, 2015
Kobe
Contents

Preface .....................................................................................................................vii

1. Preliminary results—Stabilization of linear systems of finite dimension ....1

1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................1
1.2 Main results ............................................................................................. 6
1.3 Observability: Reduction to substructures ............................................14
1.4 The case of a single observation ............................................................17

2 Preliminary results: Basic theory of elliptic operators................................ 27

2.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................27
2.2 Brief survey of Sobolev spaces .............................................................28
2.3 Elliptic boundary valule problems......................................................... 36
2.3.1 The Dirichlet boundary ............................................................... 36
2.3.2 The Robin boundary....................................................................41
2.3.3 The case of a general boundary...................................................43
2.3.4 On the domain of fractional powers Lcq with Robinboundary .... 48
2.4 Analytic semigroup .....................................................................51

3 Stabilization of linear systems of infinite dimension: Static feedback .......55

3.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................55
3.2 Decomposition of the system ................................................................ 59
3.3 Remark on the choice of the decay rate.................................................64
3.4 Stability enhancement ...........................................................................69
3.5 Some generalization ..............................................................................78

4 Stabilization of linear systems of infinite dimension: Dynamic

feedback ...........................................................................................................93
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................93
4.2 Boundary Control Systems ....................................................... 107
4.3 Stabilization............................................................................... 113
4.4 Another Construction of Stabilizing Compensators .................134
4.5 Alternative Framework of Stabilization .............................................. 140
xii  Theory of Stabilization for Linear Boundary Control Systems

4.6 The Robin Boundary and Fractional Powers....................................... 152

4.7 Some Related Topics ........................................................................... 159
4.7.1 On the growth rate of s(B) ........................................................159
4.7.2 On fractional powers of elliptic operators characterized
by feedback boundary conditions..............................................163

5 Stabilization of linear systems with Riesz Bases: Dynamic feedback ...... 171
5.1 Introduction .........................................................................................171
5.2 Boundary Control Systems ..................................................................173
5.3 Another Model of Identity Compensators ........................................... 187

6 Output stabilization : lack of the observability and/or the

controllability conditions..............................................................................193
6.1 Introduction .........................................................................................193
6.2 Output stabilization ............................................................................. 196
6.3 Application to boundary control systems ............................................202
6.3.1 Algebraic approach to boundary control systems .....................205
6.3.2 Some generalization ..................................................................209
6.4 Operator L admitting generalized eigenvectors ................................... 211
6.5 Some functionals .................................................................................212

7 Stabilization of a class of linear control systems generating

C0-semigroups ................................................................................................ 223
7.1 Introduction .........................................................................................223
7.2 Basic properties of the semigroup ....................................................... 225
7.3 Stabilization ........................................................................................ 234

8 A Computational Algorhism for an Infinite-Dimensional

Sylvester’s Equation .....................................................................................247
8.1 Introduction .........................................................................................247
8.2 An algorhism ....................................................................................... 251

References ............................................................................................................. 265

Index ......................................................................................................................271
Chapter 1

Preliminary results -
Stabilization of linear
systems of finite
dimension

1.1 Introduction
We develop in this chapter the basic problem arising from stabilization
problems of finite-dimension. Since the celebrated pole assignment theory [70]
(see also [56, 68]) for linear control systems of finite dimension appeared, the
theory has been applied to various stabilization problems both of finite
dimension and infinite dimension such as the one with boundary
output/boundary input scheme (see, e.g., [12, 13, 28, 37 – 40, 42 – 45, 47 – 50,
53, 58, 59] and the references therein). The symbol Hn , n = 1, 2, . . . , hereafter
will denote a finite-dimensional Hilbert space with dim Hn = n, equipped with
inner product ⟨·, ·⟩n and norm ∥·∥. The symbol ∥·∥ is also used for the
L (Hn )-norm. Let L, G, and W be operators in L (Hn ), L (CN ; Hn ), and
L (Hn ; CN ), respectively. Here and hereafter, the symbol L (R; S), R and S
being linear spaces of finite or infinite dimension, means the set of all linear
bounded operators mapping R into S. The set L (R; S) forms a linear space.
When R = S, L (R; R) is abbreviated simply as L (R). Given L, W , and any set
of n complex numbers, Z = {ζi }16i6n , the problem is to seek a suitable G such
that σ (L − GW ) = Z, where σ (L − GW ) means the spectrum of the operator
2  Theory of Stabilization for Linear Boundary Control Systems

L − GW . Or alternatively, given L and G, its algebraic counterpart is to seek a W

such that σ (L − GW ) = Z. Stimulated by the result of [70], various approaches
and algorhisms for computation of G or W have been proposed since then (see,
e.g., [7, 10, 14]). However, each approach needs much preparation and a deep
background in linear algebra to achieve stabilization and determine the
necessary parameters. Explicit realizations of G or W sometimes seem
complicated. One for this is no doubt the complexity of the process in
determining G or W exactly satisfying the relation, σ (L − GW ) = Z.
Let us describe our control system: Our system, consisting of a state
u(·) ∈ Hn , output y = Wu ∈ CN , and input f ∈ CN , is described by a linear
differential equation in Hn ,
du
+ Lu = G f , y = Wu, u(0) = u0 ∈ Hn . (1.1)
dt
Here, N
Gf = ∑ fk gk for f = ( f1 . . . fN )T ∈ CN ,
(1.2)
k=1
( )T
Wu = ⟨u, w1 ⟩n . . . ⟨u, wN ⟩n for u ∈ Hn ,
(. . .)T denoting the transpose of vectors or matrices throughout the monogtaph.
The vectors wk ∈ Hn denote given weights of the observation (output); and gk ∈
Hn are actuators to be constructed. By setting f = y in (1.1), the control system
yields a feedback system,
du
+ (L − GW )u = 0, u(0) = u0 ∈ Hn . (1.3)
dt
According to the choice of a basis for Hn , the operators L, G, and W are
identified with matrices of respective size. We hereafter employ the above
symbols somewhat different from those familiar in the control theory
community of finite dimension, in which state of the system, for example,
would be often represented as x(·); output Cx; input u; and equation
dx
= Ax + Bu = (A + BC)x, u = Cx.
dt
The reason for employing present symbols is that they are consistent with those
in systems of infinite dimension discussed in later chapters.
Let us assume that σ (L) ∩ C− ̸= ∅, so that the system (1.1) with f = 0 is
unstable. Given a µ > 0, the stabilization problem for the finite dimensional
control system (1.3) is to seek a G or W such that

e−t(L−GW ) 6 const e−µ t , t > 0. (1.4)

The pole assignment theory [70] plays a fundamental role in the above problem,
and has been applied so far to various linear systems. The theory is concretely
 Preliminary results - Stabilization of linear systems of finite dimension  3

stated as follows: Let Z = {ζi }16i6n be any set of n complex numbers, where some
ζi may coincide. Then, there exists an operator G such that σ (L − GW ) = Z,
if and only if the pair (W, L) is observable. Thus, if the set Z is chosen such
that min ζ ∈Z Re ζ , say µ (= Re ζ1 ) is positive, and if there is no generalized
eigenspace of L − GW corresponding to ζ1 , we obtain the decay estimate (1.4).
Now we ask: Do we need all information on σ (L − GW ) for stabilization?
In fact, to obtain the decay estimate (1.4), it is not necessary to designate all
elements of the set Z: What is really necessary is the number,
µ = min ζi ∈Z Re ζi , say = Re ζ1 , and the spectral property that ζ1 does not allow
any generalized eigenspace; the latter is the requirement that no factor of
algebraic growth in time is added to the right-hand side of (1.4). In fact, when
an algebraic growth is added, the decay property becomes a little worse, and
the gain constant (> 1) in (1.4) increases. The above operator L − GW also
appears, as a pseudo-substructure, in the stabilization problems of infinite
dimensional linear systems such as parabolic systems and/or retarded systems
(see, e.g., [16]): These systems are decomposed into two, and understood as
composite systems consisting of two states; one belonging to a finite
dimensional subspace, and the other to an infinite dimensional one. It is
impossible, however, to manage the infinite dimensional substructures. Thus, no
matter how precisely the finite dimensional spectrum σ (L − GW ) could be
assigned, it does not exactly dominate the whole structure of infinite
dimension. In other words, the assigned spectrum of finite dimension is not
necessarily a subset of the spectrum of the infinite-dimensional feedback
control system.
In view of the above observations, our aim in this chapter is to develop a
new approach much simpler than those in existing literature, which allows us to
construct a desired operator G or a set of actuators gk ensuring the decay (1.4)
in a simpler and more explicit manner (see (2.10) just below Lemma 2.2). The
result is, however, not as sharp as in [70] in the sense that it does not generally
provide the precise location of the assigned eigenvalues. From the above
viewpoint of infinite-dimensional control theory, however, the result would be
meaningful enough, and satisfactory for stabilization. We note that our result
exactly coincides with the standard pole assignment theory in the case where we
can choose N = 1 (see Proposition 2.3 in Section 2). The results of this chapter
are based on those discussed in [48, 51, 52].
Our approach is based on Sylvester’s equation of finite dimension.
Sylvester’s equation in infinite-dimensional spaces has also been studied
extensively (see, e.g., [6] for equations involving only bounded operators), and
even the unboundedness of the given operators are allowed [37, 39, 40, 42 – 45,
47, 49, 50, 53]. Sylvester’s equation in this chapter is of finite dimension, so that
there arises no difficulty caused by the complexity of infinite dimension. Its
infinite-dimensional version and the properties are discussed later in Chapters 4,
4  Theory of Stabilization for Linear Boundary Control Systems

6, and 7. Given a positive integer s and vectors ξk ∈ Hs , 1 6 k 6 N, let us

consider the following Sylvester’s equation in Hn :
XL − MX = −Ξ W, Ξ ∈ L (CN ; Hs ), where
N (1.5)
Ξz = ∑ zk ξk for z = (z1 . . . zN )T ∈ CN .
k=1

Here, M denotes a given operator in L (Hs ), and ξk vectors to be designed in Hs .

