COMPRESSOR

1. INTRODUCTION:

The function of a compressor is to take definite qualities of fluid (usually a gas or -moist air or
vapor) and raises its pressure with an appreciable increase in density. After compression, the air is
delivered to a storage vessel, from which it is conveyed through the pipelines to the site where it is
required to be used. In contrast to the engine, the compressor does not produce any work but is a device
that consumes mechanical/ electrical energy supplied by an external power source.
The compressor is the ‘heart of a mechanical vapour compression refrigeration system’. In
mechanical refrigeration system, as the name indicates, the compressor takes in a low temperature, low
pressure vapour refrigerant from evaporator and compresses it to a high pressure and temperature
superheated vapour, i.e., the compressor maintains a pressure difference between the evaporator and the
condenser of the refrigeration system. Compressor is the costliest component of a refrigeration system.
The other function of the compressor in the refrigeration cycle is to continuously circulate the
refrigerant through the system. Generally the capacity of the compressor determines the capacity of the
refrigerating system.

Heat Input low pressure air

Heat to Radiator & Coolant

Wout
E Win C
Compressor-Prime mover (E) Unit

Heat rejection High pressure air

Fig. 1

Figure 1 represents the general arrangement of a compressor set. Of the energy received by the
compressor from the prime mover, some will be absorbed in work done against friction (which reappears
as heat), some will be lost to radiation and any coolant employed for cooling, and the rest will be
maintained within the delivered gas, at high pressure.
The prime mover converts only a fraction of the heat it receives from the source into work, and so
far as the compressor alone is concerned, the energy which it receives is that which is available at the
shaft of the prime mover.

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
2. APLICATION OF COMPRESSED AIR
Compressed air finds its extensive application in industries, workshops, automobiles and mines etc.
A. Low compressed air (P < 1.0 MN/m2): Spray painting, car servicing, filling air in tyres,
supercharging of I.C. engines, conveying materials through pipelines.
B. Medium compressed air (P  1.0-8.0 MN/m2): gas turbines that drives aircraft.
C. Highly compressed air (P  8.0- 10.0 MN/m2): driving variety of pneumatic tools like hand drills
and hammers, Pneumatic brakes in locomotives, Pneumatic presses etc.
The compressed air also find its application in
• refrigeration and cooling of large buildings
• transmitting control system pressures to remote locations
• pneumatic drilling of hardrocks and blasting them
• driving vibrators for mixing cement and concrete with water to make slurry.
• operation of doors, rams, cage gates and conveyors.
3. TYPES OF COMPRESSOR
There is the need for many types of compressors because of variety of refrigerants and capacity, location
and application of the systems. Generally, the compressors can be classified into two basic types:

(a) Positive displacement type (b) Rotodynamic type

The Positive displacement family includes Reciprocating Compressor and Rotary Compressor.
According to the movement of compression components, the rotary compressor can further be classified
as:

(i) Scroll: Works on high pressure ratio, used for residential air conditioning and heat pumps,
automotive air conditioning

(ii) Screw: High compression ratio (25:1 in single stage)

(iii) Roller type: Works up to 5 ton and suitable for low pressure side of multistage compressor.

(iv) Vane type: For this type of compressor compression ratio limited 7:1, it has very large
volumetric efficiency (70-85%)

The Rotodynamic Compressor, which is also called Turbo compressor is classified as Centrifugal
and Axial flow types according to the flow arrangement. The classification is shown in Fig. 2.

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
 Fig. 2

✓ The reciprocating and screw compressors are best suited for use with refrigerants which require a
relatively small displacement and condense at relatively high pressure, such as R-12, R-22, Ammonia,
etc.

✓ The centrifugal compressors are suitable for handling refrigerants that require large displacement and
operate at low condensing pressure, such as R-11, R-113, etc.

✓ The rotary compressor is most suited for pumping refrigerants having moderate or low condensing
pressures, such as R-21 and R-114; this is mainly used in domestic refrigerators.

• In Positive displacement type compressor, compression is achieved by trapping a refrigerant vapour into
an enclosed space and then reducing its volume. Since a fixed amount of refrigerant is trapped each time,
its pressure rises as its volume is reduced. When the pressure rises to a level that is slightly higher than
the condensing pressure, then it is expelled from the enclosed space and a fresh charge of low-pressure
refrigerant is drawn in and the cycle continues. Since the flow of refrigerant to the compressor is not
steady, the positive displacement type compressor is a pulsating flow device. However, since the
operating speeds are normally very high the flow appears to be almost steady on macroscopic time scale.
Since the flow is pulsating on a microscopic time scale, positive displacement type compressors are prone
to high wear, vibration and noise level.

Due to solid wall displacement, these are capable of providing large pressure ratios. The
compression raises the vapour pressure to a set value before discharge as shown in Fig.3.

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
 Fig. 3

Depending upon the construction, positive displacement type compressors used in refrigeration and air
conditioning can be classified into:
i. Reciprocating type
ii. Rotary type with sliding vanes (rolling piston type or multiple vane type)
iii. Rotary screw type (single screw or twin-screw type)
iv. Orbital compressors, and
v. Acoustic compressors
▪ In Rotary type compressor, a rotary part is present whose boundary causes positive displacement
of the fluid to make the compression. Here, the air is compressed by trapping it in a reducing
space formed by a set of engaging surfaces. The change in pressure is either by the backflow of
air (roots blower) or both by squeezing action and backflow of air (vane blower). The rotary
machines can operate at high speeds and can handle large mass flow rates than reciprocating one.

▪ In reciprocating compressor, there is a piston-cylinder assembly. The interaction between the

sliding piston and the fluid involves a change in volume and consequently pressure rises. This
unit is best suited for small mass flow rates and large pressure ratios. This type of compressor
may be single-acting or double-acting type. Single-acting compressor has one delivery stroke per
revolution, while the double-acting one has two delivery strokes per revolution of crank shaft.

