NAME OF THE MODULE

THERMAL ENGINEERING : I
Name of the topic: HEAT TRANSFER

Prepared by: 1. SOMNATH MANNA,

Lecturer of ME
Ghatal Govt Polytechnic

2. Sagar Kumar Barman

Lecturer of ME
Coochbehar Polytechnic

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Heat transfer syllabus:

Explanation of Three Basic Modes of Heat Transfer (Conduction, Convection and

Radiation).

Fourier’s Law of heat conduction, Thermal Conductivity and concept of Thermal

Resistance.

Heat Transfer through Plane Homogeneous Wall, Heat Transfer through Composite Wall,
Heat Transfer through Hollow Cylinder and Heat Transfer through combined Conduction
and Convection (Simple numerical).

Stefan-Boltzmann Law of heat radiation with explanation of terms with unit. (No
numerical)

Definition and inter relation of Absorptivity, Reflectivity and Transmissivity

Concept of Black and Gray Bodies.

Principle of heat exchanger, Construction, working principle and application of Shell and
Tube, Plate Type, Multiphase Heat Exchangers. (No deduction and numerical)

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Heat transfer:
The science of thermodynamics tell us the relation between heat and the other form of energy.

The science of heat transfer tells us the analysis of rate of heat transfer taking place in a system.

Heat transfer is the movement of thermal energy from a substance at a higher temperature
to another at a lower temperature.

Heat vs temperature:
Heat is the actual energy. In thermodynamics known as lower grade energy.

Temperature is the measure of average kinetic energy of particles in a substance.

Modes of heat transfer:

1. Conduction, 2. Convection, 3. Radiation

1. CONDUCTION:
Conduction is the mode of heat transfer which generally occurs in solids due to temperature
difference associated with molecular lattice vibrational energy transfer(30%) and also by
free electron transfer(70%).

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 2. CONVECTION:

Convection is the mode of heat transfer which generally occurs between a solid surface and the
surrounding fluid due to temp difference.
In convection thermal energy is transported by the motion of microscopic fluid particle.

From Newton’law of cooling the heat transfer by convection between a solid body and the
surrounding fluid is given by..

qconvection =h.A. (Tw – Tf)

h = convection heat transfer coefficient (Watt/m2.K)

Tw = plate temp
Tf = surrounding fluid temp.

Types of convection
◉ Forced convection: If the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by external means such as a
fan, pump, or the wind.
◉ Natural (or free) convection: If the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that are
induced by density differences due to the variation of temperature in the fluid.

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 3. RADIATION:
Radiation is the mode of heat transfer which does not require any material medium for its
propagation and hence occurs by electromagnetic wave propagation travelling with the speed
of light.
When the temperature difference is sufficiently large, heat transfer mainly occurs by
Radiation.

Electromagnetic waves

In any practical situation all the three modes of heat transfer may simultaneously exist.

SUN

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 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction:
The law states that the rate of heat transfer by conduction along a given direction is
directly proportional to the temperature gradient along that direction and also is directly
proportional to the area of heat transfer lying perpendicular to the direction of heat
transfer.

Temperature gradient =

Rate of heat transfer (q)

( Negative sign shows that heat always flows

in the direction of decreasing temperature)

Rate of heat transfer(q)

Where, K= thermal conductivity of material, unit is W/(m.oC), or W/(m.K)

Thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability of a material to transfer heat.

• The electrically good conductors have plenty of free

electrons, so they are also good conductors of HEAT.

Example- Gold, copper , silver, iron etc.

• Only exception is Diamond.
Diamond has no electrical conductivity but it has best heat

conductivity because diamond has perfect crystalline

molecular lattice arrangement.

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 Thermal resistance:
Thermal resistance is defined as the ratio of the temperature difference between the two
faces of a material , to the rate of heat flow.

Thermal resistance determines the heat insulation property of a material.

The higher the heat resistance, lower is the heat flow.

For a single slab…..

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Heat Transfer through Plane Homogeneous Wall
Assumption:

1. Steady state heat transfer condition.

Temperature does not vary with time.

2. One dimensional heat transfer.

Heat flow occurs in x direction.
3. Thermal conductivity (K) of the material
Is constant.

Rate of heat transfer Through

the plane homogeneous wall. (q) =

Heat Transfer through Composite Wall:

Rate of heat transfer through

the composite slab = q

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Heat Transfer through Hollow Cylinder:
Let, the temperature of

outside of a cylinder= T1

and the temperature of

outside of a cylinder = T2

Inner radius =r1

Otter radius = r2

Considered the steady state condition, one direction heat flow and constant heat conductivity of
the cylinder as K.
From Fourier’s law of heat conduction we derive the equation for heat transfer through hollow
cylinder as

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH COMBINED CONDUCTION AND

CONVECTION
Consider a composite section of width b1
And b2 ,and thermal conductivity of K1
And K2 respectively.
Composite section has area= A
One side of the composite section is
in contact with hot fluid(Th) and other side
is in contact with colder fluid(Tc).
h and h are convective heat transfer
co-efficient on hot side and cold side
fluid respectively.