A possible solution X would belong to L (Hn ; Hs ). An approach via Sylvester’s
equations is found, e.g., in [7, 10], in which, by setting n = s, a condition for the
existence of the bounded inverse X −1 ∈ L (Hn ) is sought. Choosing an M such
that σ (M) ⊂ C+ , it is then proved that
L + (X −1 Ξ )W = X −1 MX, σ (X −1 MX) = σ (M) ⊂ C+ ,
the left-hand side of which means a desired perturbed operator. The procedure of
its derivation is, however, rather complicated, and the choice of the ξk is unclear.
In fact, X −1 might not exist sometimes for some ξk .
The approach in this chapter is new and rather different. Let us characterize
the operator L in (1.5). There is a set of generalized eigenpairs {λi , φi j } with the
following properties:
(i) σ (L) = {λi ; 1 6 i 6 ν (6 n)}, λi ̸= λ j for i ̸= j; and
(ii) Lφi j = λi φi j + ∑k< j α ijk φik , 1 6 i 6 ν , 1 6 j 6 mi .
Let Pλi be the projector in Hn corresponding to the eigenvalue λi . Then, we see
that Pλi u = ∑mj=1
i
ui j φi j for u ∈ Hn . The restriction of L onto the invariant
subspace Pλi Hn is, in the basis {φi1 , . . . , φimi }, is represented by the mi × mi
upper triangular matrix Λi , where


αk j , j < k,
i

Λi |( j, k) = λi , j = k, (1.6)


0, j > k.
If we set Λi = λi + Ni , the matrix Ni is nilpotent, that is, Nimi = 0. The minimum
integer n such that ker Nin = ker Nin+1 , denoted as li , is called the ascent of λi − L.
It is well known that the ascent li coincides with the order of the pole λi of the
resolvent (λ − L)−1 . Laurent’s expansion of (λ − L)−1 in a neighborhood of the
pole λi ∈ σ (L) is expressed as
li ∞
K− j
(λ − L)−1 = ∑ (λ − λi ) j ∑ (λ − λi ) j K j ,
+ where
j=1 j=0
(1.7)
∫
1 (ζ − L)−1
li 6 mi , Kj = dζ , j = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .
2π i |ζ −λi |=δ (ζ − λi ) j+1
 Preliminary results - Stabilization of linear systems of finite dimension  5

Note that K−1 = Pλi . The set {φi j ; 1 6 i 6 ν , 1 6 j 6 mi } forms a basis for Hn .
Each x ∈ Hn is uniquely expressed as x = ∑i, j xi j φi j . Let T be a bijection, defined
( )T
as T x = x11 x12 . . . xν mν . Then, L is identified with the upper triangular matrix
Λ; ( )
T LT −1 = Λ = diag Λ1 Λ2 . . . Λν . (1.8)
Let us turn to the operator M in (1.5). Let
{ }
ηi j ; 1 6 i 6 n, 1 6 j 6 ℓi
be an orthonormal basis for Hs . Then necessarily s = ∑ni=1 ℓi > n. Every vector
v ∈ Hs is expressed as
n ℓi ⟨ ⟩
v=∑ ∑ vi j ηi j , where vi j = v, ηi j s .
i=1 j=1

Let {µi }n1=1 be a set of positive numbers such that 0 < µ1 < · · · < µn , and set
n ℓi
Mv = ∑ ∑ µi vi j ηi j (1.9)
i=1 j=1

for v = ∑i, j vi j ηi j . It is apparent that (i) σ (M) = {µi }ni=1 ; and (ii) (µi −M)ηi j = 0,
1 6 i 6 n, 1 6 j 6 ℓi . The operator M is self-adjoint, and potive-definite,
n ℓi
⟨Mv, v⟩s = ∑ ∑ µi |vi j |2 > µ1 ∥v∥2s .
i=1 j=1

Let Qµi be the projector in Hs corresponding to the eigenvalue µi ∈ σ (M), say

Qµi v = ∑ℓj=1
i
vi j ηi j for v = ∑i, j vi j ηi j . We put an additional condition on M:

σ (L) ∩ σ (M) = ∅. (1.10)

Assuming (1.10), we derive our first result as Proposition 1.1. Since the proof is
carried out in exactly the same manner as in [37, 44, 45, 50], it is omitted.
Proposition 1.1. Suppose that the condition (1.10) is satisfied. Then,
Sylvester’s equation (1.5) admits a unique operator solution X ∈ L (Hn ; Hs ).
The solution X is expressed as
∫
1
Xu = (λ − M)−1 Ξ W (λ − L)−1 u d λ
2π i C

= ∑ Qλ Ξ W (λ − L)−1 u
(1.11)
λ ∈ σ (M)
n
= ∑ Qµi Ξ W (µi − L)−1 u,
i=1
6  Theory of Stabilization for Linear Boundary Control Systems

where C denotes a Jordan contour encircling σ (M) in its inside, with σ (L)
outside C. The above first expression is the so called Rosenblum formula [6].
The main results are stated as Theorem 2.1 and Proposition 2.2 in the next
section, where a more explicit and concrete expression than ever before of a set
of stabilizing actuators gk in (1.3) is obtained. As we see in the next section, an
advantage of considering the operator X ∈ L (Hn ; Hs ) with s > n is that the
bounded inverse (X ∗ X)−1 is ensured under a reasonable assumption on the
operator Ξ . A numerical example is also given. Finally, Proposition 2.3 is
stated, where our feedback scheme exactly coincides with the standard pole
assignment theory [70] in the case where we can choose N = 1.

1.2 Main Results

We assume that σ (L) ∩ C− ̸= ∅, so that the semigroup e−tL , t > 0, is
unstable. We construct suitable actuators gk ∈ Hn in (1.3) such that e−t(L−GW )
has a preassigned decay rate, say −µ1 (see (1.9)). The operator
( )T
W W L . . . W Ln−1 belongs to L (Hn ; CnN ). The observability condition
on the pair (W, L) means that the above operator is injective, in other words,
( )T
ker W W L . . . W Ln−1 = {0}. Throughout the section, the separation
condition (1.10) is assumed in Sylvester’s equation (1.5). Then, we obtain one
of the main results:
Theorem 2.1. Assume that the conditions
( )T
ker W W L . . . W Ln−1 = {0}, and
(2.1)
ker Qµi Ξ = {0}, 1 6 i 6 n

are satisfied. Then, ker X = {0}.

Proof. Let Xu = 0. In view of Proposition 1.1, we see that

Qµi Ξ W (µi − L)−1 u = 0, 1 6 i 6 n.

Since ker Qµi Ξ = {0}, 1 6 i 6 n, by (2.1), we obtain

W (µi − L)−1 u = 0, 1 6 i 6 n, or
⟨ ⟩ (2.2)
(µi − L)−1 u, wk n = 0, 1 6 k 6 N, 1 6 i 6 n.
⟨ ⟩
Set fk (λ ; u) = (λ − L)−1 u, wk n . By recalling that T (λ − L)−1 T −1 =
⟨ ( )∗ ⟩
(λ − Λ )−1 (see (1.8)), fk (λ ; u) is rewritten as (λ − Λ )−1 Tu, T −1 wk Cn .
Each element of the n × n matrix (λ − Λ )−1 is a rational function of λ ; its
denominator consists of a polynomial of order n; and the numerator at most of
order n − 1. This means that each fk (λ ; u) is a rational function of λ , the
 Preliminary results - Stabilization of linear systems of finite dimension  7

denominator of which is a polynomial of order n, and the numerator of order

n − 1. Since the numerator of fk has at least n distinct zeros µi , 1 6 i 6 n, by
(2.2), we conclude that
⟨ ⟩
fk (λ ; u) = (λ − L)−1 u, wk n = 0, λ ∈ ρ (L), 1 6 k 6 N. (2.3)

Let c be a number such that −c ∈ ρ (L), and set Lc = L + c. In view of the identity

(λ − L)−1 = Lc (λ − L)−1 Lc −1

= −Lc −1 + (λ + c)(λ − L)−1 Lc −1 ,

let us introduce a series of rational functions fkl (λ ; u), l = 0, 1, . . . , as

fkl (λ ; u)
fk0 (λ ; u) = fk (λ ; u), fkl+1 (λ ; u) = , l = 0, 1, . . . . (2.4)
λ +c
It is easily seen that
⟨ ⟩ l
1 ⟨ ⟩
−(l+1−i)
fkl (λ ; u) = (λ − L)−1 Lc−l u, wk − ∑ Lc u, w k (2.5)
i=1 (λ + c)
n i n

and
fkl (λ ; u) = 0, λ ∈ ρ (L) \ {−c}, 1 6 k 6 N, l > 0.
In view of Laurent’s expansion (1.7) of (λ − L)−1 in a neighborhood of λi , we
obtain the relation
0 = fk (λ ; u)
⟨ ⟩
li K− j u, wk n ∞ ⟨ ⟩
=∑ + ∑ (λ − λi ) j K j u, wk n , 1 6 k 6 N,
j=1 (λ − λi )
j
j=0

in a neighborhood of λi . Calculation of the residue of fk (λ ; u) at λi implies that

⟨ ⟩
⟨K−1 u, wk ⟩n = Pλi u, wk n = 0, 1 6 i 6 ν , 1 6 k 6 N,
(2.6)
or W Pλi u = 0, 1 6 i 6 ν .