• Rotodynamic compressors are steady-flow devices that use dynamic action of solid boundary for raising
the pressure. Here, the compressible fluid is not confined in a definite volume and subsequent volume
reduction does not occur. They impart velocity energy to continuously flowing vapour by means of
impellers/ rotor, rotating at very high speeds. The velocity energy is changed to pressure energy both by
the impellers and discharge volutes or diffusers. In centrifugal compressors, the shape of the impeller
blades determines the relationships between airflow and pressure generated.

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
 Unlike positive displacement type, the roto-dynamic type compressors are steady flow devices, hence are
subjected to less wear and vibration. Depending upon the construction, roto-dynamic type compressors
can be classified into:

i. Radial flow type, or

ii. Axial flow type
▪ Centrifugal compressors (also known as turbo-compressors)

are radial flow type, roto-dynamic compressors. These com-

pressors are widely used in large capacity refrigeration
and air conditioning systems.
▪ Axial flow compressors are normally used in gas
liquefaction applications.

• In a Centrifugal compressor, pressure of the refrigerant

Fig. 4
vapour is increased by the action of centrifugal force. It accelerates the velocity of gases (increases K.E)
which is again converted into pressure as the flow leaves the volute casing and enters the discharge pipe.
This isrecommended for refrigerants that require large displacements and low condensing pressure,
such as R-11 and R-113.
A single stage centrifugal compressor has been shown in Fig.4.
• Basic Components:

Impellers, Vanes, Volutes, Suction Eyes, Discharge lines, Diffuser Plates, Seals, Shaft, Casing

✓ Suction Vane Tips = Part of the impeller vane that comes into contact with air first.

✓ Discharge Vane Tips = Part of the impeller vane that comes into contact with air last

It consists of an impeller to which a number of curved vanes are fitted symmetrically. The impeller rotates
at high speed in a sealed volute casing having inlet and outlet. The refrigerant vapour is pushed to the
periphery due to centrifugal action, when the impeller rotates. Due to this rotation, the vapour refrigerant
leaves at high velocity at the vane tips of impeller. The kinetic energy thus attained at the impeller outlet

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
is converted into pressure energy when it passes through the diffuser(vaneless type). The maximum
compression ratio developed in a single stage is about 4.5. But, for higher compression ratio multistage
with intercooling is preferred.

It may be noted that the centrifugal compressor does not have any valve, piston and cylinder. Hence the
wear and tear is less.
4. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS:
Reciprocating compressor is the workhorse of the refrigeration and air conditioning industry. It is the
most widely used compressor with cooling capacities ranging from a few Watts to hundreds of kilowatts.
Modern day reciprocating compressors are high speed (≈ 3000 to 3600 rpm), single acting, single or
multi-cylinder (upto 16 cylinders) type.
The reciprocating compressor is well known piston-cylinder assembly as shown in Fig. 5.
Reciprocating compressors consist of a piston moving back and forth in a cylinder, with suction
and discharge valves to achieve suction and compression of the refrigerant vapor. Its construction and
working are somewhat similar to a two-stroke engine, as suction and compression of the refrigerant vapor
are completed in one revolution of the crank. The suction side of the compressor is connected to the exit
of the evaporator, while the discharge side of the compressor is connected to the condenser inlet. The
suction (inlet) and the discharge (outlet) valves open and close due to pressure differences between the
cylinder and inlet or outlet manifolds respectively. The pressure in the inlet manifold is equal to or
slightly less than the evaporator pressure. Similarly the pressure in the outlet manifold is equal to or
slightly greater than the condenser pressure.

Fig. 5

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
The purpose of the manifolds is to provide stable inlet and outlet pressures for the smooth operation of the
valves and also provide a space for mounting the valves.
The valves used are of reed or plate type, which are either floating or clamped. Usually,
backstops are provided to limit the valve displacement and springs may be provided for smooth return
after opening or closing. The piston speed is decided by valve type. Too high a speed will give excessive
vapor velocities that will decrease the volumetric efficiency and the throttling loss will decrease the
compression efficiency.
The operation of the reciprocating compressor has been shown in Fig. 6 using p-v diagram. Assume
working fluid to be a perfect gas.

Fig. 6
The cycle takes one revolution of the crankshaft for completion and the basic diagram is shown in Fig.6.
In the figure,
Process d-a is the induction stroke: The piston moves outward, suction valves opens and the air at
atmospheric pressure and temperature is sucked into the cylinder. The volume of the air handled is termed
as stroke volume (Vs) of the cylinder. During this stroke, flow work is done by air. The mass in the
cylinder increases from zero at d to that required to fill the cylinder at a. The temperature is constant at T1
for ideal cases.

Process a-b-c: compression and delivery stroke: The piston moves inward, inlet valve closes and air is
compressed. The compression process has the following three possibilities (Fig. 8):

(i) isentropic compression along a − b2

(ii) polytropic compression a − b

(iii) isothermal compression a − b1

When the air has been compressed to delivery pressure p2, the delivery valve opens and the air is
delivered to the receiver at constant pressure p2.

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
During this process, work is done on air and the

delivery temperature depends upon the law of comp-

ression.

During delivery b − c ,

(i) pressure and temperature remain constant

(ii) no heat exchange takes place with the surroundings

(iii) mass of air in cylinder decreases.

(iv) flow work is done on air in pushing it out

of cylinder.