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 Ø Heat will flow from hot fluid to composite slab by convection mode of heat transfer.
Ø Then heat will flow inside the composite slab from high temperature side to low temp
side via conduction mode of heat transfer.
Ø Then heat will flow from composite slab to colder fluid by convection mode of heat
transfer.

There will be 4 thermal resistance. Two convective heat resistance for two fluid medium and two
conductive heat resistance for composite slab.
Thermal circuit will be….

The heat transfer between hot fluid and cold fluid will be..

Also we can write this heat transfer (q) in each stage as..

All this equation shows the same amount of heat flowing from hot fluid to colder fluid via
composite slab.

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 RADIATION

Stefan Boltzmann law:

The law states that the total radiation energy emitted from the surface of a black body per unit
time per unit area is directly proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the
black body.

Black body:
Black body is a body which absorbs all the thermal radiation energy incident or falling upon the
body.

Black body is a
Ø Perfect absorber
Ø Ideal emmiter

Basic definition:
1. Total emmissive power:
It is defined as the radiation energy emitted from the surface of a body in all possible
directions integrated over all the wavelength.
E watt/m2

2. Total emmisivity:
It is defined as the ratio between total emmisive power of a non black body and to total
emmisive power of a black body, both being at same temperature.
.

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3.Monochromatic emissive power:
It is the radiation energy emitted from the surface of a body per unit time per unit area in a
particular wavelength region.

4.Monochromatic emissivity:
It is defined as the ratio between monochromatic emissive power of a non black body and
monochromatic emissive power of a black body both being at the same temperature and
wavelength.

5.Gray body:
Such body whose monochromatic emissivity is independent of wavelength , and is
constant is known as gray body or gray surface.

Radiative properties:
When radiation strikes on a surface, a portion of it is reflected and the rest enters the surface.
Of the portion that enters the surface, some are absorbed by the material, and the remaining is
transmitted through.

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 1. Reflectivity:
Fraction of the radiation energy incident upon a surface which is reflected by it.

2. Absorptivity:
Fraction of the radiation energy incident upon a surface which is absorbed by it.

3. Transmissivity:
Fraction of the radiation energy incident upon a surface which is transmitted through it.

For any surface,

Ø For opaque surface, which does not transmit any energy,

Ø For black body, absorptivity

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 HEAT EXCHANGER
Heat exchanger is a steady flow, adiabatic open system in which two flowing fluids
exchange or transfer heat between them without loosing or gaining any heat from the
ambient.
Example,
1. Automobile radiator (hot water to atmospheric air)
2. Cooling tower (hot water to atmospheric air)

Shell and tube heat exchanger:

Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series of tubes which contain fluid that must be either
heated or cooled. A second fluid runs over the tubes that are being heated or cooled so that it can
either provide the heat or absorb the heat required.
• Shell and tube heat exchangers are typically used for high-pressure applications (with
pressures greater than 30 bar and temperatures greater than 260 °C).

• The shell and tube heat exchanger provide relatively large ratios of heat transfer area to
volume. Due to which this type of heat exchangers are widely used for efficient heat
transfer.
• They are easy to clean.

Applications: shell and tube type heat exchangers are widely used in petroleum refineries,
chemical plants, power plants, air conditioning etc.

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Plate type heat exchanger:
Plate type heat exchangers usually are constructed of thin plates. The plates may be smooth or
may have some form of corrugation.
This type of heat exchangers are generally used for medium pressure (up to 30 bar) and
medium temperature operations.

An individual plate for a heat

Schematic conceptual diagram of a exchanger
plate and frame heat exchanger.

• Plate type of heat exchangers have high heat transfer area because the fluids are spread
out over the plates. This facilitates the transfer of heat, and greatly increases the speed of
the temperature change.

• They are compact in size and occupies low floor space.

• By increasing the number of plates the area of heat exchange can be increased.
• This type of heat exchangers are difficult to clean.
So complete replacement is required in case of damage.

The uneven gaskets create two separate fluid flows

through the exchanger’s plates.

Application:
This type of heat exchangers are used in chillers, heat pump, in industry where low pressure
fluid flow is required .