As for fkl (λ ; u), ℓ > 1, we have a similar expression in a neighborhood of λi ,

⟨ ⟩ ⟨ ⟩
li A− j Lc−l u, wk ∞
fkl (λ ; u) = ∑ (λ − λi ) j
n
+ ∑ (λ − λi ) j A j Lc −l u, wk
n
j=1 j=0

l
1 ⟨ ⟩
−(l+1−i)
−∑ Lc u, w k =0
i=1 (λ + c)
i n
8  Theory of Stabilization for Linear Boundary Control Systems

by (2.5). Note that K−1 Lc−l u = Pλi Lc−l u = Lc−l Pλi u. Calculation of the residue of
fkl (λ ; u) at λi similarly implies that
⟨ ⟩ ⟨ ⟩
K−1 Lc−l u, wk = Lc−l Pλi u, wk = 0, 1 6 i 6 ν , 1 6 k 6 N,
n n
or W Lc−l Pλi u = 0, 1 6 i 6 ν, l > 1.

Combining these with the above relation (2.6), we see that

( )T
−(n−1)
W W Lc−1 . . . W Lc Pλi u = 0, 1 6 i 6 ν . (2.7)

It is clear that
( )T ( )T
ker W W L . . . W Ln−1 = ker W W Lc . . . W Lcn−1 ,

where Lc = L + c. Thus, by the first condition of (2.1), it is easily seen that

( )T ( )T
ker W W Lc−1 . . . W Lc−(n−1) = ker W W L . . . W Ln−1 = {0}.

Thus, (2.7) immediately implies that Pλi u = 0 for 1 6 i 6 ν , and finally that u = 0.

By Theorem 2.1, there is a positive constant such that

∥Xu∥s > const ∥u∥ , ∀u ∈ Hn .

The derivation of the above positive lower bound of ∥Xu∥s is due to a specific
nature of finite-dimensional spaces. The operator X ∗ X ∈ L (Hn ) is self-adjoint,
and positive-definite. In fact, by the relation

const ∥u∥2 6 ∥Xu∥2s = ⟨Xu, Xu⟩s = ⟨X ∗ Xu, u⟩n 6 ∥X ∗ Xu∥ ∥u∥ ,

we see that ∥X ∗ Xu∥ > const ∥u∥. Thus the bounded inverse (X ∗ X)−1 ∈ L (Hn )
exists. We go back to Sylvester’s equation (1.5). Setting X ∗ X = X ∈ L (Hn )
and X ∗ MX = M ∈ L (Hn ), we obtain the relation,

L − (X ∗ X)−1 X ∗ MX = −(X ∗ X)−1 X ∗ Ξ W or

N (2.8)
L + ∑ ⟨·, wk ⟩n X −1 X ∗ ξk = X −1 M .
k=1

Both operators X and M are self-adjoint, but X −1 M is not. The following

assertion is the second of our main results, and leads to a stabilization result:
Proposition 2.2. Assume that (2.1) is satisfied. Then, σ (X −1 M ) is
contained in R1+ . Actually,

λ∗ = min σ (X −1 M ) > µ1 . (2.9)

 Preliminary results - Stabilization of linear systems of finite dimension  9

In addition, there is no generalized eigenspace for any λ ∈ σ (X −1 M ).

Remark: By Proposition 2.2, we obtain a decay estimate
( ( )) −1
exp −t L + (X ∗ X)−1 X ∗ Ξ W = e−t(X M )
(2.10)
6 const e−µ1t , t > 0.

In fact, the last assertion of the proposition ensures that no algebraic growth in
time arises in the semigroup, regarding the smallest eigenvalue. Thus, a set of
actuators gk = −(X ∗ X)−1 X ∗ ξk , 1 6 k 6 N, in other words, G = −(X ∗ X)−1 X ∗ Ξ
explicitly gives a desired set of actuators in (1.3).
Proof of Proposition 2.2. Since X is positive-definite, we can find a non-
unique bijection U ∈ L (Hn ) such that

X = X ∗X = U ∗U , (2.11)

the so called Cholesky factorization. Let us define

M ′ = (U ∗ )−1 M U −1 = (U −1 )∗ M U −1 .

Then, M ′ ∈ L (Hn ) is a self-adjoint operator, enjoying some properties similar

to those of X −1 M . In fact, let λ ∈ σ (X −1 M ), or (λ X − M ) u = 0 for some
u ̸= 0. Then, since
( )
0 = (λ U ∗ U − M ) u = U ∗ λ − (U ∗ )−1 M U −1 U u
( )
= U ∗ λ − M ′ U u = 0,

we see that λ belongs to σ (M ′ ). The converse relation is also correct, which

means that
σ (X −1 M ) = σ (M ′ ) ⊂ R1 . (2.12)
Inequality (2.9) is achieved by applying the well known min-max principle [11]
to M ′ , or more directly by the following observation: Let λ ∈ σ (X −1 M ), and
(λ X − M ) u = 0 for some u ̸= 0. Then

λ ∥Xu∥2s = λ ⟨X u, u⟩n = ⟨M u, u⟩n = ⟨MXu, Xu⟩s > µ1 ∥Xu∥2s ,

from which (2.9) immediately follows, since Xu ̸= 0.

Next let us show that there is no generalized eigenspace for
λ ∈ σ (X −1 M ). Let (λ − X −1 M )2 u = 0 for some u ̸= 0. Setting
v = (λ − X −1 M )u, we calculate

0 = X (λ − X −1 M )2 u = (λ X − M )v
( )
= (λ U ∗ U − M ) v = U ∗ λ − (U ∗ )−1 M U −1 U v
( )
= U ∗ λ − M ′ w = 0, w = U v,
10  Theory of Stabilization for Linear Boundary Control Systems

or (λ − M ′ ) w = 0. On the other hand, since

w = U v = U (λ − X −1 M )u = U (λ − U −1 (U ∗ )−1 M )u
= (λ − (U ∗ )−1 M U −1 )U u = (λ − M ′ )U u,

we see that ( ) ( )2
0 = λ − M ′ w = λ − M ′ U u, U u ̸= 0.

But, M ′ is self-adjoint, so that there is no generalized eigenspace for

λ ∈ σ (M ′ ). Thus, U u turns out to be an eigenvector of M ′ for λ , and

0 = U ∗ (λ − M ′ )U u = U ∗ (λ − (U ∗ )−1 M U −1 )U u
= (λ U ∗ U − M )u = (λ X − M )u.

This means that u is an eigenvector of X −1 M for λ . 

−1
The following example shows that λ∗ = min σ (X M ) does not generally
coincide with the prescribed µ1 .
Example: Let n = 3, and set H3 = C3 , so that L is a 3 × 3 matrix. Let
( )
L = diag a a b ,
where a, b 6 0 and a ̸= b. Since n = 3, ν = 2, m1 = 2, and m2 = 1, we choose N =
2, s = 6, H6 = C6 , and ℓ1 = ℓ2 = ℓ3 = 2. As for the operator W ∈ L (C3 ; C2 ),
T T
let us consider the case, for example, where ( w1 = (1)0 1) and w2 = (0 1 0) .
1 0 1
The operator W is a 2 × 3 matrix given by . The pair (W, L) is then
0 1 0
observable, and the first condition of (2.1) is satisfied.
To consider Sylvester’s equation (1.5), let {ηi j ; 1 6 i 6 3, j = 1, 2} be a
standard basis for C6 such that η11 = (1 0 0 . . . 0)T , η12 = (0 1 0 . . . 0)T , η21 =
(0 0 1 . . . 0)T , . . . , and η32 = (0 . . . 0 1)T . Set
M = diag (µ1 µ1 µ2 µ2 µ3 µ3 )
for 0 < µ1 < µ2 < µ3 . In the operator Ξ given by
Ξ u = u1 ξ1 + u2 ξ2 for u = (u1 u2 )T ∈ C2 ,
set ξ1 = (1 0 1 0 1 0)T and ξ2 = (0 1 0 1 0 1)T . Then, we see that ker Qµi Ξ = {0},
1 6 i 6 3, and the second condition of (2.1) is satisfied. The unique solution
X ∈ L (C3 ; C6 ) to Sylvester’s equation (1.5) is a 6 × 3 matrix described as (u =
(u11 u12 u21 )T ∈ C3 )
 Preliminary results - Stabilization of linear systems of finite dimension  11

Xu =
 1 1 
 ⟨ ⟩  0
(µ1 − L)−1 u, w1 3  µ1 − a µ1 − b 
 
 ⟨(µ − L)−1 u, w ⟩
1
  0 0 
 1 2 3   µ1 − a  
 ⟨   1 1  u11
 (µ − L)−1 u, w ⟩   0 
 ⟨ 2 1 3
⟩   µ2 − a µ2 − b  u  (2.13)
 −1 =   12  ,
 (µ2 − L) u, w2 3   0 1
0 
 ⟨ ⟩   µ2 − a  u21
   1 1 
 (µ3 − L)−1 u, w1 3   
⟨ ⟩ µ −a 0
µ3 − b 
(µ3 − L)−1 u, w2 3  3 
1
0 0
µ3 − a

where ⟨·, ·⟩3 denotes the inner product in C3 . Setting, for computational
convenience,
( )T ( )T
1 1 1 1 1 1
α= , β= ,
µ1 − a µ2 − a µ3 − a µ1 − b µ2 − b µ3 − b
and 1 = (1 1 1)T ,
we see that
 
|β |2 0 − ⟨α , β ⟩3
1
(X ∗ X)−1 =  0 |β |2 − ⟨α , β ⟩3 2 /|α |2 0 ,
γ
− ⟨α , β ⟩3 0 |α |2
( )T
where γ = |α |2 |β |2 − ⟨α , β ⟩3 . By noting that X ∗ ξ1 = ⟨α , 1⟩3 0 ⟨β , 1⟩3
2
( )T
and X ∗ ξ2 = 0 ⟨α , 1⟩3 0 , the matrix L + (X ∗ X)−1 X ∗ Ξ W is concretely
described as