So,
Fig. 7
Indicated work done on the air per cycle
= area abcd = (area abef + area bcoe – area adof)
p 2 v b − p1 v a
 Work Input = + p 2 v b − p1 v a
n −1
(assuming pvn= c as the law of compression)

1 n
= ( p 2 vb − p1 va )( + 1) = ( p2 vb − p1 va ) ……………………….(i)
n −1 n −1

Fig. 8
 is the mass induced and delivered per
Also, for perfect gas, p1va = m RT1 and p2vb = m RT2 where m
cycle.

n
➢ Work input per cycle = m R(T2 − T1 ) …………………………………………(ii)
n −1
Work input per unit time = (work input per cycle  no. of cycle per unit time).
n −1

Delivery temperature is given by T = T  p 2   n ,

2 1 
 p1 
➢ Work input per cycle =
 n −1   n −1 
n   p2  n    p2  n 
 R (T2 − T1 ) =
n n
m  RT1  
m  
 − 1 = p 
1 1 
v 
 − 1 …….(iii)
n −1 n −1   p1   n −1   p1  
   

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
 Actual work input to the compressor is larger than the indicated power due to work necessary to
overcome friction.

 Shaft power = I.P. + F.P.

I .P.
 Mechanical power for compressor =
S .P / B.P

B.P. / S .P
Input Power =
efficiency of motor and drive

5. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR INCLUDING CLEARANCE:

When the piston is at extreme left position, it does not flush

with the cylinder head. A dead space remains between
the cylinder head and the piston, known as clearance space.
Clearance is necessary in a compressor to give mechanical
freedom to the working parts and allow the necessary space
for valve operations.
The p-v diagram for a single stage compressor when clearance

is considered is shown in Fig. 9. The small quantity of air at

pressure p2 remaining in dead space at the end of delivery line b-c, Fig. 9

which expands polytropically along c-d. Theoretically the expansion continues until pressure p1 is reached
at point d. Then the inlet valve opens and the induction of fresh air into the cylinder begins. The intake
continues for the remaining period of stroke. The effect of clearance volume is to reduce the induced
volume at p1 and T1 from vs to (va – vd) as shown. At point a, inlet valve closes and the charge is
compressed polytropically along the path a-b until the delivery pressure is reached. Then the delivery
valve drops and the air is discharged to the receiver.
• For good machines, clearance volume = 6 % of swept volume can be as low as 2 % and even 30 – 35 %.

From Fig. 9,

The mass of gas at the four principal points are such that, ma = mb and mc = md

The mass delivered per cycle (m

 ) = m b − m c = m a − m d
Indicated work = area abcd = area abef – area cefd

n  n 
 I.P. = m a R( T2 − T1 ) − m d R( T2 − T1 )
n −1 n −1

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
 n  
= R( m a - m d )( T2 − T1 )
n−1

n
= m R( T2 − T1 )
n −1
 
m = mass induced per unit time = ( m a - m d )

Hence the work done per unit mass of air delivered is unaffected by the size of the clearance volume.

 n −1   n −1 
n  p2  n  n 
 p2 n 
Also, I.P. = n − 1 p1V  p  − 1 = p1 f (va − vd )   − 1 …………………………….(iv)
 1   n −1  p1  
   

V = f (Va − Vd ) , where f is the cycle per unit time

The mass delivered per unit time can be increased by designing the machine to be double acting, i.e. gas

is dealt with on both sides of piston, the induction stroke for one side being the compression stroke for the

other.

6. VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY:

For a given evaporator and condenser pressures, the important performance parameters of a refrigerant
compressor are:

a) The mass flow rate (m) of the compressor for a given displacement rate

b) Power consumption of the compressor (Wc)

c) Temperature of the refrigerant at compressor exit, Td, and

d) Performance under part load conditions

The mass flow rate decides the refrigeration capacity of the system and for a given compressor inlet
condition, it depends on the volumetric efficiency of the compressor. The volumetric efficiency,  v , is
defined as the ratio of volumetric flow rate of refrigerant to the maximum possible volumetric flow rate,
which is equal to the compressor displacement rate (Vs), i.e.,

volumetric flow rate m v1

v = =
Compressor dispalcement rate Vs

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
In other words, volumetric efficiency,  v , can also be defined as the ratio of the mass of air sucked
during suction to the mass of air which would fill the swept volume at the free air condition of pressure
and temperature.

actual volume of the air sucked in cylinder during suction Vs + vc − vd

Or,  v = =
piston dispalcement / swept volume Vs
Free Air Delivery (FAD): The volume of air dealt with by an air compressor is quoted as the free air
delivery (F.A.D.), and the volume delivered, measured at the pressure and temperature of the atmosphere
in which the machine is situated.

paVa
=
If F.A.D. is Va , at pa and Ta , then the mass delivered is m
RTa
 pVs
The mass required for filling the swept volume, V s , at p and T is given by m s =
RT
paVa p1 (Va − Vd )
FAD can be found using ideal gas equation as: =
Ta T1
Ta p1 (Va − Vd )
 FAD per cycle = Va =
pa T1

m pV RT V Vs + Vc − Vd FAD
v = =  = = =
m s RT pVs Vs Vs Swept volume
V T p (V − Vd )
= = a 1 a
(Va − Vc ) paT1 (Va − Vc )
Ta p1 (Vs + Vc − Vd )
=
paT1 Vs
Ta p1  Vc Vd Vc 
= 1 + − 
paT1  Vs Vc Vs 

Where, Fig. 9

Volume induced = Va - Vd = (Vs + Vc – Vd)

1 1
V  p n  p n
Now, d =  2  or , Vd = Vc  2 
Vc  p1   p1 
1  1 
 p2  n  p  n 
= Vs - Vc 
 Volume induced = Vs + Vc – Vc 
 p   p  − 1
2

 1  1  
 

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
  1
Ta p1  Vc Vd Vc  Ta p1   p2  n 
 v = 1 + − = 1 + C − C    , …………………….(v)
p a T1  Vs Vc Vs  p a T1   p1  
 

-------This is expression of volumetric efficiency at free air condition.

