See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/353042692

Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

Preprint · July 2021

CITATIONS READS

0 19,020

1 author:

Nicholas Landell-Mills
Independent Research
56 PUBLICATIONS 39 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Nicholas Landell-Mills on 08 June 2024.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.
The paraglider wing steals momentum from the wind.

Mr. Nicholas Landell-Mills

10 November 2023
Pre-Print DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.22209.68962;
CC License: CC BY-SA 4.0
Keywords: Aerodynamics; lift; Newton; physics; paraglider.
Independent Research
Donate via PayPal or buy me a coffee.

Fig. 1a. Paraglider [18]

Abstract
Newtonian mechanics provides a simple and easily understood explanation of paragliding that is consistent with accepted
physics and what is observed in practice. These new insights help paragliders to become more proficient pilots and for
manufacturers to design better equipment. A paraglider can generate a force in two ways, depending on whether the
paraglider faces a headwind or is gliding downwards through static air.
- The main method used by a paraglider wing to fly, is to passively generate a forward force (thrust) from a headwind
(relative airflow); similar to how thrust is passively generated by a boat sailing into the wind, an albatross dynamic
soaring, and a kitesurfer. This is a new explanation for how a paraglider flies.
- A paraglider wing can actively generate upward lift when gliding forwards, by accelerating the air flown through
downwards; similar to how a parachute and an airplane wing actively displace static air to generate lift.

It is critical to distinguish between these two methods. The airflows, and therefore, the forces generated are different.
However, both methods are explained using the same Newtonian equation for the mass flow rate (Force = ma = m/dt * dv).

1. INTRODUCTION B. How a paraglider wing passively generates thrust.

A. Background.

Little analysis has been done on the physics of paragliding to

date. Much of the analysis available is erroneously based on
fluid mechanics (i.e. Bernoulli). Fluid mechanics can describe
the airflows that arise, but Newtonian mechanics explains the
resultant forces due to the airflows.

Applying Newtonian mechanics to explain motion is not a

new concept. However, applying it in the manner described in Fig. 1b. Newtonian forces passively
this paper to explain paragliding based on the mass flow rate and generated by a paraglider wing.
passive force generation is new.
How a paraglider wing passively generates a forward force
In addition, often a paraglider wing is incorrectly equated to (thrust) from a headwind to propel the paraglider forwards, is
an airplane wing. They are similar. A paraglider wing has the the key focus of this paper, and is summarized below. In short,
same basic design and function as an airplane wing. Both wings the paraglider wing steals momentum from the wind by slowing
can passively and actively generate a force. However, a it down. See Fig. 1b.
paraglider wing usually passively generates a force, whereas
airplane wings actively generate a force in cruise flight. These A paraglider wing redirects a mass of air each second (m/dt)
methods of force generation are very different. from the apparent wind against the undisturbed airflow from the
wind, helped by the Coanda effect on the topside of the wing.

1
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

This action decelerates (dv) the re-directed airflow, which

creates turbulence and a backwards force. The turbulence
provides something for the redirected airflow to push against.
This process is described by the equation:
Force BACK = ma = m * dv/dt = m/dt * dv Contents:

The inertia of the air allows for a reactive equal and opposite
force (thrust) to push the paraglider forward and/or upward (by 1. Introduction .......................................................... 1
adjusting the wing angle-of-attack (AOA), as described by the
equation: 2. Background Information ..................................... 3
Force BACK = Force FORWARDS (Thrust) = m/dt * dv

3. Active vs. Passive Forces .................................... 5

The forward force (or thrust) generated depends primarily on
4. Newtonian Explanations ..................................... 7
the amount and speed of air re-directed by the paraglider wing,
as well as the AOA. The stronger the wind (higher airspeed), 5. Example Calculation ........................................... 15
then the greater mass of air redirected each second (higher m/dt)
by the wing, and the greater the potential deceleration of the 6. More on Active vs. Passive Forces ................. 16
wind (higher dv) produced. Therefore, the greater the
force/thrust generated (Thrust = m/dt * dv). Consequently, then
the greater the momentum transferred from the wind to the 7. Discussion of Results ......................................... 19
wing.
8. Conclusions ......................................................... 19
The paraglider pilot’s weight (which is caused by gravity)
provides resistance against the downwind force of the wind.
9. Additional Information ...................................... 19
This dynamic allows the wing to maintain a positive AOA, and 10. References .......................................................... 20
therefore, generate forward thrust. The pilot’s weight functions
in a similar manner to the keel of a boat. In the absence of the
pilot, the wing would simply be blown backwards by the wind.
Appendix I – Sailing into the Wind............................ 21
Appendix II – Dynamic Soaring ................................... 23
C. Sailing, soaring, and kitesurfing. Appendix III – Kite surfing ........................................... 23

The physics of how a paraglider wing generates a force is

similar to how thrust is passively generated by a boat sailing into
the wind, an albatross dynamic soaring, and a kitesurfer. See
Appendix I – III. See Fig. 1c-(i-iii).

This space was intentionally left blank.

Fig. 1c-i. Newtonian forces acting on a sail.

See Appendix I.

Fig. 1c-ii. Newtonian forces acting on

an albatross’s wing dynamic soaring and a kitesurfer.
See Appendix II and Appendix III.

2
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

C. Vortices.
2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Vortices are considered to have a significant impact on
airflows, and therefore, the forces generated. Vortices are
believed to be important in insects, birds and supersonic
A. The physics of lift is unresolved. [2] airplanes (e.g. fighter jets) flight. In particular, a lot of attention
is given to the impact of leading edge vortices (LEVs) on lift.
The physics of lift is disputed. There
is no scientific experiment on a real This paper considers vortices to be significant but of
aircraft in realistic conditions that secondary importance to the forces generated and lift. In short,
proves any theory or equation for lift to vortices can be useful in explaining unusual or extreme wing
be true. Fig. 2a. Unknown. movements or flight; but they are not the main cause of lift in
normal, cruise flight.
Experts still cannot agree whether aircraft achieve lift by
being pulled or pushed upwards; nor exactly what role vortices
play. Worse, there is no accepted universal theory of lift that D. Definitions: Wingspan, wing depth and aspect ratios.
applies to all objects that fly.
 “The secret to airplane flight. No one really knows.” in
the National Newspaper, 2012. [13] - Wingspan is the horizontal length of the wings. It is
measured from wingtip to wingtip. See Fig. 2d.
 “There's No One Way to Explain How Flying Works,”
in Wired Magazine, 2018. [14] - Wing depth (chord) is the horizontal distance across
 “No One Can Explain Why Planes Stay in the Air.” in the wing, from the trailing edge to the leading edge.
the Scientific American magazine, 2020. [15] Wing depth varies across the wings; being greatest near
the fuselage and narrowest at the wingtip.
Given that the theory of how airplane wings generate lift is
unknown, then it is wrong to apply any of these theories to - Aspect ratios are used to compare wing designs, which
paragliders without a strong caveat. Newtonian physics offers an is the wingspan divided by the mean wing depth (chord).
explanation of how airplanes fly based on the mass flow rate Glider wings have high aspect ratios due to its long, thin
that is consistent with the approach adopted in this paper (Force wings. Whereas fighter-jet wings typically have low
= ma = m/dt * dv). [3] aspect ratios; due to their short and deep wings.

𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
B. A paraglider wing differs to an airplane wing. 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ (𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑)

Efficient paraglider wings tend to have a similar form and

shape to airplane wings, with a thick leading edge and tapered
trailing edge. Critically, the topside is curved (concave) while
the underside (or inner side) tends to be flat. However,
paraglider wings are made of fabric, while glider wings are
made of solid materials such as fiberglass.

This design is aerodynamically efficient as it minimizes drag

while also maximizing the airflow re-directed, and therefore, the Fig. 2d. Aircraft with different
force generated. See Fig. 2b. wing aspect ratios.

E. Definition: Angle-of-attack (AOA).

The AOA is the angle between the relative airflow and the
paraglider wing heading (chord). See Fig. 2e.

Fig. 2b. Features of paraglider design

and an airplane wing.

Both the paraglider wing and airplane wing create forces that
can be described by Newtonian mechanics. However, despite
their similar designs, they function differently. They produce
different airflows, and therefore, different forces. Specifically,
the paraglider wing re-directs a moving airflow, whereas the Fig 2e. Wing AOA.
airplane wing actively pushes a static air mass downwards.

3
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

F. Airflow diagrams. H. The Coanda effect and laminar airflows.

There two types of diagrams can be used to depict airflows Fluid flow naturally follows a curved surface due to the
around a wing: Relative and actual wing airflow diagrams. See Coanda effect.
Fig. 2f.
For example, water falling from a tap is passively re-directed
- The relative airflow diagram shows the airflow moving
to the right (and slightly up) by the curved side of a spoon due to
relative to a stationary wing, similar to what is seen in
the Coanda effect. According to Newtonian mechanics, this
some wind tunnel experiments. This can be used to
action creates a small turning force, due to the change in
depict the airflows paragliding, kitesurfing, sailing and
momentum of the water flow. The reactive equal and opposite
propellers on wind turbines.
force pushes the spoon sideways to the left (and slightly
- Absolute wing airflow diagrams show a moving wing downwards). See Fig. 2h-i.
displacing static air downwards and slightly forwards,
which circulates the air behind the wing. This diagram
can be used to depict airflows created by airplane wings.

Fig. 2f. Relative and absolute wing airflow diagrams.

According to the Galilean principle of relativity, as motion is

relative, both diagrams can be correct as they can show the same Fig. 2h-i. Spoon experiment
airflow in different ways. However, the actual wing airflow demonstrating the Coanda effect.
diagram is significantly more accurate for analyzing the lift
force generated by a wing. [3]
Wind tunnel experiments
Wind tunnel experiments can demonstrate relative airflows
over a wing. But experimental limitations mean that they do not Wind tunnel experiments demonstrate airflows arising due to
show how airflow re-directed by the wing interferes with the Coanda effect on the topside of a curved airplane wing, as
undisturbed airflows to create turbulence. well as the turbulence that arises on a flat wing. See Fig. 2h-ii.

G. Two airflows on a paraglider.

There are two key airflows on a paraglider wing in flight

(excluding vortices): See Fig. 2g.

Fig. 2h-ii. Airflow on curved

and flat wings. [20] [22]

In general, wings produce a stronger Coanda effect with

laminar (smooth / non-turbulent) airflow at a lower AOA, higher
airspeed, and where the wings are deepest (largest chord, such as
near the fuselage). Conversely, the Coanda effect is weakest at
Fig. 2g. Two airflows on a paraglider. high AOA, slower airspeeds, and where the wings are narrow
(small chord, such as at the wing tips). See Fig. 2h-iii.
- The underside (or inside) of a paraglider wing physically
pushes the lower airflow downwards. This action creates
high air pressure under the wing.
- A vacuum or low air pressure arises on the topside (or
outside) of the paraglider wing, behind the direction of
flight. This dynamic is similar to how low air pressure
arises behind any moving object (e.g. car). This low air
pressure pulls the upper airflow downwards, helped by
the Coanda effect. Fig. 2h-iii. Smooth vs. turbulent
The flat undersides of paraglider wings are designed to airflows on a wing. [21]
push air down without inducing any Coanda effect.

4
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

air each second (m/dt) flown through to a velocity (dv)

3. ACTIVE VS. PASSIVE FORCES diagonally down and slightly forwards. This action creates
a downward force (Force DOWN = m/dt * dv). The reactive
equal and opposite upward force generated (Force UP)
provides lift. For example, this is how an airplane wing
can generate lift.
A. Analysis of actual airflows.
This paper describes airflows actively created by a wing in
Airplane wings are used to explain passive and active force flight as absolute airflows, to differentiate them from the
generation. Contrary to the prevailing view that favours relative relative airflows experienced in wind tunnels.
airflow analysis to explain the forces generated by an airfoil in
all situations. The actual airflows observed from a wing in In other words, sailboats and airplane wings generate
flight through static air are significantly different to the airflows different airflows, and therefore, generate different forces. For
seen from a wing exposed to a headwind (relative airflow) in a example, doubling the number sails doubles the thrust generated
wind tunnel. Consequently, the resultant forces are also by a sailboat, but doubling the number of wings on an airplane
different. Galilean invariance does not apply in this situation. increases the lift generated only a little.
See Fig. 3a-(i-ii).
The key differences between passive and active forces include:
- The direction of the force generated by an active force is
almost perpendicular to the wing’s alignment. But passive
forces generate thrust in a similar direction as the wing.
- Momentum is transferred from the relative airflow (wind)
to the wing in passive force generation, and vice versa in
active force generation.
- The wake airflows produced are different:
The passive forces arising from relative airflow, produces
wake airflow turbulence at the trailing edge of the wing.
In contrast, the active forces arising from the static air
accelerated downwards by a wing in flight, produces
laminar wake airflow, which is only turbulent at the centre
of the two wingtip vortices. See Fig. 3a-iii.
Fig. 3a-i. Actual wing airflows analysed. [17][29]