( ) 1
diag a a b + ×
γ
 2 
|β | ⟨α , 1⟩3 − ⟨α , β ⟩3 ⟨β , 1⟩3 0 |β |2 ⟨α , 1⟩3 − ⟨α , β ⟩3 ⟨β , 1⟩3
( )
 ⟨α , β ⟩3 2 
 ⟨α , 1⟩3 |β |2 − .
 0
|α |2
0

|α |2 ⟨β , 1⟩3 − ⟨α , β ⟩3 ⟨α , 1⟩3 0 |α |2 ⟨β , 1⟩3 − ⟨α , β ⟩3 ⟨α , 1⟩3

It is apparent that one of the eigenvalues of this matrix is the (2, 2)-element:
( )
⟨α , 1⟩3 ⟨α , β ⟩3 2 ⟨α , 1⟩3
a+ |β | −
2
= a+ ,
γ |α |2 |α |2
and is certainly greater than µ1 . Note that
( )
1 µ2 − µ1 µ3 − µ1
0 < λ∗ − µ1 6 + → 0, µ2 , µ3 → ∞.
|α |2 (µ2 − a)2 (µ3 − a)2
12  Theory of Stabilization for Linear Boundary Control Systems

The other eigenvalues are those of the matrix,

( )
1 |β |2 ⟨α , 1⟩3 − ⟨α , β ⟩3 ⟨β , 1⟩3 + γ a |β |2 ⟨α , 1⟩3 − ⟨α , β ⟩3 ⟨β , 1⟩3
.
γ |α |2 ⟨β , 1⟩3 − ⟨α , β ⟩3 ⟨α , 1⟩3 |α |2 ⟨β , 1⟩3 − ⟨α , β ⟩3 ⟨α , 1⟩3 + γ b
(2.14)
To see that these eigenvalues are generally greater than µ1 , let us consider a
numerical example: Let (µ1 µ2 µ3 ) = (2 3 4), a = 0, and b = −1. Then,
( )T ( )T
1 1 1 1 1 1 61 769
α= , β= , |α |2 = , |β |2 = ,
2 3 4 3 4 5 144 3600
3 13 47
⟨α , β ⟩3 = , ⟨α , 1⟩3 = , ⟨β , 1⟩3 = ,
10 12 60
253
γ = |α |2 |β |2 − ⟨α , β ⟩3 2 = .
518400
One of the eigenvalues
( a + ⟨α ,)1⟩3 /|α |2 is 156/61 > 2 (= µ1 ). The matrix (2.14)
1 −1860 −1860
is then , the eigenvalues of which are denoted as ζ1 and
253 3540 3287
ζ2 . Then, µ1 = 2 < ζ1 < 156/61 < ζ2 , and thus λ∗ = ζ1 > 2.
We close this section with the following remark: There is a case where λ∗
coincides with µ1 . Following [52], let us consider (1.3) in the space Hn = Cn
(see (1.8)). All operators L, G, and W are then matrices of respective size. Let
σ (L) consist only of simple eigenvalues, so that mi = 1, 1 6 i 6 n, and n = ν .
Thus we can choose N = 1, ℓi = 1, 1 6 i 6 n, and thus s = n. The operator in
(2.10) is written as L + (X ∗ X)−1 X ∗ Ξ W , where Ξ u = uξ for u ∈ C1 , and W =
( )T
⟨·, w⟩n , w = w1 w2 . . . wn ∈ Cn . The observability condition then turns out to
be wi ̸= 0, 1 6 i 6 n. Let us consider Sylvester’s equation (1.5) in Hs = Cn . By
( )T
setting ξ = 1 1 . . . 1 ∈ Cn , the solution X to (1.5) is an n × n matrix, and has
a bounded inverse:
X = Φ W̃ , (2.15)
where
( )
1 i ↓ 1, . . . , n ( )
Φ= ; , and W̃ = diag w1 w2 . . . wn .
µi − λ j j → 1, . . . , n

Thus, L + (X ∗ X)−1 X ∗ Ξ W = L + X −1 ξ wT . It (is shown) [52] that, given a set

{µi }16i6n , there is a unique g ∈ Cn such that σ L − gwT = {µi }16i6n , and that
g is concretely expressed as
 Preliminary results - Stabilization of linear systems of finite dimension  13

   
w1 ∆ 1 f (λ1 )
1
g1
   
g2   − 1 ∆2 f (λ2 ) 
  1 
w 2 

 
g = g3  =  ∆ λ ,
1
 w3 3 f ( 3 )  (2.16)
. ∆ 
 ..  
.
. 
   . 
wn ∆ n f (λn )
gn (−1)n−1 1

where
n
f (λ ) = ∏(λ − µi ), and
i=1
∆= ∏ (λi − λ j ), ∆k = ∏ (λi − λ j ), 1 6 k 6 n.
16i< j6n 16i< j6n,
i, j̸=k

The proof will be given later in Section 4.

Proposition 2.3. Suppose in Proposition 2.2 that σ (L) consists only of simple
eigenvalues. Set ξ (= (1 1 . . . 1)T as above. −1
∗ −1 ∗
) Then X ξ = −g, and thus λ∗ = µ1 .
In fact, we have σ L + (X X) X Ξ W = {µi }16i6n .
Proof. The relation, X −1 ξ = −g is rewritten as
     
w1 ∆ 1 f (λ1 )
1
1 ∆1 f (λ1 )
1    −∆ f (λ ) 
   − w12 ∆2 f (λ2 )   
    
2 2

   1
∆ λ   ∆ λ .
−∆   = Φ W̃ 
1 w3 3 f ( 3 ) =Φ 3 f ( 3 )

 ..   .   . 
.  ..   .. 
 
1 (−1) n−1
w ∆ n f (λn )
1 (−1) ∆n f (λn )
n−1
n

In other words, we show that

( )
=λ jn−1 + ···
n
(−1) j−1 ∆ j f (λ j ) n z }| {
−∑ = ∑ (−1) j−1 ∆ j ∏ (λ j − µℓ )
j=1 µi − λ j j=1 16ℓ6n,
(2.17)
ℓ̸=i
= ∆, 1 6 i 6 n.

The left-hand side of (2.17), a polynomial of λi , 1 6 i 6 n, is in particular a

polynomial of λ1 of order n − 1, and the coefficient of λ1n−1 is
∆1 = ∏26i< j6n (λi − λ j ). For j < k, let us compare the jth and the kth terms.
The following lemma is elementary:
14  Theory of Stabilization for Linear Boundary Control Systems

Lemma 2.4 . Let 1 6 j < k 6 n. In the product ∆k , a polynomial of {λi }i̸=k ,

set λ j = λk . Then
∆k = (−1)k−1+ j ∆ j .
In the left-hand side of (2.17), set λ j = λk . Since the terms other than the jth
and the kth terms contain the factor (λ j − λk ), they become to be 0. The kth term
is then
(−1)k−1 ∆k ∏ (λk − µℓ ) = (−1)k−1 (−1)k−1− j ∆ j ∏ (λk − µℓ )
16ℓ6n, 16ℓ6n,‘ℓ̸=i
ℓ̸=i

= −(−1) j−1 ∆ j ∏ (λ j − µℓ ) = −(the jth term).

16ℓ6n,
ℓ̸=i

Thus the left-hand side of (2.17) has factors λ j − λk , j < k, and is written as c∆ .
But, c∆ is a polynomial of λ1 of order n − 1, and the coefficient of λ1n−1 is c∆1 .
This means that c = 1, and the proof of relation (2.17) is now complete. 

1.3 Observability: Reduction to Substructures

The first condition of (2.1) is the observability condition on the pair (W, L). The
( )T
operator W W L . . . W Ln−1 is rewritten for convenience as
( )
W Lk ; k ↓ 0, . . . , n − 1 .

Similar expressions for other operators and matrices will be employed hereafter
without any confusion. Following [48], we show in this section that the
observability condition is reduced to a set of observabillity conditions on
subsystems. Let Li = L|Pλ Hn be the restriction of L onto the invariant subspace
i
Pλi Hn , and let Wi = W |Pλ Hn . To obtain the reduction, it is convenient to employ
i
matrix representations. The set {φi j ; 1 6 i 6 ν , 1 6 j 6 mi } introduced in
Section 1 forms a basis for Hn . Recall that T is a bijection, Tu = û =
( )T
u11 u12 . . . uν mν for u = ∑i, j ui j φi j ∈ Hn . According to the basis, the operator
W is rewritten as
Wu = Ŵ û
( )
(i, j) → (1, 1), . . . , (ν , mν ) ⟨ ⟩ (3.1)
= wkij ; û, wkij = φi j , wk n .
k ↓ 1, . . . , N

Then the operator Wi ∈ L (Pλi Hn ; CN ) is clearly

( )
j → 1, . . . , mi
k
Wi u = Ŵi û = wi j ; û, u ∈ Pλi Hn .
k ↓ 1, . . . , N
 Preliminary results - Stabilization of linear systems of finite dimension  15

The observability condition on (W, L) is, in terms of these symbols, equivalent

to ( )
ker Ŵ Λ k ; k ↓ 0, . . . , n − 1 = {0}, or
( ) (3.2)
rank Ŵ Λ k ; k ↓ 0, . . . , n − 1 = n,

where Λ = T LT −1 (see (1.8)). The result in this section is stated as

Proposition 3.1. In order that the pair (W, L) is observable, it is necessary
and sufficient that the pairs (Wi , Li ), 1 6 i 6 ν , are observable, in other words
( )
ker Wi Lik ; k ↓ 0, . . . , mi − 1 = {0}, 1 6 i 6 ν . (3.3)

Proof. The proof is elementary. Suppose first that (W, L) is observable. Then
it is clear that (3.3) holds. Conversely, suppose (3.3), or equivalently
( )
rank ŴiΛik ; k ↓ 0, . . . , mi − 1 = mi , 1 6 i 6 ν .
( )
We apply elementary row operations to the matrix Ŵ Λ k ; k ↓ 0, . . . , n − 1 . In
order to show (3.2), it is enough to prove that
( )
rank Ŵ (Λ − λν )k ; k ↓ 0, . . . , n − 1 = n.