Vc
where C =
Vs
If free air condition matches with the environment condition at which suction takes place, then

 1
  p2  n 
v = 1 + C − C   
  p1  
 

It can also be expressed as----

 1 
 p2  n 
v s − vc   − 1
 p1    1 
v a − v d v s + vc − v d   = 1 − vc  
 2 n  ……….(vi)
p
 v = = =   − 1
vs vs vs vs  p1  
 

From equation (v) and (vi), it is evident that volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor is
V p 
dependent on: clearance factor C = c ; pressure ratio  2  ; polytropic index of compression ‘n’.
Vs  p1 
Figure 10 shows variation of volumetric
efficiency when each of these parameters is changed,
keeping the other two factors constant. From the graph,
it is seen that volumetric efficiency:
• decreases as the clearance factor C increases
• decreases with increase of pressure ratio
• increases with increase of index ‘n’
for maximum clearance factor (Cmax), at constant
pressure ratio; Fig. 10. Effect of clearance on volumetric Efficiency

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
 v = 0
1
p  n
or , 1 + C max − C max  2  = 0
 p1 
1
or , C max = 1
...........................................(vii)
 p2  n
  − 1
 p1 

7. CONDITION FOR MINIMUM WORK:

Fig. 10

Different processes of compression on P-V & T-s diagrams between the same pressure limit have been
shown in Fig.10 & Fig. 11.

Work Input = area of the indicator diagram

 p2 
Height is fixed by   and p1, d-a is fixed by cylinder
 p1 
volume.
So, from figure 11, line a-b will vary the work input
pv = C (Isothermal) --- line ab1

pvγ = C (Isentropic) --- line ab2 e1

Isothermal compression is the most desirable process

Fig. 11
between a and b, giving minimum work.
 Isothermal work input = area ab1cd = area ab1e1 f + area b1coe1 – area adof
p 
Now, Area ab1ef = p 2 v b1 log 2 
 p1 
p 
 Indicated work per cycle = p 2 vb1 log 2  + p 2 vb1 - p 1 v a
 p1 
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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
Also, p 2 vb1 = p1 v a (for isothermal process)

p  p  p 
 Indicated work per cycle = p 2 vb1 log e  2  = p1va loge  2  = m RT loge  2  …….(viii)
 p1   p1   p1 
p 
m RT1 log e  2 
Isothermal efficiency,
(iso ) = isothermal work =  p1  ………………….(ix)
indicated work  n −1 
n   p2  n 
p1v1    − 1
n −1   p1  
 
For Isentropic compression, polytropic index ‘n’ is changed to isentropic index ‘  ’.
  −1 
  p   
Work input/cycle (Win ) = p1v1   
2
− 1
 −1   p1  
 
Isentropic compression is least desirable.
Actual compression in between these two have n = 1.2 to 1.3 for air compressor.
Cooling is done by water jacketing and designing for best ratio of surface area to volume of the cylinder.
For a single acting air compressor, Air Power/Indicated Power is the theoretical power required to run
the compressor.
Wa  n
(IP) = kW , where Wa = work required
60000
n = No. of cycle
= N for single acting
= 2N for double acting
The power required to drive the shaft (SP) will be greater than IP due to frictional losses and the ratio of
these two is called mechanical efficiency (mech ) =
IP
.
SP
8. EFFECT OF TYPE OF COMPRESSION:

Some mount of air taken in the cylinder during Suction stroke is compressed adiabatically in the path

a-b2. So, the area a b2 c d shows the work required to compress the air.

The air could have been compressed isothermally

following the path a-b1. So work required to compress

the work isothermally is given by ab1cd, which requires

less work input. Therefore, isothermal compression is

the most effective way to compress the air.

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
But, as isothermal compression means the process would have been carried out very slowly, it is not
desirable in actual practice in order to compress larger volume of air in minimum time. So, the
compression will approximate in adiabatic process.
We can show the work is saved by compressing the air isothermally as it requires least amount of
energy. However, it cannot be achieved in practice but an attempt is made to approach it by:
(i) cooling the compressor either by providing fins
(ii) water jacket to the compressor cylinder
(iii) by the use of intercooler.

9. MULTI-STAGE COMPRESSION:

In previous part, we have considered the compression of refrigerant in a single stage compressor. But,
sometimes, the vapour refrigerant is required to be delivered at a very high pressure as in case of low
temperature refrigeration systems. In such cases, either we can compress the refrigerant by employing a
single stage compressor with a very high pressure ratio or by compressing it in two or more compressors
placed in series.
But, by using a single stage compressor for producing very high pressure refrigerant, it encounters the
following drawbacks:
• The size of the cylinder will be too large.
• Due to compression, there is a rise of temperature of the refrigerant. It is difficult to reject heat
from the refrigerant within small time available for compression.
• Sometimes, the temperature of the refrigerant at the end of compression is too high that causes
overheating of the cylinder
• Volumetric efficiency is low.
We know that, the condition for minimum work is that the compression process should be isothermal.
n −1
P  n
Temperature after compression is given by, T2 = T1  2  . So delivery temperature increases with the
 P1 
 1 
vc  p 2  n 
pressure ratio. Also the volumetric efficiency is given by---  v = 1 −   − 1
vs  p1  
 

 , the pressure ratio and compression ratio increases,  v decreases.

 p2 
So, as 
 1
p
The volumetric efficiency can be improved by carrying out the compression in two stages. After the
first stage of compression in L.P. compressor from state p1, T1 to the state pi, Ti , the fluid is passed into a
smaller cylinder (H.P. compressor) in which the gas is compressed to the required final pressure p2 at
temperature T2. The indicator diagram for a two-stage machine is shown in fig 13. In this diagram it is
assumed that the delivery process from the first or low pressure stage and the induction process of the
second or high pressure stage are at the same pressure.