Fig. 3a-iii. Turbulent vs. smooth

wake airflows. [32][48]

Fig. 3a-ii. The passive and active creation To put it another way, the prevailing method by fluid
of forces based on actual airflows. mechanics using relative wing airflow analysis (which is based
on wind tunnel experiments) to analyse how an airplane wing
In both situations, the resultant forces can be described by the generates vertical lift in flight, is flawed for the reasons
same Newtonian equation (Force = m/dt * dv) as explained described below:
below. See Fig. 3a-ii.
- Relative wing airflow diagrams and analysis fail to
1) A mass of air each second (m/dt) from oncoming explain the actual wing airflows observed in flight and
headwind (relative airflow) can be passively re-directed the resultant forces generated. [9]
by a stationary airfoil. This airflow decelerates (dv) on In particular, wake airflow turbulence observed in wind
contact with the undisturbed wind at the trailing edge of tunnel experiments behind the trailing edge of the wing,
the airfoil to produce turbulence. This action creates a is not observed behind wings in flight.
backward force (Force BACK = m/dt * dv), and therefore, a
reactive equal and opposite forward thrust is also - A re-evaluation of wind tunnel experiments shows that
generated. the prevailing view of how a wing accelerates the upper
and lower airflows is false. [10]
For example, a sailboat, wind turbine blade, and a glider
wing soaring into the wind can passively generate forward Instead, relative airflows over a wing are shown to passively
thrust by re-directing a headwind (relative airflow). generate turbulence and forward thrust according to Newtonian
mechanics.
2) A moving airfoil can actively accelerate a mass of static

5
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

B. Insights. C. Sailing, soaring, and kitesurfing.

Insight: Galilean relativity does not apply The physics of how a paraglider wing generates a force is
similar to how thrust is passively generated by a boat sailing into
Evidence and logic presented above show that a stationary the wind, an albatross dynamic soaring, and a kitesurfer. See
wing passively creates a force from re-directing a moving air Appendix I – III. See Fig. 3c-(i-iii).
mass, differently from how a moving wing actively creates a
force when moving through a stationary mass of air.

Consequently, Galilean relativity does not apply to wings in

the analysis of airflows and lift. Passively and actively created
airflows and resultant forces are different. It does matter to the
force generated whether moving air is blown over a stationary
wing, or vice versa. See Fig. 3b-i.

While conventional wind tunnels experiments and relative

airflow analysis may be useful to research aerodynamics and
how air flows around a wing. It is not appropriate or useful to
measure to the resultant forces involved and how a wing Fig. 3c-i. Newtonian forces acting on a sail.
generates lift. See Appendix I.

Consequently, the prevailing approach of relative airflow

analysis often used by engineers, provides an inaccurate and
flawed assessment of the lift actively generated by an airplane
wing in flight. In contrast. actual airflow analysis provides a
better assessment of the airflows and resultant forces generated.

Brief summary

A brief summary from the analysis above on passive and Fig. 3c-ii. Newtonian forces acting on
active forces includes: an albatross’s wing dynamic soaring and a kitesurfer.
See Appendix II and Appendix III.
- There are two ways in which a wing, sail, or propeller
blade can create forces; actively or passively, which
involve very different processes.
- The difference between passive and actively created forces
is confirmed by analysis of wake airflows and wind tunnel D. Wake airflow turbulence. [9]
experiments.
Key evidence for the difference between passive and active
- Both passive and active forces can be explained by the force generation is the presence or absence of turbulence in the
same Newtonian equation based on the mass flow rate wake airflows. Relative airflows passively re-directed produce
(Force = m/dt * dv). wake airflow turbulence as observed in wind tunnel
- Relative airflow analysis is only applicable where airflow experiments. See Fig. 3-(i-III).
is moving against a stationary airfoil to passively create a
force. For example paraglider (or glider) wing soaring, an
albatross dynamic soaring, wind turbine blade, or sailboat.
- Conventional wind tunnel experiments that blow air
(relative airflow) over a stationary wing or aircraft, do not
provide an accurate method to analyse the active lift
generation by airplane wings. See Fig. 3b.
Fig. 3d-i. Wind tunnel experiment. [28]

Fig. 3d-ii. More wind tunnel experiments. [52]

Fig. 3b. Wind tunnel experiments In contrast, active force generation produces laminar airflows.
and lift. [20] See Fig. 3a-ii.

6
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

In these equations above the change in velocity of the air is

4. NEWTONIAN EXPLANATIONS expressed as ‘dv’, and not as deceleration (‘dv/dt’), because this
action is not time-dependent. It is due to a one-off force
(impulse) from the wing. Whereas, the mass of air flown
through by the paraglider wing is time-dependent, and therefore,
can be expressed as the mass flow rate (m/dt).
A. Thrust = m/dt * dv
By slowing the wind down, the paraglider steals momentum
Where: from it, in order to generate a forward force.
- Force = ma = m * dv/dt = m/dt * dv [1]
- Force = ma = m * dv/dt = d(m/v)/dt [1] Thrust can be split into two perpendicular vectors to illustrate
- Momentum = mv [1] how it can be used to produce a horizontal forward force
- m = Mass of air flown through and re-directed. (airspeed) and/or vertical lift by adjusting the wing angle-of-
- m/dt = Mass flow rate. attack (AOA). See Fig. 4a-iii.
- dt = Change in time (per second).
- dv = Change in velocity (v) of the air re-directed.
- v = Velocity of the air displaced down.
- a = dv/dt = Acceleration.

Fig. 4a-iii. Thrust on a paraglider

shown as vectors.

Downwind force (Force DOWNWIND)

Fig. 4a-i. Newtonian forces acting The paraglider re-directing the apparent wind backwards also
on a paraglider. 1 creates a small downwind force directly against the paraglider
wing. A paraglider uses gravity to avoid being blown downwind
by the downwind force on the wing.