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Example No. 1.
A 250 mm thickness wall is made from a material with K=1.2 W/m °C. The wall is insulated with
a material having K = 0.35W/m °C , so that heat loss per m2 will not exceed 5000KJ/h. If the inner
and outer temperatures are 520°C and 30°C respectively. Determine the thickness of the insulation
required and the temperature at the interface of the two wall surfaces.
Ans.: L2 = 50.56mm. t2 = 230.82°C.
Solution :
Given data : L1 = 250mm , K1 = 1.2W/m °C, t1 = 520°C =( 520 + 273)K = 793 K,
L2 = ? , K2 = 0.35W/m °C , t3 = 30°C = (30 + 273) K = 303 K ,
Heat loss per Area (m2 ) , Q/A = 5000x103 J/h
= 5000x103/3600 J/s
Let, L2 = Thickness of the insulation in m.
Therefore , Q = A (t1 - t3 ) / ( L1 /K1 + L2 /K2 )
Q / A = (t1 - t3 ) / ( L1 /K1 + L2 /K2 )
Putting the value of L1 , K1 , K2 and Q/A in the above equation ,
We get the result of thickness of the insulation in m.
L2 = 0.05056m .
= 50.56mm. (Ans.)
Again let, L2 = temperature of the interface of the two wall surfaces .
t2 = The temperature at the interface of the two wall surfaces.
A = Area of both plate is same.

Therefore , QA = K1 A ( t1 – t2 ) / L1 = 1.2 x A (520 – t2 ) / 0.25 __________________(1)

QB = K2 A (t2 – t3 ) / L2 = 0.35 x A (t2 – 303 ) / 0.05056
_______________(2)

For steady condition , rate of heat flow through both the plat will be same .
Equating Equation (1) and Equation (2) , we get, π
QA = QB
Therefore , t2 = 230.82°C.
The temperature at the interface of the two wall surfaces is 230.82°C. ( Ans.)

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Example No. 2.
The inner diameter and outer diameter of a C.I. pipe 5m long are respectively 100mm and 180mm.
Water is flowing through the full cross sectional area of the pipe at the rate of 800Kg per minute .
The temperature of water is 25°C , Determine the rise of temperature of water when the outer wall
of the pipe is heated to a temperature of 500°C . Thermal conductivity of C.I. is 234KJ/m/h/°C.
Ans.: 0.28°C

Solution :
Given data : r1 = 100/2 mm = 50mm = 0.05m
r2 = 180/2 mm = 90 mm = 0.09m
t = Temperature of water = 25°C
t1 = 500°C
m = 800 Kg/min, ∆𝑡 = Temp. difference = ( t2 – t )
K = 234KJ/m/h/°C
Let t2 = Final temperature of water in °C.
Heat gained by water = ms∆𝑡 = 800 x 4.2 x (t2 – 25) KJ/min ____________________(1)
Let ta = resulting temperature within the pipe line .
Now , Heat transfer through the wall of the cylinder pipe is given by
Q = 2Πk (t1 – ta ) / loge (r2 /r1 )
= 2π x 234 x (500 - ta ) / loge ( 0.09/0.05)
= 41.69 x (500 - ta ) KJ/min ___________________________________(2)
We know, Heat gained by water per min which will be equal to the heat flowing to the water
through the wall of the pipe line per min.
Therefore equating both the equations (1) and (2) , we get ,
800 x 4.2 x (t2 – 25) = 41.69x(500 - ta )
Hence , we can write , ta = ( 25+ t2 )/2
800 x 4.2 x (t2 – 25) = 41.69x[500 -( 25+ t2 )/2]
t2 = 25.28°C
Required rise of temperature = ( t2 – t ) = 25.28 – 25 = 0.28°C ( Ans. )

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 Example No. 3

The interior of a refrigerator having inside dimensions of 0.5m x 0.5 m base area
and 1 m height , is to be maintained at 6 °C . The walls of the refrigerator are
constructed of two mild steel sheets 3mm thick ( K = 46.5 W/m °C ) with 50 mm of
glass wool insulation (K = 0.046 W/m °C ) between them. If the average heat
transfer coefficients at the inner and outer surfaces are 11.6 W/m2 °C and 14.5 W/m2
°C respectively , Calculate :

i) The rate at which heat must be removed from the interior to maintain the
specified temperature in the kitchen at 25°C and

ii) The temperature of the outer surface of the metal sheet .

[38.2 W, 23.68 °C
]

Solution :

i) The rate of removal of heat transfer Q :

Q = A (t0 – ti ) / [1/h0 + La /Ka + Lb /Kb + Lc /Kc + 1/hi ]
= 2.5 x (25 – 6 ) / [1/116 + 0.003/46.5 +0.05 /0.046 + 0.003/46.5
+ 1/14.5 ]
= 38.2 W (Ans.)
ii) The temperature of the outer surface of the metal sheet, t1 :
Q = h0 A ( 25 - t1 )
38.2 = 11.6 x 2.5 (25 - t1 )
t1 = 23.68 °C (Ans.)