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
 pi

pi

Fig. 12 & 13: p-V & T-s diagrams for Two-stage compression with Perfect
Intercooling, showing Work Saved

The gas after being compressed in the L.P. compressor (a-b) is passed on to an intercooler for getting
cooled. After leaving the intercooler the gas enters the H.P. cylinder for further compression (c-d).
The ideal isothermal compression can only be obtained if ideal cooling is continuous. This is
difficult to obtain during normal compression. With multi-stage compression the opportunity presents
itself for the gas to be cooled as it is being transferred from one cylinder to the next, by passing through
an inter cooler.

Fig. 14 (Schematic of Intercooling)

If the intercooling is complete or perfect (b-c), the gas will enter the second stage at the same temperature
at which it entered the first stage. The saving in work obtained by inter cooling is shown by the shaded
area in fig. 12, and the schematic of the plant is shown in fig 14.
Similarly, perfect aftercooling (d – d’) makes the gas, leaving the H.P. compressor, cooled to the inlet
temperature T1. This reduces the volume of the gas leaving, and thus the size of the receiver becomes
smaller.
The two indicator diagrams abcd and abcd’ are shown with a common pressure pi. This does not occur
in a real machine as there is small pressure drop between cylinders.

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
An after cooler can be fitted after the delivery process to cool the gas. The delivery temperatures from the
n −1 n −1
 Pi  n  P2  n
two stages are given by Ti = T1   and T2 = T1   respectively.
 P1   Pi 
Therefore, Total work in two stage compression with perfect intercooling is given by

  n-1   n-1 
n   pi  n   p 2  n 
W =  RT1 
m   RTa 
- 1 + m  - 1
n -1   1 
p   i 
p 
    


This assumes that the gas is cooled in the intercooler back to the inlet temperature, and is called complete
intercooling as shown in Fig 14. Therefore, when the intercooling is perfect, T1=Ta.

8. CHOICE OF INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE:

The value chosen for the intermediate pressure pi, influences the work to be done on the gas and its
distribution between the stages. The condition for the work done to be minimum will be proved for two-
stage compression but can be extended to any number of stages.
Total work = Work done in low pressure cylinder + Work done in high pressure cylinder.

 n-1 n-1 
n  pi  n  p2  n 
∴ W= m RT1   - 1 +   - 1
n -1  p1   pi  
 
In the above expression, p1, T1, p2 are fixed, only variable is pi
 n-1 
dW d  n -1 n -1 n -1   
(1 / p1 ) n .( pi ) n + ( p2 ) n   - 2 = 0
1 n
So for uniform work, =0 
dp i dpi   pi  
 

∴ ( p1 )- n .
n-1 (n - 1) .( p ) n-1 -1 + ( p )n-1 .1 - n .( p )1-n -1 = 0
i n 2 n i n
n n
n-1
1 n-1 1-2 n
or , -
pi n . ( p1 ) -
n .=
n
pi n . p 2 .

 1 1- 2 n  n -1 n -1
- - 
or , p i  n n  = p2 n . p1 n

- 1- 1 + 2 n n -1

) = ( p 2 p1 )
( n
or , p i n

Fig. 15

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
 n -1
 n -1 
2 
or , p i  n  = ( p 2 p1 ) n

or , p i = p` 1 p 2
2

or , p i = p1 p 2

pi p 2 p2
or , = = , pressure ratio is same for each stage
p1 pi p1
 Total minimum work = 2  work required for one stage

 n-1 n-1 
n  p 2  2 n  p 2  2 n 
=  RT1 
m  +   - 2
n -1  p1   p1  
 
 n-1 
n  p 2  2 n 
= 2  RT1 
m  - 1
n -1  p1  
 
So, for z number of stages, it can be shown that
 n -1 
zn  p2  zn 
 Total minimum work =  RT1 
m  - 1
n -1  p1  
 
1
 p2  z
where, Pressure ratio for each stage =  
 p1 
 The condition for minimum work is that the pressure ratio is the same and the intercooling is
complete.
Besides, the benefits of multistage compression, there are also mechanical advantages. The higher
pressures are confined to the smaller cylinder and a multi cylinder machine has less variation in rotational
speed and requires a small flywheel.

8.1. ADVANTAGES OF MULTI-STAGING:

(i) Improvement in volumetric efficiency
(ii) Reduction in work input to compressor, therefore total driving power. This is achieved by
cooling the compressed air before its compression in the succeeding stage.
(iii) It reduces the maximum temperature rise in the cylinder, I,e. reduces cooling and fire
hazards.
(iv) Size and thickness of the cylinder can be adjusted based on the pressure.

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
 (v) Leakage loss is minimum due to better cylinder lubrication and reduced pressure
difference across two sides of the piston and valve.
(vi) Multi-cylinder engine gives more uniform torque and better mechanical balance (smaller
flywheel needed)

9. HERMETICALLY SEALED, OPEN, OR SEMI-HERMETIC COMPRESSOR

Compressors are often described as being either open, hermetic, or semi-hermetic, to describe how the
compressor and motor drive is situated in relation to the gas or vapour being compressed. The industry
name for a hermetic is hermetically sealed compressor, while a semi-hermetic is commonly called a
semi-hermetic compressor.

In open type compressors the rotating shaft of the compressor extends through a seal in the
crankcase for an external drive. The external drive may be an electrical motor or an engine (e.g. diesel
engine). The compressor may be belt driven or gear driven. Open type compressors are normally used in
medium to large capacity refrigeration system for all refrigerants and for ammonia (due to its
incompatibility with hermetic motor materials). Open type compressors are characterized by high
efficiency, flexibility, better compressor cooling and serviceability. However, since the shaft has to
extend through the seal, refrigerant leakage from the system cannot be eliminated completely. Hence
refrigeration systems using open type compressors require a refrigerant reservoir to take care of the
refrigerant leakage for some time, and then regular maintenance for charging the system with refrigerant,
changing of seals, gaskets etc.