This dynamic is conceptually similar to how a kitesurfer uses

the board to push water downwind, and how a sailboat uses the
keel and/or hull to resist being blown downwind.

Analysis of the mass flow rate (m/dt)

Fig. 4a-ii. Newtonian forces The mass of air re-directed each second (m/dt) by the
acting on a paraglider. 2 paraglider wing can be broken down into air density and the
competent parts that affect the volume of air re-directed each
Similar to a sailboat and kitesurfer, the paraglider wing re- second: wind speed, wingspan, and wing reach. See Fig. 4a-iv.
directs a mass of air each second (m/dt) from the apparent wind
and helped by the Coanda effect, at a velocity (dv) backwards
relative to the wing. This re-directed airflow pushes against
undisturbed apparent wind behind it creating turbulence, which
provides something to push against. See Fig. 4a-(i-ii).

According to Newtonian mechanics, this action creates a

backward force (Force BACK) as described by the equation:
Force BACK = ma = m/dt * dv (1)

The inertia of the air provides resistance to the downward

force. This dynamic allows for the generation of a reactive equal Fig. 4a-iv. Analysis of ‘m/dt.’.
and opposite forward force (thrust):
Force BACK = Thrust (2) Wing reach is the distance that the wing affects the airflow
(apparent wind), which depends partly on the wing thickness.
Then equations (1) and (2) can be combined as follows:
These relationships can be expressed by the equations:
Force BACK = Thrust = m/dt * dv
m/dt = Volume/dt * Air Density
Or simply: Thrust = m/dt * dv (3)
Volume/dt = Wingspan * Wing Reach * Wind speed
Units: N = kg/s * m/s

7
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

B. The momentum theory of paragliding. D. Analysis of thrust.

The paraglider steals momentum from the wind by slowing it Applying Newtonian mechanics to paragliding allows the
down. The apparent wind has significant momentum thrust generated by a paraglider wing (Thrust = m/dt * dv) to be
(momentum = mass * velocity) and kinetic energy (K.E. = 0.5 analyzed between the mass of air re-directed each second (m/dt)
mv2) due to its mass and velocity. and its relative velocity (dv):
- The relative wind speed is a critical factor for the thrust
There is no net gain or loss of momentum, energy, or mass in
generated, as it affects both ‘m/dt’ and ‘dv.’ A stronger
the process of paragliding. Momentum is transferred from the
wind means the paraglider wing re-directs a greater
wind to the paraglider wing, by the paraglider slowing down the
mass of air each second (m/dt) and a higher speed (dv).
wind. This is achieved in two ways: See Fig. 4b.
- A paraglider flying faster into the wind is like pressing
1) On direct contact with the paraglider, the wind slows
down on the accelerator pedal of a car, due to a positive
down slightly, as it is re-directed by the paraglider (from
feedback loop:
V1 to V2). This action creates a small downwind force
(Force DOWNWIND) on the paraglider wing. The Force As the paraglider’s speed increases, this causes an
DOWNWIND is separate to the thrust that pushes the increase in the ‘m/dt’ and ‘dv’ of the apparent wind,
paraglider ahead. helped by a stronger Coanda effect on the topside of
the wing.
2) The re-directed apparent wind exits the paraglider wing
and interacts with the undisturbed apparent wind, to create This process causes an increase in the forward force
turbulence and the backward force (Force BACK). Again, generated (Force = m/dt * dv), which then causes the
the momentum transferred can be calculated based on the paraglider’s speed to increase further.
mass of the wind re-directed and its deceleration (from V2
to V3). - A bigger paraglider wing catches a greater mass of air
from the wind each second (bigger m/dt), and therefore,
generates a bigger thrust.
- A stronger wind blows a greater mass of air each second
(bigger m/dt) against the paraglider, at a higher velocity
(bigger dv), and therefore, generates a bigger thrust.
- Different paraglider shapes and designs produce
different airflows (aerodynamics). This creates different
‘m/dt’ and ‘dv,’ and therefore, a different amount of
thrust.
- The direction and strength of the thrust generated
Fig. 4b. Newtonian forces due depends on the AOA of the paraglider to the wind.
to a change in momentum.
- The entire length of the leading edge of the paraglider
In both cases, the momentum transferred from the wind to the wing can re-direct the wind to generate thrust, from one
paraglider wing can be calculated based on the mass of the wind tip of the wing to the other.
re-directed and its deceleration. For the backward force this can i.e. The paraglider wing’s horizontal or vertical
be expressed by the equation: orientation does not matter much to the force generated.
Force BACK = ma = d(mv)/dt (4) The thrust generated is symmetrical in all directions.

= (m * (V3 – V2)) /dt - Similar to gliders, paragliders have high aspect ratios
with a long wingspan facing the wind.
As thrust equals the backwards force, therefore, equation (4) - ‘dv’ could be difficult to measure in practice.
can be re-stated:
- ‘m/dt’ and ‘dv’ are each presented as a single number in
Force BACK = Thrust = ma = d(mv)/dt (5) this analysis. But in practice, ‘m/dt’ and ‘dv’ vary a lot
vertically and horizontally across the paraglider wing.

C. Two Newtonian equations for lift.

The analysis above provides two Newtonian methods and

equations to calculate the lift generated by a wing:

Thrust = ma = m/dt * dv (mass flow rate) (3)

This space was intentionally left blank.
Thrust = ma = d(mv)/dt (momentum theory) (5)

Both lift equations (5) and (8) are based on Newtons 2nd Law
of Motion (Force = ma). Both are correct and produce the same
values, but express the same thing differently.

8
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

2) As the windward airflow is deflected by the sail, the force

E. Three forces created by a sail. generated exerts a small downwind force on the sail. This
is the force pushing the boat directly downwind causing
Sails are used as a proxy for a paraglider wing, to the boat to tilt, which is opposed by the boat’s hull and
demonstrate relative airflows generate forces. According to keel. See Fig- 4f-(iv-v).
Newtonian mechanics, the forces arising from the two airflows
re-directed by the sail, on the windward and leeward sides, can
be described as follows: See Fig. 4f-(i-ii).

Fig. 4f-iv. Two forces acting on a

sail on a close haul tack.

Fig. 4f-i. Redirected airflows create

multiple forces acting on an airfoil (sail). Fig. 4f-v. Resistance from the hull and keel.