The matrix just above is written as

 
Ŵ1 ... Ŵν −1 Ŵν
 Ŵ1 (Λ1 − λν ) . . . Ŵ (Λ − λ ) Ŵ ν Nν

 ν −1 ν −1 ν 
 .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . 
 
 
 Ŵ1 (Λ1 − λν ) m ν −1 . . . Ŵν −1 (Λν −1 − λν ) m ν −1 Ŵν Nνmν −1 . (3.4)
 
 
 Ŵ1 (Λ1 − λν )mν ... Ŵν −1 (Λν −1 − λν )mν 0 
 
 .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . 
Ŵ1 (Λ1 − λν )n−1 . . . Ŵν −1 (Λν −1 − λν ) n−1 0
( )T
The submatrix Ŵν Ŵν Nν . . . Ŵν Nνmν −1 0 . . . 0 on the right side of (3.4) has
the full rank (= mν ) by the assumption (3.3). Thus (3.2) will be proven, if
 
Ŵ1 (Λ1 − λν )mν . . . Ŵν −1 (Λν −1 − λν )mν
 .. .. .. 
rank  . . . 
Ŵ1 (Λ1 − λν )n−1 . . . Ŵν −1 (Λν −1 − λν )n−1
= m1 + · · · + mν −1 (= n′ ).
16  Theory of Stabilization for Linear Boundary Control Systems

( ) ( )
By setting Λ ′ = diag Λ1 . . . Λν −1 and Ŵ ′ = Ŵi ; i → 1, . . . , ν − 1 , the above
relation is equivalent to
( )
rank Ŵ ′ (Λ ′ − λν )k ; k ↓ 0, . . . , n′ − 1 (Λ ′ − λν )mν
( )
= rank Ŵ ′ (Λ ′ − λν )k ; k ↓ 0, . . . , n′ − 1
( )
= rank Ŵ ′Λ ′ ; k ↓ 0, . . . , n′ − 1 = n′ .
k

The problem is thus reduced to the problem of proving the observability of the
pair (Ŵ ′ , Λ ′ ). By continueing the reduction procedure -via the assumption (3.3)
at each stage, it finally leads to the problem of proving
( )
rank Ŵ1Λ1k ; k ↓ 0, . . . , m1 − 1 = m1 , or
( )
ker W1 L1k ; k ↓ 0, . . . , m1 − 1 = {0}.
However, this is nothing but our assumption (3.3) when i = 1. 
Remark: Let us consider the case where Ni = 0, 1 6 i 6 ν . This occurs, for
example, when the L is a self-adjoint operator. In this case, the relation (3.3)
means that
( ) ( )
rank ŴiΛik ; k ↓ 0, . . . , mi − 1 = rank λikŴi ; k ↓ 0, . . . , mi − 1
(3.5)
= rank Ŵi = mi , 1 6 i 6 ν.
Thus we need to choose the N greater than or equal to max16i6ν mi in this case.
This case: Ni = 0, 1 6 i 6 ν is already discussed in [58], where the result can
be viewed as a special case of our Proposition
( 3.1. Following [58],
) let us briefly
give an alternative proof. The matrix Ŵ Λ ; k ↓ 0, . . . , n − 1 is decomposed
k

into the product of two matrices Φ and Ψ :