In hermetic compressors, the motor and the compressor are enclosed in a single outer welded
steel shell to prevent refrigerant leakage. The housing has welded connections for refrigerant inlet and
outlet and for power input socket. As a result of this, there is virtually no possibility of refrigerant leakage
from the compressor. All motors reject a part of the power supplied to it due to eddy currents and friction,
that is, inefficiencies. Similarly the compressor also gets heated-up due to friction and also due to
temperature rise of the vapour during compression. In Open type, both the compressor and the motor
normally reject heat to the surrounding air for efficient operation. In hermetic compressors heat cannot be
rejected to the surrounding air since both are enclosed in a shell. Hence, the cold suction gas is made to
flow over the motor and the compressor before entering the compressor. This keeps the motor cool. The
motor winding is in direct contact with the refrigerant hence only those refrigerants, which have high
dielectric strength, can be used in hermetic compressors. The cooling rate depends upon the flow rate of
the refrigerant, its temperature and the thermal properties of the refrigerant.

If flow rate is not sufficient and/or if the temperature is not low enough the insulation on the winding of
the motor can burn out and short-circuiting may occur. Hence, hermetically sealed compressors give
satisfactory and safe performance over a very narrow range of design temperature and should not be used
for off-design conditions.

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
 Fig. 16

The COP of the hermetic compressor based systems is lower than that of the open compressor
based systems since a part of the refrigeration effect is lost in cooling the motor and the compressor.
However, hermetic compressors are almost universally used in small systems such as domestic
refrigerators, water coolers, air conditioners etc, where efficiency is not as important as customer
convenience (due to absence of continuous maintenance). In addition to this, the use of hermetic
compressors is ideal in systems, which use capillary tubes as expansion devices and are critically charged
systems. Hermetic compressors are normally not serviceable. They are not very flexible as it is difficult to
vary their speed to control the cooling capacity.

In some (usually larger) hermetic units, the cylinder head is usually removable so that the valves
and the piston can be serviced. This type of unit is called a semi-hermetic (or semi-sealed) compressor.

9.1. SIMILARITIES AND DISSIMILARITIES BETWEEN HETMETIC & SEMI-HERMETIC

TYPE:

In hermetic and most semi-hermetic compressors, the compressor and motor driving the compressor are
integrated, and operate within the pressurized gas envelope of the system. The motor is designed to
operate and be cooled by the gas or vapour being compressed.
The difference between the hermetic and semi-hermetic, is that the hermetic uses a one-piece welded steel
casing that cannot be opened for repair; if the hermetic fails it is simply replaced with an entire new unit.
A semi-hermetic uses a large cast metal shell with gasketed covers that can be opened to replace motor
and pump components.

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
 Fig. 17
The primary advantage of a hermetic and semi-hermetic is that there is no route for the gas to leak
out of the system. Open compressors rely on either natural leather or synthetic rubber seals to retain the
internal pressure, and these seals require a lubricant such as oil to retain their sealing properties.

An open system such as an automobile air conditioner can leak its operating gases, if it is not
operated frequently enough. Open systems rely on lubricant in the system to splash on pump components
and seals. If it is not operated frequently enough, the lubricant on the seals slowly evaporates, and then
the seals begin to leak until the system is no longer functional and must be recharged. By comparison, a
hermetic system can sit unused for years, and can usually be started up again at any time without
requiring maintenance or experiencing any loss of system pressure.

A small hermetically sealed compressor in a common consumer refrigerator or freezer typically has a
rounded steel outer shell permanently welded shut, which seals operating gases inside the system. There
is no route for gases to leak, such as around motor shaft seals.

10. Centrifugal Compressor (Detailed Description)

Inlet: The inlet to a centrifugal compressor is typically a simple pipe. It may include features such as a
valve, stationary vanes/airfoils (used to help swirl the flow) and both pressure and temperature
instrumentation.
Centrifugal impeller: The key component that makes a compressor centrifugal is the centrifugal
impeller. It is the impeller’s rotating set of vanes (or blades) that gradually raises the energy of the
working gas. This is identical to an axial compressor with the exception that the gases can reach higher

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
velocities and energy levels through the impeller’s increasing radius. In many modern high-efficiency
centrifugal compressors the gas exiting the impeller is traveling near the speed of sound.

Fig. 18

Impellers are designed in many configurations including “open” (visible blades), “covered or shrouded”,
“with splitters”. Most modern high efficiency impellers use “backsweep” in the blade shape. Euler’s
pump and turbine equation plays an important role in understanding impeller performance.

Diffuser : The next key component to the simple centrifugal compressor is the diffuser. Downstream of
the impeller in the flow path, it is the diffuser’s responsibility to convert the kinetic energy (high velocity)
ofthe gas into pressure by gradually slowing (diffusing)

the gas velocity. Diffusers can be vane less,

vaned or an alternating combination.

Hybrid versions of vaned diffusers include:

wedge, channel, and pipe diffusers.

There are turbocharger applications that benefit

by incorporating no diffuser.
Fig. 19
Bernoulli’s fluid dynamic principle plays an important

role in understanding diffuser performance.

Collector / Casing : The collector of a centrifugal compressor can take many shapes and forms. When
the diffuser discharges into a large empty chamber, the collector may be termed a Plenum. When the

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
diffuser discharges into a device that looks somewhat like a snail shell, bull’s horn or a French horn, the
collector is likely to be termed a volute or scroll. As the name implies, a collector’s purpose is to gather
the flow from the diffuser discharge annulus and deliver this flow to a downstream pipe. Either the
collector or the pipe may also contain valves and instrumentation to control the compressor.

11. ROTARY COMPRESSORS:

In Rotary type compressor, a rotary part is present whose boundary causes positive displacement of the
fluid to make the compression. Here, the air is compressed by trapping it in a reducing space formed by a
set of engaging surfaces. Since, clearance in case of rotary compressor is negligible, therefore they have
large volumetric efficiency. These compressors may be used with refrigerants R-12, R-22, R-114 and
ammonia.