To put it another way, on a close haul tack into the wind,

the sail re-directs most of the wind’s momentum and
energy backwards. Only a relatively small downwind
force is applied directly against the sail, pushing the boat
downwind, creating a downwind force.

The downwind force is resisted by the boat’s hull and keel,

which limits the drift and prevents the boat from being
blown in the same direction as the wind. The resistance
Fig. 4f-ii. Backwards and sideways forces.
from the keel also prevents sailboats from tilting and
tipping over. The weight of the keel also helps to keep the
centre of mass lower and close to the water level.
1) The leeward airflow when redirected by the Coanda
effect exerts a small sideways force on the sail. This force
is due to a secondary change in direction and momentum
3) The main force generated is achieved by the sail
of the airflow; which generates an equal and opposite
redirecting both the leeward and windward airflows from
force near the leading edge of the sail. See Fig. 4f-iii.
the wind to the stern (back) of the sailboat. See Fig- 4f-vi.
On a sailboat this force pulls the sail outwards away from
This action creating turbulence and slows down the wind.
the boat, keeping the sail fully inflated. In other words,
The force generated is summarized by the equation:
this is the force that pulls the sail sideways, towards the
Coanda effect. Thrust = m/dt * dv.

The change in momentum can be calculated using the

standard Newtonian equation based on the mass (m) and
velocity (v) of the water re-directed each second (dt); as
summarized by the equation: Force = ma = d(mv)/dt .

Fig. 4f-vi. The windward and leeward

airflows re-directed backwards.

Fig. 4f-iii. Computer simulations of

the Coanda effect. [47]

9
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

F. Additional considerations. H. Newtonian mechanics is universal.

Newtonian physics is well established. However, applying

- The transfer of kinetic energy from the wind to the
Newtonian mechanics to paragliding based on the mass flow
paraglider by sailing is expressed by the following
rate is a new approach to understanding the physics of the sport.
equation:
Kinetic Energy = 0.5 mv2 [1] The principles of Newtonian mechanics are universal. For
comparison, the thrust (Thrust = m/dt * dv) generated by a jet
This is significant because the parameters to calculate pack can also be calculated based on the mass of water each
the forward force generated paragliding are consistent second (m/dt) accelerated downward to a velocity (dv) relative
with those used to calculate the momentum and kinetic to the person. See Fig 4i-i.
energy involved. This is not the case for the forces
calculated based on fluid mechanics.
- Paraglider wings are made of two horizontal layers of
thin and light fabric. In flight, there is a hollow space or
cavity between the layers. Whereas sails and parachutes
consist of one layer of fabric, with no inside space or
gap.
This design means that the wing occupies more vertical
space as compared to a sail or parachute. It also allows
the paraglider wing to have a flat underside, and a
curved topside; which is like a glider wing. Fig. 4i-i. Newtonian forces
acting on a jet pack. [27]
- A paraglider can fly through a vertically rising air mass,
such as an up-current or thermal. This dynamic can be
achieved by trading altitude for forward airspeed.
Similar to paragliders, a glider slope soaring from the top of a
- Paragliders are effective a generating a force in rising hill generates a forward force (thrust) by re-directing a rising
air masses found on hilltops (i.e. slope soaring). headwind. This force provides forward airspeed and lift. See
Fig. 4i-ii.

G. Argument against fluid mechanics. [7]

In short, this paper argues that fluid mechanics can explain

fluid flow but not the resultant forces, which are best explained
by Newtonian mechanics. Airflow and the lift force are related
but separate things.

This argument is illustrated by the simple example of water

falling downwards against the ground. See Fig. 4h. Fig. 4i-ii. Forces acting on
- Fluid mechanics can describe and explain how the fluid a paraglider and glider slope soaring.
flows (e.g. turbulent or laminar, direction, ….), but not
the resultant force exerted by the fluid flow.
There are numerous examples of gliders soaring; which
- Whereas, Newtonian mechanics explains the force
includes the glider gaining altitude and airspeed while fling
exerted by the water on the ground (Force = ma = m/dt *
directly into the wind. See Fig. 4i-iii
dv), based on the mass flow rate (m/dt) and the
deceleration of the water (dv) as it hits the ground.

Fig. 4i-iii. Unpowered remote-controlled glider

launched into the wind. [16]

Fig. 4h. Water flowing from a tap.

10
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

I. Active generation of a force.

A paraglider needs to maintain forward relative airspeed in

flight to prevent the canopy from collapsing. This feat is feasible
as long as there is a relative headwind from a sufficiently strong
wind, such as a rising up current of air.

However, in the situation of static air mass, with no true wind

present. Then forward airspeed can be maintained by using a
low or negative AOA and trading altitude for airspeed. This Fig. 4j-ii. Paraglider flying through smoke. 1 [31]
maintains a headwind (relative airflow) over the canopy, as all
motion is relative. However, the canopy is moving forwards
through static air, pushing the air downwards, similar to how an
airplane wing generates lift. This airflow is somewhat different
to re-directing a relative airflow.

More precisely, the paraglider wing flies through a mass of

air each second (m/dt), which it accelerates to a velocity (dv)
downwards and slightly forwards, to actively create a downward
force (Force = m/dt * dv). The reaction generates an equal and
opposite upward force that provides lift. See Fig. 4j-i.
Fig. 4j-iii. Paraglider flying below smoke. 2 [31]

Fig. 4j-iv. Paraglider flying through smoke. 3 [31]

Fig. 4j-i. Paraglider generating
lift like and airplane wing. These airflow patterns are similar to the wingtip vortices
observed from airplanes flying through clouds. Airplane wings
Also similar to an airplane wing, the underside of the wing accelerate air downwards, which is circulated behind the
physically pushes air downward. The topside of the wing creates aircraft around two counter-rotating wingtip (wake) vortices.
an area of low pressure behind the direction of travel, which See Fig. 4j-(v-vi).
pulls air downward helped by the Coanda effect.

These airflows created by the wing circulate the air behind

the paraglider, similar to how and airplane wing circulates the
air behind it. See the more detailed explanation below.

By controlling the AOA the paraglider can descend through

the static air mass while maintaining a forward airspeed.
Fig. 4j-v. Large mass of air circulated and
The paraglider functions differently between a passive glide wake vortices behind an airliner. [48][49]
and active flight. The different functions create distinctively
different airflows and therefore, forces. However, on a relative
basis, these airflows and forces are similar.