( ) ( )
i → 1, . . . , ν
Ŵ Λ k ; k ↓ 0, . . . , n − 1 = λikŴi ;
k ↓ 0, . . . , n − 1
( )
i → 1, . . . , ν ( )
= λik IN ; diag Ŵ1 . . . Ŵν
k ↓ 0, . . . , n − 1
= ΦΨ,
where Φ and Ψ denote the nN × ν N and the ν N × n matrices, respectively.
Suppose first that rank Ŵi = mi , 1 6 i 6 ν . Then the rank of Ψ is clearly equal
to m1 + · · · + mν = n. It is easily seen that the rank of Φ is equal to ν N (> n).
Thus, we see that
n = rank Φ + rank Ψ − ν N 6 rank Φ Ψ 6 min (rank Φ , rank Ψ ) = n.
Conversely, suppose that rank Φ Ψ = n. Then, we see that n = rank Φ
Ψ 6 rank Ψ , so that n column vectors of the ν N × n matrix Ψ are linearly
independent. But, this means that rank Ŵi = mi , 1 6 i 6 ν .
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This man was the embodiment of the Mede, the luxury-loving, mixed
breed of Aryan and Semite, whom the Prince despised.
“Speak!” he said shortly.
“I have here an order of the Great King directing that you may return
to your dominions one week from to-day, and a second order that a
great feast be made in your honor and that you be sent forth properly
escorted by one hundred men under my charge.”
He paused. The Prince’s face lighted with joy and he struck his
hands together as he exclaimed: “Truly this is good news,
Prexaspes! How about my sisters and companions?”
“It is not ordered that they accompany you.”
The Prince’s face grew dark. “What?” he demanded harshly. “Does
this King deny my sisters their right to go where they choose and
does he insult me by withholding the company of my friends?”
Prexaspes glanced about uneasily and placed a finger on his lips,
shaking his head warningly. He drew nearer to the Prince, saying in
a low voice: “Have a care, Prince Bardya! The King waits only for
some excuse and for a convenient day, to slay you. I will reveal to
you what I know. Swear to keep silent should you escape! Give me
the royal word of an Achæmenian that you will not betray me and
that when you come to your kingdom you will remember me as a
King should. Then will I reveal what is planned to compass your
death.”
Bardya hesitated. He searched the dark countenance of Prexaspes,
striving to penetrate the mask of earnestness there assumed.
“You have my word. Speak!” he said after some hesitation.
“I am indeed commanded to lead you with the escort of one hundred
men toward Rhages, but it is also ordered that you be slain before
you reach that city. I am not willing to stain my hands in the royal
blood of Iran. Neither am I willing that my head pay the forfeit of
failing to have the King’s orders obeyed. Therefore, believe me, I
have planned in good faith for your escape. On the night before the
day set for your departure, the feast will be held. You must attend the
feast. At midnight there will be a great exhibition of magic by the
priests of the Magi. The King will be drunk by that time and
engrossed with watching the performances. You will then have
opportunity to leave the assembly room unnoticed by him and to
return to your apartments. I will see that the guards are removed.
You will take what jewels you have and leave your apartments to
meet me at the western gate of the park, where horses will await us.
Wear a rough soldier’s cloak over your armor. It will be easy for us to
pass the guards and leave the city, as I shall have the pass-words. I
will accompany you beyond the city limits on the northern road. I will
put money in your saddle-bags and you may travel as a merchant.
As soon as you are beyond the city I will return. Next day, there will
ride forth one who much resembles you and who will dress as you
dress,—Gaumata, the Magian. He will ride beyond Rhages. He will
there disappear, and those who allow him to escape will feel the
wrath of the Great King. Meanwhile you may travel unnoticed to
Bactra. Is it not a good plan?”
Bardya listened with distrust. He did not answer immediately. He
pondered, not the plan, but the man who proposed it. As if reading
his thoughts, Prexaspes added: “Why need you distrust me? If I
chose to slay you, could I not come with the King’s order, take you to
the dungeons, and there have you slain? Why should I make this
plan? Surely you do not fear that I am able, single-handed, to
overcome you on the northern road,—you, than whom no stronger
swordsman rides a Nicæan steed! You will be armed and have a
coat of mail. You may take all precautions. I seek only to do you a
service.”
His words touched the Prince’s vanity. Of course he feared no single
man, he the celebrated strong-arm Prince of the world! The desire
for liberty was strong in him and the romance of a night escape
appealed to him.
“Prexaspes, I agree,” he said. “It matters little whether you speak
truly or falsely. It will be better to try an escape than to remain here;
and, should the King overtake me with his guards, I can no more
than die. Should I escape by this plan, come to me at Bactra and I
will reward you royally. Or better still, times and seasons may
change and Kings may change; and if Ahura-Mazda be willing, I may
be here again some day able to give great honors and rewards!”
Prexaspes smiled beneath his curly beard. His snake-like eyes
flashed. “Let it be settled, then,” he rejoined. “At the midnight hour,
return to your apartments, not letting any of your friends know your
purpose. Meet me at the western park gate alone, and we will ride
forth alone. Leave word with your servants that you are tired and are
not to be called until the noon hour on the morrow. Farewell for the
present!”
Prexaspes turned away and disappeared through the shrubbery. The
Prince paced onward till he came to the western limits of the park
and noted the gate of which Prexaspes had spoken. He also saw
that a company of soldiers had their tents pitched among the trees
beyond the gate and that certain of them as guards paced back and
forth along the wall bounding the park. He turned on his heel and
returned to the palace. The guards watched him as long as he was
in sight and murmured to each other concerning him, their attitude
being sympathetic. The Prince was a man of soldierly figure and
gracious demeanor. These men would go far to execute the orders
of the King of Kings, but they admired the Prince and would not
willingly have harmed him.
The Prince walked slowly, his mind revolving the plan suggested for
his escape, his head bent and his eyes cast down. He did not see
his sister, Athura, coming towards him until he heard her soft voice.
“Brother, why so downcast? Why so thoughtful and preoccupied?”
His countenance lighted with pleasure. There existed between these
two a sincere affection. He leaned much upon this sister, whose
mind, like that of her great father, was acute and whose judgment
was sound.
“How beautiful is my sister!” he said, quoting one of the poets
—“Fairer than all the women of earth, more to be beloved than
wealth! Her breath is as fragrant as the breath of the rose; her eyes
are deeper than the dark vault of heavens at night; her heart is as
pure as the white snow on Demavend!”
“Wait till you behold some maiden who will find favor in your sight!
Then your sister will be remembered only as your very good friend
and your songs of praise will be another’s,” she said. “Did I not see
that man, Prexaspes, with you a moment ago?”
“Yes, Princess. I have something to tell you. Let us go yonder to that
seat beneath the oak tree. It is apart from all others, so that no one
may overhear.”
They went to a rustic seat beneath the spreading branches of a great
oak and sat down side by side, and he related all that Prexaspes had
said.
“What do you advise?” he asked.
Athura listened closely, her countenance expressing distrust,
surprise, and incredulity. She took from the wide belt, that gathered
her beautiful robe loosely about her waist, a small roll of papyrus.
“Here is a letter from my Prince which has somewhat to say of this
danger you are in,” she said. “I advise that you distrust Prexaspes.”
Bardya looked over her shoulder as she unfolded the paper. “‘Fairest
and best of all maidens, Princess of my soul,’” he read aloud
laughingly.
Athura quickly turned the first portion of the letter under, saying, “You
would joke if death were about to seize you! You shall not read the
sweet things he has written. You know not the meaning of them,
even if you did believe yourself in love with the daughter of
Orobates.”
Bardya in pretended anger placed his hand over her mouth. “Let not
that be mentioned!” he exclaimed, with simulated sternness. “I was
sixteen and she was very fair. Though she was the daughter of a
groom, even yet I sigh for her.”
Having found that part of the letter which she desired to read, Athura
said: “Listen to what my Prince says. This was written thirty days ago
and was sent to his mother’s house, where he supposed I would be
and where I should have been but for a bear of a brother who is
King. Listen!
“‘I have been much troubled concerning the words of that great
teacher, your father’s former counselor, Belteshazzer, the Hebrew.
He is a prophet, acquainted with all wisdom, speaking face to face
with the messengers of God. He showed me a vision on the day we
halted near Susa. He had been in the wilderness near by and was
returning to the city, when I met him on the bank of the Choaspes.
He showed me a vision of Achæmenius, the common ancestor of our
royal family, yours and mine. A glorious vision! Belteshazzer can
read all minds and knows what is in the hearts of men; and he said
that the King meditated harm to Prince Bardya. Therefore, I beseech
you, my soul, that you advise Bardya to escape as soon as he may
and return to Bactra, where he will be safe.
“‘I am now at Damascus, the chief city of Syria, resting before we
continue to Sardis. I hear nothing of wars in the realms I go to
govern, save the depredations of certain wild tribes on the
northeastern border. I look forward to lonely days without you. I may
find opportunity to subdue the Ionian cities, which are far too
independent and do not properly recognize the majesty of Iran. Till I
hear from you I—’”
Athura paused and replaced the letter in her belt, saying, “The rest is
for me alone.”
Bardya sat dreamily listening to the rustle of the breeze in the oak
leaves and gazing at the dark ridges of Mount Elwend in the west. “I
have never thought much of visions, prophecies, or wonder-working
performers who deceive the eye by quick movements,” he said after
a moment of silence. “Darius says there is a future life; that the soul,
leaving this body as one leaves a worn-out cloak, passes into the
unseen world and continues to live; that Ahura-Mazda is a God in
very truth and that He sends messengers to earth. Darius is wise
and learned. If there is a future life and if congenial spirits hover
round us, then indeed must those spirits who surround the King be
all devils! His savage mind is blinded by love of power and moved to
murder by jealousy and fear of me, his brother. I remember
Belteshazzer, when he was a great and trusted counselor of Cyrus,
our father. I feared him, too; and no man who ever looked into his
reproving eye could do otherwise than fear him. I wish I could know
the mind of Prexaspes. He seemed sincere. I will go with him and
trust to my own arm for protection. But, sweet sister, I fear to leave
you here in the power of my brother. Can you not flee with me?”
“Fear not for me, brother. Cambyses will not harm me. He has no
excuse. I am not in line for the throne. The right to rule goes to the
male descendants of the Achæmenian family. I must not leave
Artistone. How can I go now? I should hinder you. Besides, I must
wait here for my Prince.”
Bardya did not argue with her further, and she did not oppose his
plan of escape further.
The feast day came. There gathered into the great assembly hall of
the palace a thousand of the notables of earth to honor the departure
of Prince Bardya to his realms. Prexaspes had spared no expense in
adorning the palace and in preparing the feast and the
entertainments that should accompany it. The many pillars shining
with burnished gold plate, which supported the gilded beams of the
palace roof, were festooned with garlands of flowers, interwoven with
streamers and bunting of many colors. The heavy tapestries of the
doors in the assembly room were drawn back with silver chains.
Across one end of this room a table was set, from the ends of which
extended two longer tables in such manner that the King, when
sitting at the center of the first, could see all his guests before him.