According to the movement of compression components, the rotary compressor can further be classified
as: (i) Scroll type (ii) Screw type / Roots Blower (iii) Roller type
Roller type rotary compressors are generally available in two different configurations:
(a) Single stationary blade type
(b) Rotating Vane type

11.A. Single stationary blade type rotary compressor:

It consists of a stationary cylinder, a roller (or Impeller) and a shaft. The shaft has an eccentric on which
the roller is mounted. A blade is set into the slot of a spring and it moves in and out of the slot to follow
the rotor when it rotates. Since the blade separates the suction and discharge ports as shown in figure 20,
that’s why, it is termed as sealing blade. When the shaft rotates, the roller also rotates (so that it touches
the cylinder wall).
Figure 20. (a) to 20.(d) shows different positions of the roller (Impeller) as the refrigerant vapour is
compressed.
Fig. (a) shows end of intake stroke (i.e., the cylinder is full of low pressure and temperature vapour
refrigerant)and the beginning of compression stroke. When the roller rotates, the vapour refrigerant ahead
of the roller is being compressed and the new intake from evaporator is drawn int the cylinder (figure
20.b). As the roller / impeller turns towards mid position (figure 20.c), more vapour refrigerant is drawn
into the cylinder while the compressed one id discharged into the condenser. At the end of compression
stroke (figure 20.d), most of the compressed vapour is passed through the discharge port to the condenser
and a fresh charge of refrigerant is drawn in to the cylinder.

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
 Fig. 20
11.B. Rotary blade type rotary compressor:

It consists of a cylinder and slotted rotor containing a number of blades. The centre of the rotor is
eccentric with the centre of the cylinder and the blades are forced against the cylinder wall by the
centrifugal action during the rotation of the motor.

The low pressure and temperature vapour

refrigerant from the evaporator is drawn through

suction port and it entrapped between the two

adjacent blades with the movement of rotor and

thus gets compressed. The compressed refrigerant

at high pressure and temperature is discharged

through the discharge port to the condenser.

Fig.21

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
*** The whole assembly in both designs is enclosed in a housing, which is filled with oil and
remains in oil. An oil film forms the seal between the high pressure and the low pressure sides.
When the compressor stops, this seal is lost and the pressure equalizes.
*** Rotary compressors are normally used in a single stage up to a capacity of 5 TR.

11.C. Roots blower: Roots blower is a positive displacement type rotary compressor. It has two
rotors having two or three lobes having epicycloid and hypocycloid or involute profiles such that
they remain in proper contact. Figure 22shows two lobe rotors in a roots blower. To prevent
wear and tear two rotors have clearance in between. Out of two rotors one is driven by prime
mover while other one is driven by first rotor.

When two rotors rotate then their typical geometry

divides the region inside casing into two regions i.e.
high pressure region and low pressure region.
Although there occurs slight leakage across the mating
parts which can only be minimised not eliminated
completely.
The general arrangement as shown in figure 22, it
has inlet at section 1–1 and exit at 2–2. Air at atmos-
pheric pressure enters the casing and is trapped between
rotor A and the casing. When the rotor rotate then air

trapped in volume space V is displaced towards high

pressure region due to rotation of rotor. Exit end is connected
to receiver in which air is gradually transferred and the
Fig. 22
pressure inside receiver increases due to cumulative

effect of air being transferred from atmospheric pressure region to receiver region. In one
revolution this positive displacement of air trapped between rotor and casing from inlet end to
receiver end shall occur four times in case of two lobe rotor as shown. While in case of three
lobes rotor this transfer shall occur six times. Every time when V volume of air is displaced
without being compressed to the receiver side high pressure region, then the high pressure air
rushes back from receiver and mixes irreversibly with this air until the pressure gets equalized.
Thus, gradually air pressure builds up and say this pressure becomes p2.
Roots blower are available in the capacity ranging from 0.15 m3/min to 1500 m3/min and the
pressure ratios are of the order of 1 to 3.5. These are generally used for scavenging,
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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
supercharging of IC engines etc. Generally the roots efficiency is around 50–60% but high
efficiency values up to 80% can also be achieved with low pressure ratios.

11.D. Screw type or Helical type compressor: Screw type compressor is very much similar to
roots blower. These may have two spiral lobed rotors, out of which one may be called male rotor
(normally the driving rotor) having 3–4 lobes and other female rotor (normally the driven rotor)
having 4–6 lobes which intermesh with small clearance. Meshing is such that lobes jutting out of
male rotor get placed in matching hollow portion in female rotors. Initially, before this
intermeshing the hollows remain filled with gaseous fluid at inlet port. As rotation begins the
surface in contact move parallel to the axis of rotors toward the outlet end gradually compressing
the fluid till the trapped volume reaches up to outlet port for getting discharged out at designed
pressure. Since the number of lobes are different so the rotors operate at different speed.
The material of casing may be cast iron

or cast steel while rotors may be of steel and

generally internally cooled by circulation of lubri-
cation oil. Surface of lobes are smooth and the
shaft is sealed by carbon rings at oil pressure. Two
rotors are brought into synchronization by the screw
gears. Thrust upon rotors is taken care of by oil lubri-
cated thrust bearings.
These compressors are capable of handling
gas flows ranging from 200 to 20000 m3/h under
discharge pressures of 3 bar gauge in single stage and
up to 13 bar gauge in two stages. Even with increase in number Fig. 23
of stages pressures up to 100 bar absolute have been obtained with stage pressure ratio of 2.The
male rotor consists of lobes and is normally the driving rotor and the female one has gullies and
is normally the driven rotor.

11.D. Scroll type compressor:

These are valve-less positive displacement type machines like rotary and screw compressors.
Because of their simplicity, they have become very popular with the industry in recent years.