Evidence from wingtip vortices

Evidence of paragliders creating downwash and circulating

the air around two wingtip vortices can be seen in experiments
flying through smoke. In this situation the wing is actively
generating a force by pushing static air downwards. See Fig. 4j-
(ii-iv).

These airflow patterns and wingtip vortices are not observed

when soaring into a relative wind, to passive generate a force by
Fig. 4j-vi. Vortices in smoke behind a small airplane. [50]
re-directing the wind.

11
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

J. Downwind flight. Downwind faster than the wind

A tailwind creates a particular problem for paragliders to This Newtonian explanation of generating thrust from a
maintain a headwind (relative airflow), in order to generate relative airflow explains why paragliders generate a force into
thrust and keep the canopy inflated. In this situation, the the wind, and cannot soar with the wind. However, an exception
paraglider is flying in the same direction as the wind; which to this argument arises if the paraglider flies faster than the wind
means that it has a tail wind. (when gliding with the wind). In this case, the paraglider faces a
headwind (relative airflow), despite flying with the wind.
This is a problem because for a paraglider flying slower than
the tailwind, the relative airflow over the canopy is forwards. This point can be illustrated with sailing. A sailboat on a
Therefore, the canopy collapses. close haul can sail into the wind faster than the wind itself. The
sail re-directs the relative airflow (wind) to create turbulence and
For example, if a paraglider turns 180° from gliding upwind generate thrust. However, a boat running directly with the wind
to downwind, but flies slower downwind than the wind. Then (and with an open sail) cannot sail faster than the wind. See Fig.
the relative airflow over the canopy shifts from being backwards 4k-iii.
to forwards, which makes the canopy collapse. Worse, in a
tailwind the canopy would push the airflows upwards, which
would push the paraglider downward. See Fig. 4k-i.

Fig. 4k-iii. Example sailing speeds.

Fig. 4k-i. Paraglider gliding The exception is illustrated by high-performance boats sailing
downwind. with the wind, but faster than the wind. In this situation the boats
face a headwind (relative airflow) from which they can create
Consequently, a paraglider cannot glide or fly with a tailwind. turbulence, and therefore, passively generate forward thrust.
Even though the boats are sailing with the true wind, they face a
A paraglider flying downwind, needs to fly faster than the relative headwind. This is an example of Galilean relativity and
tailwind and maintain a local headwind. This action maintains is the reverse (mirror image) of generating thrust when sailing
relative airflow backwards over the canopy. into the wind. See Fig. 4k-iv.
For example, if there was a 10 km/hr true wind, a paraglider
could maintain flight by gliding downwind at a ground speed of
15 km/hr. This creates a relatively slow 5 km/hr local headwind
and backward relative airflow over the canopy. See Fig. 4k-ii.

Fig. 4k-iv. Sailing into and with the wind.

Fig. 4k-ii. Paraglider gliding
downwind.

In turn, this explains why paragliders fly so fast downwind. It

is because they are always flying faster than the wind.

In principle this dynamic is the same as boats sailing

downwind faster than the wind. [5] According to Galilean
relativity, a paraglider can glide downwind faster than the wind
for the same reasons that it can glide upwind. One is simply the
mirror image of the other one. This is because in both situations
the paraglider experiences a headwind, and the true wind is
moving backwards relative to the paraglider. This reasoning can
appear somewhat confusing and counter-intuitive at first.

12
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

K. Downwind force (when flying into the win).

A downwind force arises from the wind pushing directly

against the paraglider, sail or kite, as the wind is re-directed.
This dynamic can be illustrated by a airflow and a ball being re-
directed as it hits a barrier. Most of the airflow and force is re-
directed on contact with the barrier, but a relatively small force
is exerted against the barrier itself. See Fig. 4l-i.

Fig. 4l-i. Airflow and ball

re-directed by a barrier.

Paragliding, sailing and kitesurfing, counteract the downwind

force differently: See Fig. 4l-(ii-iii).
- A paraglider uses some of the thrust generated to offset
the downwind force, by trading altitude for forward
airspeed. In effect, the paraglider uses gravity to stop
being blown downwind (by the downwind force). This space is intentionally left blank.
- A kitesurfer counteract downwind force in two ways: (i)
By leaning their body into the wind, and (ii) Using the
kiteboard to push water downwind; the equal and
opposite force generated pushes against the wind.
- A boat sailing into the wind tilts with the wind and
downwind force. The keel opposes the tilting. A sailboat
is not observed to push water downwind away from its
hull or keel, as the kitesurfer does. This difference arises
also because a sailboat uses a rudder to steer, whereas
the kitesurfer uses its board.

Fig. 4l-ii. Downwind force

on a paraglider.

Fig. 4l-iii. Kitesurfing and sailing

into the wind. [23][24]

13
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

L. Ballast on gliders (also applies to paragliders). Additional considerations – impact of ballast

Pilots often add water to the glider’s wings to provide ballast. 1) The heavier glider that flies by generating lower
In general, the increased aircraft mass is observed to provide downwash velocity, is more energy-efficient at generating
increased airspeed (aircraft velocity) in a downward glide at the lift. This dynamic arises because the kinetic energy
same rate of a descent (same glide ratio) as a glider without required to generate lift is propositional to the downwash
ballast, which is perplexing. At first glance, it is tempting to velocity squared, as described by the standard equation for
assume that the heavier glider should descend at a much higher kinetic energy: K.E. = 0.5 mv2
rate of descent than a lighter glider.
2) The heavier glider flies with a lower wing AOA, in order
The increased airspeed in a glide is achieved by the heavier to reduce the downwash velocity (dv) created by the
glider at the cost of a slower climb rate in thermals. [56] See wings. See Fig. 4l-iv.
Fig. 4l-(i-ii).