Those he delighted to honor would sit at his table; others of less
consequence would occupy the others. Snowy linen covers were
laid. Heavy dishes of gold and silver, jars of beautiful Samos pottery,
and vases from Egypt and Greece were put in place on them.
Apples, peaches, plums, grapes, pomegranates, figs, and other rare
and luscious fruits were heaped on shining platters. Confections,
sweet cakes, nuts, salads, and relishes were in profusion. Flowers
filled the air with delicious odors. Magnificent couches, on which the
feasters might sit or recline as they chose, were placed along the
tables. At one side of the room facing the King’s place was a low
platform with seats for musicians, who with divers musical
instruments would furnish sounds more or less harmonious while the
great ones feasted. In adjacent rooms, graceful dancers, supple
tricksters, and athletes were waiting to go in before the King and
perform. A thousand servants, cooks, tasters, waiters, and
attendants made ready the feast.
As the sun disappeared behind the western mountains, a fanfare of
trumpets announced that the feast was ready, and thousands of
candles were lighted in the great banquet-room. None of those
invited had failed to come. The King’s invitation was regarded as a
command. In the cloak-room adjacent to the banquet-room, each
guest received a purple robe to be worn during the feast and to be
carried away by him at its close.
At the appointed moment Prexaspes, as ruler of the feast, appeared,
gorgeously dressed and having in his hand a wand. As the guests
entered he indicated the seats to be occupied by them, placing them
according to their rank. At the King’s table sat Crœsus, late king of
Lydia, a prisoner, but an honored guest. There sat also
Nebuchadezzer, Prince of Nineveh, and a score of other princes
whose dominions were no longer theirs to rule, but who, though
prisoners of the King of Kings, sat at his table and showed to the
world that they lived on his bounty. When all had been duly placed,
they remained standing with faces turned towards the throne at one
end of the room and awaited the coming of the King. At the left of the
throne was a door covered by heavy purple curtains hanging from
ceiling to floor.
Having placed all the guests, Prexaspes touched a cord and the
tinkle of a bell announced the coming of royalty. The curtains of the
door near the throne were parted and disclosed the King advancing,
followed by his brother, his wife, and his two sisters, the women
being closely veiled. The King strode heavily forward, his swarthy
countenance lowering and his black eyes sweeping over the guests.
All the guests bowed low towards him. He sat down heavily at his
table. The guests remained standing until Prince Bardya, his sisters,
and the King’s wife had taken their places at the King’s table. Then,
at a wave of Prexaspes’ wand, the guests sank upon their seats.
Immediately, nimble servants with pitchers and goblets appeared
from side doors and poured wine for each guest. The King’s cup-
bearer stood with a great cup of Helbon wine at the side of his
master. The King seized the cup and, after waving it slightly toward
his guests, drank from it long and deeply. The guests also drank.
The musicians took their places and began playing a weird melody,
monotonous and long-drawn-out, with many repetitions and
variations. A murmur of conversation arose.
Servants brought on trays of smoking meat, of delicious vegetables
and pastries, and for each guest the food to which he was
accustomed, prepared to suit his taste. The King ate and drank in
silence, not even addressing a word to his wife, who sat at his right
hand. Bardya and the royal sisters ate little. Their hearts were full of
anxiety over the proposed escape of the Prince. But the King drank
much wine. He also called for soma and drank of that liquor deeply.
And as he drank, he watched Prexaspes, who ever moved nervously
about the room directing the feast. Would the elegant Mede fail? The
King began to devise a sufficient punishment to inflict on him should
he fail. Dancers were brought in after the feast had well begun and
gave an exhibition of sinuous movement, like the curving of a
snake’s folds, or the graceful undulations of the sea waves. After the
dancers there were performances by jugglers, mountebanks, and
tricksters, and athletes displayed their strength and agility in
wrestling-bouts. At the close of the feast, Prexaspes stood in the
midst and called for silence. Then he said, “O King, by your gracious
permission, I will now bring in the Magians who hold communion with
the spirits of the departed, who have control of the powers of the
gods, and who will divine and prophesy for you, besides doing many
other wonderful things.”
The faces of all were turned upon the King; and only on the
countenances of the Persian nobles and the faces of Bardya and his
sisters was disapproval written.
“Let them come in with their tricks,” said the King, sneeringly. “They
may delude us, but they will not convince us. Let them come!”
“Let the lights be partially extinguished!” commanded Prexaspes.
Immediately servants extinguished the candles, except a few at the
King’s table, and semi-darkness enveloped them all. Then a band of
six Magians entered. Servants brought in a heavy square table and
set it in the open space between the dining tables. Others brought in
some small tablets and balls, which were placed on the table. The
magicians prostrated themselves before the King in salutation and
afterwards gathered around the square table in silence and joined
hands. They were clad in black robes, which covered their bodies in
loose folds from their necks down. Their hands were visible below
the wide sleeves of the robes, and their pallid faces shone dead
white in the semi-gloom below the dark turbans wound loosely
around their heads.
As soon as the lights were extinguished, the King turned his back
upon Bardya as if weary of his presence. Then a hand touched
Bardya on the shoulder, and, turning, he saw Prexaspes who
beckoned with a nod and disappeared into the gloom of a side
chamber. Bardya waited a moment until the attention of all was
concentrated upon the group of magicians; then, after pressing
Athura’s hand lightly, he rose and quietly followed Prexaspes. The
King seemed not to notice his movements, but was really watching.
Five minutes later, the Prince, wrapped in a soldier’s cloak, stole out
through the park, met Prexaspes there alone, mounted a horse held
by him in readiness, passed through the park, and rode away with
him through the city towards the northern road. When clear of the
city environs, they spurred away at a gallop side by side towards the
city of Rhages lying at the foot of distant Mount Demavend.
Meanwhile, in the King’s presence, many wonderful things were
happening. After several minutes of silence on the part of the
Magians, the heavy table around which they stood rose to the ceiling
without apparent supporting hands and there remained several
minutes. Balls of light floated about the room near the ceiling. A tree
sprang up out of the floor and visibly grew till its top touched the
suspended table. Then the table slowly circled about the room,
returned, and settled down to the floor. The tree disappeared as it
settled. Upon the table, immediately, a mass of writhing snakes
appeared, hissing and shooting forth angry red tongues, so that the
guests were about to rise and flee in terror. They disappeared. The
voice of the chief magician said in sepulchral tones:
“None of these mighty wonders will bring harm to any of you, unless
you make a noise and attempt to flee. Remain quietly in your places
and behold the wonders of the gods! Know that the spirits of the
mountains and of the valleys and of the plains are here, the rulers of
earth, whom we serve. Know that there is no other religion worthy of
practice than ours. Let the Great King behold and act accordingly!”
The voice ceased and a hush fell over the assembly. The King
moved uneasily in his seat, and answered in loud, sarcastic tones:
“Tricksters have existed in all nations and in all ages! Your spirits are
lying spirits conjured up in your own minds to frighten superstitious
men. Bah! There are gods and gods! Show me a spirit!”
“It is well!” answered the magician. “We obey the King of Kings. Only
say nothing and move not!”
A deep hush fell upon the assembly. The group of magicians drew
together again and formed a circle about the table, placing their
joined hands upon it and bowing their heads. Only the chief stood as
if in a trance, looking upward. Then, above the heads of the group a
pallid, misty light suddenly appeared, growing in density and
assuming shape, until it became the shape of a man, wavering,
translucent, with a sneering, evil countenance and sinister eyes,
such as are ever ascribed to evil spirits. The King drew in his breath
sharply and bent forward startled and alarmed. A voice seemed to
come from the spirit:
“What would you ask, O King of the Earth?”
For a moment the King could not reply. He was agitated beyond
measure. He summoned all his bravado, and with a great effort
stammered, “Who and what are you?”
A derisive smile curled the features of the apparition, as the voice
replied: “I am your soul’s companion, the spirit that goes with you
wherever you go! I am your evil genius! I am—you!”
Rage filled the heart of the King.
“This trick shall not benefit you, O Magians!” he shouted. “Prove to
me that this is no delusion or death shall be your portion!”
“Demand of me any proof, O King!” responded the voice.
“Make your own proof!” retorted the King.
Again the derisive smile curled the devilish features of the apparition,
while a shivering silence possessed the wondering guests, who
looked from it to the King and from the King to it, astonished at the
resemblance between them.
“At midnight, O King, last night,” said the apparition in a sepulchral
tone, “I walked with you on the portico at the door of your bedroom
and your thoughts were of your father and of your brother. Did you
hear the whispering in the plane-tree? The thought then in your mind
has been accomplished; and there comes hither the spirit of him that
troubled you!”
The apparition seemed to turn about and look in fear to the north;
then, suddenly, it faded away. A groan arose from the chief Magian.
He stirred uneasily and turned his pallid face towards the north. His
hands were clenched and he stared into space with terror-stricken
gaze. Deathlike hush pervaded the great hall. Then slowly and
waveringly there appeared in the place where the former apparition
had stood a ghastly face; and it was the image of Bardya, the King’s
brother. With fierce eyes it glared down upon the King; and it
seemed that blood poured down over the forehead in a trickling
stream from a deep cleft in the crown of its head.
A shriek of terrified anguish arose from the Princesses. A chorus of
exclamations broke from the guests. The apparition suddenly
disappeared. The King sat as if stunned for a moment, looking
fixedly at the point where the apparition had been, while his face was
contorted with fear and horror. The Magians silently dissolved their
circle and quickly disappeared. The lights flared up as servants ran
hither and thither relighting the candles. The King arose unsteadily.
The guests arose and stood in their places while he wearily moved,
or rather tottered, to the door by which he had entered, and
disappeared. The sisters, supporting each other and weeping, left
the room. The guests then broke into noisy comment and wonder
and proceeded to fortify their shaken nerves with wine. Orthodox
Persians muttered curses on all Magians. The unorthodox shook
their heads and superstitiously resolved to make sacrifices on the
morrow to the spirits of the hills and to the gods of the Magians.
Arguments arose for and against Magism; but the advocates of that
cult had the better of it, since as all had seen, it was capable of
ocular demonstration. But the orthodox said it was the religion of
devils; as for them, they would continue to worship the Good Spirit!
Besides, the latter said, it was evident a fraud had been perpetrated,
because Bardya, the King’s brother, had been at the feast well and
alive. How could this apparition have been his ghost? In this
argument they had the best of it. But they marveled at the King’s
agitation.
 CHAPTER XI
THE GREAT KING INTRODUCES A STRANGE
CUSTOM