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
In scroll compressors, compression is achieved by two interfitting, spiral-shaped ‘scroll
members’ one of which is a ‘fixed scroll’ and the other an ‘orbiting scroll’ as indicated in cross-
sectional views.
These compressors are currently preferred in residential and commercial refrigeration and air
conditioning, heat pump and automotive air conditioning applications.
Scroll Compression Process: The fixed and orbiting scrolls have geometrically matching
surfaces. The two scrolls are fitted to form pockets of gas. Suction gas is sealed in pockets of a
given volume at the outer periphery of the scrolls. Compression is achieved by progressively
reducing the size of these pockets, as the motion of the orbiting scroll, relative to the fixed scroll,
moves the pockets ‘inwards’ towards the discharge port.

As in case with screw compressors, this type has a built-in volume ratio, defined by the geometry
of the scrolls, and the location of the discharge port.

Fig. 24

Figure 24 shows the scroll compression process in a sequence of suction, compression and
discharge.
Figure (a): the outermost pockets are sealed off. Suction gas is trapped just before compression
begins.
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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
Figure (b): at this stage, orbiting motion moves the gas to the centre. Pocket volume
progressively reduces, and the pressure rises as shown in figure (c).
Figure (d): the gas reaches the discharge port in the centre, and discharge takes place.
Simultaneously, suction begins at the outer periphery.

Questions and answers:

1. Which of the following is not positive displacement type compressor?

a. Rotary vane compressor b. Rotary screw type compressor
c. Centrifugal compressor d. Acoustic compressor
Ans.: c)
2. Compared to a hermetic compressor, an open type compressor:
a. Offers higher efficiency b. Offers lower noise
c. Offers better compressor cooling d. Offers serviceability and flexibility
Ans.: a), c) and d)
3. Hermetic compressors are used mainly in smaller systems as they:
a. Yield higher COP b. Do not require frequent servicing
c. Offer the flexibility of using any refrigerant
d. Can be used under different load conditions efficiently
Ans.: b)
4. In reciprocating compressors, clearance is provided:
a. To improve the volumetric efficiency of the compressor
b. To accommodate valves
c. To account for thermal expansion due to temperature variation
d. To reduce power consumption of the compressor
Ans.: b) and c)
5. The clearance volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor depends on:
a. Properties of the refrigerant b. Operating temperatures
c. Clearance volume d. All of the above
Ans.: d)

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
 NUMERICALS ON COMPRESSOR

1. A single-stage reciprocating compressor supplies 50 m3/min. It is used to compress air from 1 bar
and 100C to 7 bar with pv1.3 = const . Calculate the work done and the power required to run
the compressor.

2. A single-stage, single-acting reciprocating compressor running at 400 rpm delivers 12 m 3 air per
minute from 1 bar to 7 bar. The clearance is 5% of the stroke and the compressor follows

pv1.3 = const . Calculate the bore size and stroke of the compressor if stroke = 1.44 .
bore
3. A single stage double acting air compressor is required to deliver 14 m 3 of air/min measured at 1
bar and 150C. The delivery pressure is 7 bar and speed is 300 rpm. Take clearance volume to be
5% of the swept volume, with compression and expansion index n = 1.3. Find a) swept volume
b) Temperature at the end of compression c) indicated power.

4. A single stage air compressor has a bore of 120 mm and a stroke of 150 mm, and is driven at a
speed of 1200 rpm. It is compressing CO2 gas from a pressure of 120 kPa and a temperature of
200C to a temperature of 2150C. Assuming polytropic compression wit0h n=1.3, no clearance
and volumetric efficiency of 100%, calculate (a) pressure ratio, (b) indicated power, (c) shaft
power, with a mechanical efficiency of 80%, (d) mass flow rate.

If a second stage of equal pressure ratio were added, calculate (i) the overall pressure
ratio and (ii) the bore of the second stage cylinder, if the same stroke was maintained.

5. A single stage reciprocating air compressor has a swept volume of 2000 cm3 and runs at 800 rpm.
It operates on a pressure ratio of 8, with a clearance of 5% of the swept volume. Assume NTP
room conditions and at inlet (p= 101.3 kPa, t=150C), and polytropic compression and expansion
with n=1.25. Calculate (a) indicated power, (b) volumetric efficiency, (c) mass flow rate, (d)
FAD, (e) isothermal efficiency, (f) actual power required to drive the compressor, if mechanical
efficiency of 85%.

6. A two-stage reciprocating air compressor with perfect intercooling takes air 1 bar and 27 0C and
delivers at 8 bar to the receiver. Calculate the minimum work done and heat rejected from the
1.25
inter-cooler per kg of air if the compression takes place at pv = const .

7. A single-stage, single-acting reciprocating compressor has a piston displacement of 0.1 m 3. The

suction pressure is 1 bar and 298K and delivery pressure is 7 bar. Calculate:

(a) The work required to compress the air isentropically with  = 1.4 and polytropically

according to pv
1.25
= const .

(b) The isothermal efficiency for both type of compression.

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.
 8. A single stage single-acting air compressor has a bore of 10cm and a stroke of 15 cm, and
clearance is 3% of the stroke. It takes air from a pressure of 1 bar and a temperature of 30 0C and
delivers 0.6 kg of air per minute at a pressure of 6 bar. Assuming polytropic compression and
expansion index with n=1.3, calculate

(a) Volumetric efficiency of the compressor,

(b) shaft power, with a mechanical efficiency of 85%,

(c) Speed of the machine in rev/minute.

9. A two stage single acting air compressor compresses 10 m3/min of air at 100 kPa and 200C to
1400 kPa with perfect intercooling. What will be the pressure in the intercooler? If index of
compression is 1.3, then find the percentage saving in work by compressing in two stages
compared to single stage compression.

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Prepared by- Pratibhu Roy, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Raiganj Polytechnic, Govt. of W.B.