(1) Lighter glider (2) Heavier glider

Lower
Slower
Induced Drag
climb rate Induced Drag
Glide in thermals
Increased LIFT Force UP
path Higher LIFT
airspeed Force UP

Lower AOA

Fig. 4l-i. Glider performance

with water ballast. Force DOWN
Force DOWN

Wing Lower AOA Wing

AOA
Water
Di rection Direction

Fig. 4l-iii. Heavier glider flies

with a lower wing AOA.
Glider

A lower wing AOA of the heavier glider means that the

Fig. 4l-ii. Glider dumping its downwash is accelerated downwards at a less vertical
water ballast. [56] angle. This generates less induced drag, and therefore,
provides a more efficient generation of lift.
This perplexing observation can be explained by Newtonian
mechanics for actively generated lift, and the trade-off between This analysis is consistent with the observation that
‘m/dt and ‘dv’. The increased airspeed means that the heavier heavier gliders achieve a higher Lift / Drag ratio (L/D
glider flies through a greater mass of air each second (higher ratio), especially at higher airspeeds.
m/dt). Due to the glider’s extremely long wingspan, a small
increase in the airspeed can provide a large increase in ‘m/dt’. 3) It is possible that adding water ballast can alter the
aircraft’s centre of gravity, which can be desirable
As a result, the heavier glider needs to accelerate this air depending on the circumstances. For example, it can be
flown through downwards to a lower velocity (lower dv), in significant if there is a difference between the centre of
order to generate the increased lift required to fly. This dynamic gravity and the centre of lift, which affects the glider’s
can be summarised by the equation: See Fig. 4l-(iii-iv). performance.

Higher Lift = Higher ‘m/dt’ * Lower ‘dv’ 4) A heavier glider soaring at altitude has greater potential
energy, as compared to a glider with les less mass. In
addition, the heavier glider has greater kinetic energy and
momentum, at the same airspeed.
Higher Force UP
(LIFT) Higher 5) A heavier glider and faster is reported to glide the same
m/dt
distances as an identical but lighter and slower glider. This
sed
rea
Inc peed indicates that the lower induced drag from the wings is
A i r s
Glide
offset by higher parasitic drag from the fuselage.
Glider
path
Lower dv
Higher Force DOWN
= higher m/dt x lower dv Significance

Fig. 4l-iii. Glider performance with water ballast This analysis of water ballast is significant as it is has not
according to Newtonian mechanics. been presented before. Also, it demonstrates that Newtonian
mechanics can explain all aspects of flight. In contrast, fluid
There is a limit to the benefits of increased ballast, when the mechanics provides no explanation of how water ballast affects
‘higher ‘m/dt’ from the increased airspeed does not compensate lift and flight. The same logic applies to paragliders.
for the increased lift required due to the additional water ballast.

14
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

C. Example calculation – methodology.

5. EXAMPLE CALCULATION
1) The volume of air displaced by the paraglider wing
each second (Volume/dt) is estimated to be 30 m3/s
based on the paraglider length, paraglider reach, and
A. Overview. apparent wind speed. See Fig. 6b.

An example calculation of the forward force generated by a Volume of air = Wing * Wing * Apparent
paraglider according to Newtonian mechanics based on the mass displaced length Reach wind speed
flow rate is provided below. This example is an approximation per second
and is for illustration purposes only. It is only intended to
demonstrate how Newtonian mechanics can be applied in 30 m3/s = 12 m * 0.5 m * 5 m/s
practice. It is not meant to be precisely accurate or overly
realistic. i.e. A 12 meter long paraglider wing with a 0.5 m wig reach,
in a 5 m/s (18 km/hr) apparent wind displaces a volume of 30
m3/s of air each second.
B. Key assumptions.

Key data assumptions include: See Fig. 5a. 2) The mass of air displaced each second (m/dt) by the
paraglider is calculated to be 36 kg/s based on the volume
- Standard air density is 1.2 kg/m3. [1]
of air displaced each second and the standard air density of
- Apparent wind speed is 5 m/s (about 18 km/hr) is re- 1.2 kg/m3.
directed by the paraglider at a average velocity (dv) of 4
m/s (about 14.4 km/hr). m/dt = Volume/dt * Air Density
There is a difference between the velocity represents the 36 kg/s = 30 m3/s * 1.2 kg/m3
Force DOWNWIND pushing directly against the wing.
- The length of the paraglider’s leading edge is 12 meters.
- Wing reach is 0.25 meters (25 cm) on either side of the 3) Using the assumed ‘dv’ of 4 m/s, the backward force is
paraglider wing, (0.5 meters total). calculated from multiplying ‘m/dt’ by 'dv.’
Wing reach is the distance that the canopy affects the Backward Force = m/dt * dv
airflow, which depends partly on the wing’s thickness.
= 36 kg/s * 4 m/s
For simplicity, several situational assumptions are made: = 144 kg m/s2
- The paraglider is flying at a constant-velocity into a = 144 N
laminar, constant-velocity wind. = Forward Force
- The airflows are even across the paraglider.
- Vortices or wind shear are not significant. The paraglider re-directs 36 kg/s of air at 4 m/s, which
interacts with the undisturbed airflow from the apparent wind, to
- The paraglider width is not considered to be directly create backward force of 144 N. The equal and opposite forward
relevant to this calculation. It is indirectly important, as force of 144 N pushes the paraglider ahead and up. See Fig. 5a.
it affects the wing reach and the ‘dv’ that is assumed.

D. Comment.

For reference, the force calculated above is sufficient to

accelerate an 80 kg paraglider at about 1.8 m/s, as shown by the
calculation below:

Force = mass * acceleration

144 N = 80 kg * 1.8 m/s2

The simplicity of this example calculation shows that the

Newtonian approach is straightforward. Other approaches, such
Fig. 5a. Example calculation. as theories based on fluid mechanics, fail to provide a simple
example calculation based on realistic conditions.

The key parameters that are the most difficult to estimate in Estimates show that paraglider wings only need to re-direct a
practice are the ‘paraglider reach’ and ‘dv,’ which are the most relatively small amount of air downwards to a relatively low
speculative of all the assumptions. velocity in order to fly. This is consistent with modern airliners
such as a Boeing 787 and Airbus A320 that can fly with thrust-
to-weight ratios as low as 0.3.

15
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

B. Gliders slope soaring vs. dynamic soaring.

6. MORE ON ACTIVE VS. PASSIVE FORCES
Gliders slope soaring at the top of a hill into a rising wind, is
essentially the same as dynamic soaring into a horizontal wind.
Both can be achieved from a passive generation of a force.
A. Examples of passive force creation.