Example No. 4

A mild steel tank of wall thickness 12 mm contains water at 95°C . The thermal
conductivity of mild steel is 50W/m°C, and the heat transfer coefficients for the inside
and outside the tank are 2850 and 10W/m2 °C, respectively . If the atmospheric
temperature is 15°C, Calculate :

i) The rate of heat loss per m2 of the tank surface area;

ii) The temperature of the outside surface of the tank

[795.2 W/m2 , 94.52°C ]

Solution :

i) Rate of heat loss per m2 of the tank surface area q :

q = UA (thf – tcf ) ___________________________ (1)
The overall heat transfer coefficient , U is found from the relation :
1 / U = 1 / hhf + L/K + 1 / hcf
= 1 /2850 + 0.012/50 + 1/10
= 0.1006
Therefore , U = 9.94 W/m2 °C
From above equation (1) , we get,
q = 9.94 x 1 x (95 – 15)
= 795.2 W/m2 (Ans.)

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 ii) Temperature of the outer surface of the Tank, t2 :
We know, q = hcf x 1 x (t2 – tcf )
795.2 = 10 x1 x (t2 – 15)
t2 = 94.52 °C (Ans.)

EXERCISES

1] Explain with examples the three modes of heat transfer .

2] Differentiate between :
a) Steady state and unsteady State Heat flow
b) Natural and Forced Convection.
3] Define the followings :
a) Black and Grey Body
b) Monochromatic and total emissive Power.
4] State and explain the Fourier’s law for one dimensional heat Conduction.
5] Define the thermal conductivity. What are the factors affecting the thermal conductivity of a
materials ?
6] Give the type of heat exchangers with example .
7] What do you mean by Heat transfer by Conduction, Convection and Radiation ?
8] Define the followings : a) Absorptivity, b) Reflectivity, c) Transmissivity.
9] State and explain the Stefan Boltzman Law .
10] A wall of house, 7 m wide and 6 m high is made from 0.3 m thick brick with k= 0.6 W/ m K.
The surface temperature on the inside of the wall is 160C and that on outside is 60C . Find the heat
flux through the wall and the total heat loss through it. [ 20 W/m2, 840 W ]
11] A plane wall 150 mm thick and its wall area is 4.5 m2. If its conductivity is 9.35 W/m0C and
surface temperature are steady at 1500C and 450C , determine: i] Heat flow across the plane wall.
ii] temperature gradient in the flow direction. [ 29452 W, -7000C ]
12] The temperature at the inner and outer surfaces of a boiler wall made of 20 mm thick steel
and covered with an insulating material of 5 mm thickness are 3000C and 500C respectively. If the
thermal conductivities of steel and insulating material are58W/m0C and 0.116 W/m0C
respectively, determine the rate of flow through the boiler wall. [5767.8 W ]
13] The inner surface of a plane brick wall is at 60°C and the outer surface is at 35°C . Calculate
the rate of heat transfer per sq. m of surface area of the wall , which is 220 mm thick. The thermal
conductivity of the brick is 0.51 W/m°C [57.95W/m2
]

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14] A mild steel tank of wall thickness 12 mm contains water at 95°C . The thermal conductivity
of mild steel is 50W/m°C, and the heat transfer coefficients for the inside and outside the tank are
2850 and 10W/m2 °C, respectively . If the atmospheric temperature is 15°C, Calculate :
i) The rate of heat loss per m2 of the tank surface area;
ii) The temperature of the outside surface of the tank .
[795.2 W/m2 , 94.52°C ]
15] The interior of a refrigerator having inside dimensions of 0.5m x 0.5 m base area and 1 m
height , is to be maintained at 6 °C . The walls of the refrigerator are constructed of two mild steel
sheets 3mm thick ( K = 46.5 W/m °C ) with 50 mm of glass wool insulation (K = 0.046 W/m °C
) between them. If the average heat transfer coefficients at the inner and outer surfaces are 11.6
W/m2 °C and 14.5 W/m2 °C respectively , Calculate :
i) The rate at which heat must be removed from the interior to maintain the specified
temperature in the kitchen at 25°C and
ii) The temperature of the outer surface of the metal sheet . [38.2 W, 23.68 °C ]

A ] Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) :

1] Which of the following is not a method of heat transfer ?
a) Insulation (Ans)
b) Radiation
c) Conduction
d) Convection
2] Which is the best surface for absorbing heat Radiation ?
a) Shiny white
b) Dull black (Ans)
c) Dull white
d) Shiny black
3] Which is the best surface for reflecting heat Radiation ?
a) Shiny white (Ans)
b) Dull black
c) Dull white
d) Shiny black
4] How does heat energy reach from the Earth from the Sun ?
a) Insulation
b) Radiation. (Ans)
c) Conduction
d) Convection
5] In which of the following are the particles closest together ?
a) Solid. (Ans)
b) Liquid
c) Fluid
d) Gas

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