THE Great King was much shaken by the strange apparitions which
the Magi had conjured up; but he assured himself that the whole
performance had been trickery and he fiercely planned vengeance
upon the performers. He had always boasted of his disbelief in gods
and spirits, though puzzled sometimes at the magic of the fire-
worshipers. This time, however, his gross nature had received a
severe shock and while he awaited the return of Prexaspes that he
might learn how his brother had been dealt with, he drank deep
potations of soma and half-wished that his brother were indeed alive
so that the horrid vision might be proven false. He paced back and
forth impatiently in his apartments, while his servants stood without,
breathlessly watching for every command lest in his present mood
delay on their part would entail upon them grave consequences.
A horseman galloped through the silent city from the north shortly
before daylight and, with a hasty word to a sleepy guard, passed
through the walls into the park and thence to the stables at the rear
of the palace. Leaving his horse in the care of servants, he entered
the palace. It was Prexaspes. After a few minutes in his own
apartments, he emerged clad in his elegant court dress and went to
the King’s apartments, where he knew the King waited. A servant
announced his presence and he was at once admitted to the King’s
presence. He entered, closed the door behind him, and stood before
the King with bowed head.
“Well?” demanded the King, hoarsely.
“The King’s orders have been obeyed.”
“How?”
“A sword-stroke from behind as we rode northward. The body has
been safely disposed. Let the King be at peace. Bardya is no more!”
“Swear to me by all that you deem holy! Did the sword cut penetrate
the brow?”
“It did. I swear by all the gods of the hills and valleys, by Ahriman
and by the spirits of my fathers!”
The King shuddered. Mingled relief and fear shone in his
countenance.
“I have had strange proof of the truth of your words, Prexaspes,” he
said. “Surely you are in league with devils! I knew you belonged to
the Magian sect, but I did not know their power. How did they know
the manner of Bardya’s death? How could they show it?”
Prexaspes smiled. He had learned what had transpired before the
King.
“Without their aid it would have been impossible to have
accomplished the destruction of the Prince,” he answered. “It would
be well if the Great King should show favor to the Magi. They can
help him much. With the assistance of the diviners and those who
have familiar spirits, who can speak with the spirits of the dead and
with the gods of the hills, the King will be able to detect those who
might plot against his life. Nothing can be done but what they may
find it out if they desire. They help and protect their friends.”
“But they worship the Lie, which from all ages has been proscribed
by the laws of Iran,” said the King, doubtfully. “I know they have
power to perform wonders; but I deem them tricks. What care I? If
their tricks aid me, they shall be rewarded.”
“It is right for the Great King thus to speak for the ears of the people!”
returned Prexaspes, insinuatingly. “But if the Great King does
practice all the good precepts of Ahura-Mazda, what avails it or how
does it benefit him? I dare to speak plainly, so that you may receive
the aid of the powerful Magi whose followers are more numerous
than all others in Medea, Assyria, and Babylonia. The deed done at
your command this night has been accomplished by their aid. The
men of orthodox faith, the worshipers of Ahura-Mazda, hate you.
Only by allying yourself with the Magi can you hope to retain your
throne. With their aid you may defy your enemies if they should learn
of Bardya’s end. Ally yourself with the Magi and their gods and they
will gratify all your wishes. Know, O King, that these men have
wonderful powers, even greater than the priests of Egypt or of
Babylon who know some of their arts.”
Cambyses was shaken. In him there was some good. Unconsciously
his physical passions had been overcoming the good; but,
occasionally, there broke through the density of his grosser nature
an inward voice urging him to a better life. But he had no doubt of his
absolute right to do as he might will, and he had come to believe that
ordinary rules of right and wrong did not apply to him. Prexaspes,
seeing the King’s hesitation, continued:
“Let not my words arouse resentment, O King! I seek but to do you
good. My own welfare depends upon your will. I can call to your aid
the Magi and the unseen powers. In their circle I stand next to
Patatheites, the High Priest. Have I not obeyed your will and
removed from your path the greatest danger to your rule? Trust me
still further and you shall continue to have true service. Give to the
Magi the chief right to exercise religious power throughout the world,
and their vast power will keep you safely. Make now an alliance with
them and it shall be well with you.”
The King paced back and forth across the room, debating the matter.
Hating all religions, because he wished to disbelieve them, his long-
standing prejudices were not easily moved.
“If I do not make this compact, then what?” he asked presently.
“If you are abandoned by them, how shall you receive any aid?”
rejoined Prexaspes. “Certainly you can expect nothing of the
followers of Zoroaster! They have the power and the will to do you
hurt. But, through me, the Magi offer you their powerful aid. Believe
me, O King, it will be your only wise course to accept their support.”
Cambyses nervously stroked his beard. He was not a coward. No
one had ever accused him of a lack of courage. He despised the
orthodox faith because of its moral laws, and he hated its followers.
But he recognized the strength of the argument advanced by
Prexaspes. The Magian sect was a powerful one. Medea, Assyria,
Babylon, Syria, and Phrygia were full of them. They claimed to be in
league and communion with the gods of the earth, and indeed
practiced the occult arts, known more or less to all peoples, and in
modern days followed by some so-called spiritualists. All of them
were not evil. Many of them were reputed to be the prophets and
seers and warned the people against the evil men who made use of
their arts for their own advancement. Stringent laws had been made
and enforced throughout Iran against that branch which attacked the
doctrines of Zoroaster. But this cult had flourished especially in the
mountains of Medea. Fire-worshipers fed their sacred flames on
every hilltop. The evil and depraved gathered to them and harassed
those who opposed them. They were known to the orthodox as
worshipers of the “Lie,” to distinguish them from those who
worshiped the “Truth,” as embodied in Ahura-Mazda. Cambyses had
sometimes consulted the Magians and required oracles of them. His
father had severely reprimanded him for such practices and had
caused the ears of Gaumata, one of the leaders of the Magi at
Hamadan, to be cut off as a warning to him and to his sect that
Cambyses should not be influenced by them.
Cambyses reviewed these matters as he paced nervously back and
forth, while Prexaspes awaited his decision with bowed head and
downcast eyes. He decided to comply.
“So be it! Only let everything be done in a politic way!” he exclaimed
harshly. “I will make a league with the Magi. They shall have freedom
to worship as long as I rule. They must nevertheless obey me. I will
be King alone and will not permit interference. But the laws against
them shall be annulled and I will favor them with offices.”
“It is well!” said Prexaspes, bending low and touching the floor with
his hands. “Now, if the Great King will permit, I will withdraw and will
carry out our plan to deceive the populace into the belief that Bardya
still lives in the flesh.”
The King nodded and turned away. Prexaspes, with a smirk of
triumph on his face, left the room. Passing out into the hall, he was
about to go to his room, when a servant approached and, after a low
salutation, said, “Noble Prexaspes, my royal mistress, the Princess
Athura, commands that you come to her waiting-room. She would
speak with you.”
Prexaspes hesitated a moment. Then, drawing his breath sharply, as
if bracing himself to a severe task, and assuming a cheerful
demeanor, he followed the servant. Athura and her sister had not
retired to their beds after the banquet. The departure of Bardya,
followed by the fearful scene produced by the Magi, had rendered
them sleepless. They had ordered their servants to watch for and
report the return of Prexaspes to them. Prexaspes entered the room
where they awaited him and bowed very low before them, touching
the floor with his hands. Then he stood in respectful attitude with
downcast eyes, awaiting their pleasure. The eyes of the maidens
were red with weeping.
“Speak, false traitor! Was it you that struck Bardya and slew him?”
exclaimed Athura, approaching him with clenched hands and blazing
eyes.
Prexaspes raised his brows in well-simulated surprise.
“You wrong me greatly, most noble Princess! What mean you? No
one has slain Bardya,” he answered.
“But I saw his spirit! He appeared at the close of the feast, and his
head was cleft in twain as with a sword-stroke!”
Prexaspes smiled reassuringly, and drawing nearer to the Princess
he whispered: “Believe it not, O most royal! That was but a delusion
to convince the Great King that his will had been done. How could a
spirit appear with cleft head? Spirits have no bodies that may be
seen. But Patatheites was able to influence all there so that they
believed they saw the spirit of Bardya, while the great Prince was
riding swift as the wind to Rhages. Dry your tears! Bardya is beyond
the reach of the King now, and in due time you will hear that he has
arrived in his dominions. You saw no spirit. It was but a picture from
the mind of the Magian chief.”
So sincere were his words and manner that Athura was reassured.
She never had been superstitious or believed that the Magi were
other than tricksters. The sternness left her countenance. She smiled
graciously and extended her hand, which Prexaspes on bended
knee respectfully kissed while his brilliant eyes glowed with
admiration. Never, he thought at that moment, had he seen so
beautiful a face or so perfect a form, never such a gracious and
winning smile. For a moment his heart, used to the ways of the
world, satiated with the pleasures of life, leaped within him; and he
felt that to deserve that gracious smile he would have undone all that
he had done and given up all that he had won. The music of her
voice and the sweetness of her smile dwelt with him many a day
thereafter, bringing to him the only regret and shame that he had
ever known since childhood.
“Noble Prexaspes,” she said, “I recall my harsh words! But that was
a horrible thing the great magician showed us; and it was well
thought of to deceive the King! Surely my brother and I will reward
you in days to come when all danger shall have been removed. As
you have this night served Bardya, I promise on the word of an
Achæmenian, which has never been broken, you will have a fitting
and suitable reward. Farewell!”
Bowing many times, Prexaspes backed from the room and passed
hastily to his own quarters. The sisters, relieved of their
apprehension, retired to rest.
Next day there was much excitement in the city of Hamadan. A great
crowd gathered along the northern road to shout a farewell to
Bardya, the beloved. Their greetings to him who impersonated
Bardya, when he appeared riding in the midst of a group of nobles,
bowing right and left, were hearty and prolonged. Prexaspes rode at
his side, smiling cynically beneath his beard and glancing
occasionally up at the great palace on the hill where the King stood
at a window gazing down upon the demonstration. The false Bardya
passed out of the city; and so perfect was his resemblance to the
departed in feature and dress that none suspected the imposture. At
Rhages, a new escort was provided; but at a point a day’s journey
beyond Rhages it was attacked by a band of men, supposed to be
robbers, and scattered. Bardya, whether true or false, there
disappeared and the Great King sent a punitive expedition into the
mountains to lay waste the robbers’ homes. Certain innocent
mountaineers suffered the Great King’s vengeance, but the King’s
brother could not be found.
Thus did Cambyses make himself sure of his throne, and for many
months thereafter he gave himself up to riotous living, seeking in
strong drink forgetfulness of his crime. Meanwhile he prepared for
war against Egypt. He levied heavy taxes and called for troops from
every province. His pride grew. He deemed himself divine. The Magi
encouraged him in this faith and brought messages from the gods of
the hills to him as the god of earth.
Cambyses had one great sorrow. He was childless. He took many
women as wives. His seraglio was filled with the most beautiful of the
earth. But no child gladdened his heart. As the months passed, his
mind became darker and more imbued with hatred of good and the
love of evil. The Magi served him well. As his spies they listened
among the common people and invaded the palaces of the great. He
knew that the people feared him and did not love him. His vanity was
easily wounded. Some who spoke offensively of him to putative
friends suddenly disappeared and were never heard of more.
Throughout the vast regions governed by him, his spies watched for
plots and conspiracies. Incipient rebellions were ferociously
repressed and those who plotted were tortured to death as examples
to others.
Reviewing these things in his mind one day, while walking on the
balcony of the palace, the King looked down upon the park
surrounding the palace and noticed a group of women sitting on
benches beneath a tree, and saw that among them were his two
sisters. Their gay chatter and laughter came up to his ears. He
watched them a moment in scowling silence, and was about to
resume his walk, when, as he turned, he was startled at seeing
before him the tall form of Patatheites, chief priest of the Magians.
The King uttered an oath, and placed his hand on the haft of his
dagger.
“How come you here?” he growled. “I like not this sudden appearing!
I turn here or there and I behold you and know not how you come or
go! Speak, slave!”
The large, dark eyes of the Magian looked calmly into the fierce,
sparkling orbs of the King; and before his direct gaze the latter
quailed. Possessed of wonderful hypnotic power, Patatheites easily
ruled those with whom he came in contact. He dared even to
exercise his power upon the King.
“Let not the King’s anger strike me!” he said soothingly. “I am his
most obedient and willing slave. I have a message from the gods,
who have seen fit to whisper it to me for you.”
“What is it?” demanded the King, cringing somewhat and
experiencing a chill along his spinal column.
“Your expedition against Egypt will be successful, say the gods of
the hills. Concerning that which you had in your mind as to an heir
for your throne, I have a message also.”
Cambyses looked upon the man with growing awe. To no one had
he ever expressed the thoughts concerning his lack of an heir. How
could this priest know that he had just been considering that subject?
“How knew you my thoughts?” he demanded. “What is this
message?”
“How do the gods know?” returned the Magian. “This message is,
that one of your race shall fill your throne after you, but it will be a
son of your sister.”
“What?” almost shouted the King. “Her son? and who shall be his
father?”
“That I know not. But I do know that it lies in your power to say who
shall be husband to your sisters. Look about over the world and
choose one equal to yourself.”
Cambyses was silent a moment and his thought ran to one only who
might claim to be of equal birth, the Prince of Iran. Jealous wrath
arose and almost choked his utterance.
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