To recap: A wing, propeller, or sail can passively and actively

generate a force, depending on the circumstances. Both forces
cam be explained by Newtonian mechanics based on the mass
flow rate (Force = m/dt * dv). This insight means that a wing
generates lift differently in different situations, as described
below:
- A stationary wing (eg. glider soaring into the wind) can Fig. 6b-i. Airflows slope soaring
redirect a headwind (relative airflow) to passively generate vs. dynamic soaring.
a force (thrust), which provides lift.
- In forward gliding/normal flight through static air a wing Gliders slope soaring and dynamic soaring are compared
can accelerate air downwards to actively generate an below: See Fig. 6b-i.
upward force, which provides lift.
- In slope soaring, the rising wind pushes the glider up and
backwards. The wings re-direct the airflow to generate a
forward and upward force.
Gliders: Soaring vs. Flying For example, an onshore sea breeze that is pushed up by
a hill along a coastline is often used by gliders for slope
Newtonian mechanics based on the mass flow rate (Lift = soaring. Gliders slope soaring generate so much forward
m/dt * dv) and a transfer of momentum is used to explain thrust that they are able to easily fly directly forward into
passive (soaring) and active (flying/gliding) lift generation using the wind and traverse across the wind at high speeds in
actual airflow analysis. The argument for Newtonian mechanics loops or figure-of-eight flight patterns. See Fig. 6b-ii.
is presented below for each type of flight: See Fig. 6a.
In slope soaring the glider’s nose is pointed more
downwards, to maintain the same AOA as dynamic
1) While soaring, the glider wings passively re-direct a
soaring, as compared to dynamic soaring.
headwind (relative airflow) to decelerate (dv) a mass of air
each second (m/dt) backwards. This action creates - In dynamic soaring, the horizontal wind pushes the
turbulence and a backwards force (Force BACK = ma = m/dt glider backwards. A glider’s ability to soar depends on
* dv). The reaction creates forward thrust, similar to how a how well its wings convert the apparent wind into
boat sails into the wind or an albatross soars into the wind. vertical lift.
Momentum is transferred from the air to the glider to
generate the thrust. - In slope and dynamic soaring, the glider alters its AOA
to select the desired mix of airspeed and altitude.

2) In flight or glide, the wings actively accelerate a mass of

air each second (m/dt) to a velocity (dv) downwards. This
action creates a force (Force DOWN = ma = m/dt * dv). The
reaction generates an upward force that provides lift to
push the glider upward. Momentum is transferred from the
glider to the air to generate the force.

Fig. 6b-ii. Slope soaring along a coastline.

This space is intentionally left blank.

Fig. 6a. Forces acting on a glider
soaring and in flight.

16
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

C. Gliders soaring into a steady horizontal wind. D. Multiple sails vs. biplanes.

Many people dispute whether gliders and birds can generate A catamaran with two parallel sails (twin mast) sailing into
lift and/or forward thrust in a constant-velocity wind, despite the the wind produces different airflows and forces, as compared to
evidence that they can. The false belief is that gliders and birds a biplane. Airflows created by biplanes interfere with each other,
can only soar into a rising wind or a wind shear, despite the whereas the relative airflows from a double rig does not. In
evidence of remote controlled gliders that can achieve dynamic addition, the directions of the forces generated are different.
soaring. This aspect provides additional evidence that passively and
actively generated forces are different. See Fig. 6d-(i-ii).
For example, birds of all shapes and sizes are regularly
observed to hover or fly (soar/glide) into strong, horizontal, and
steady winds. This feat is achieved without flapping their wings,
circling or conducting any special manoeuvers, such as a loop
nor a circle (e.g. Rayleigh circle). Many such videos can be
found on youtube. See Fig. 6c-i.

Fig. 6d-i. Twin mast sailboat

and biplane.

Fig. 6c-i. Falcon hovering in a

horizontal, steady wind. [51]

YouTube videos of unpowered RC gliders launched into the

wind at hilltops provide ample evidence of gliders soaring. After
launch, the gliders gain altitude and airspeed as they fly into the
wind. See Fig. 6c-ii.

Fig. 6d-ii. Airflows and forces acting on

twin mast sailboat and biplane.

It is common to see boats with multiple sails, but not

airplanes with multiple wings. A boat with multiple sails (e.g.
jib and mainsheet) provide a greater force than a single, large
sail with the same total sail area. Specifically, multiple sails
increase the mass flow rate (m/dt), and therefore, increases the
Fig. 6c-ii. Unpowered RC
force generated (Thrust = m/dt * dv). Multiple sails also
glider soaring. [16]
increases the air re-directed on the leeward side of the sail, as
well as reducing turbulence and airflow separation. See Fig. 6d-
In addition, sailboats regularly sail at a constant speed into a
iii.
constant speed wind. Further supporting the assertion that it is
possible to generate a forward force into a constant velocity
wind. Wind shear or wind speed variations are not required.

This space is intentionally left blank. Fig. 6d-iii. One large sail v. two smaller sails
with the same total sail area.

17
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

E. Newton explains lift. [3] F. Newton explains parachuting.

Newtonian mechanics based on the mass flow rate is used to A parachute accelerates a mass of air each second (m/dt) to a
explain active lift generation using actual airflow analysis. velocity downwards, to create a downward force (Force DOWN =
Simply put, the wings fly through a thin layer of air that is m/dt * dv). The reaction is a equal and opposite force (drag),
accelerated downward. The reactive equal and opposite force which slows their descent.
pushes the wings and aircraft upward. See Fig. 6e-i.
The parachute out of its path as it descends vertically,
For an airplane in stable flight through static air, wings with a circulating the air as they descend. Momentum is transferred
positive angle-of-attack (AOA) fly through a mass of air each from the parachute to the air to slow their descent.
second (m/dt), which is accelerated to a velocity (dv) downward.
This action creates downwash and a downward force (Force A parachute provides a large surface area facing downward as
DOWN), as summarised by the equation: it descends. Consequently, the parachute displaces a relatively
large mass of air each second (high ‘m/dt’), which is accelerated
Force DOWN = ma = m * dv/dt = m/dt * dv [1]
downwards to a low velocity (low ‘dv’), to creates a downward
force (Force = m/dt * dv). See Fig. 6f.
The inertia of the air provides resistance to the downward
force, producing a reactive equal and opposite upward force
(Force UP) that provides lift, as shown by the equation:
Force DOWN = Force UP (Lift)

Fig. 6e-i. Newtonian forces Fig. 6f Airflows and forces

acting on an airplane. creating drag on a paraglider.

Lift is defined as the vertical component of the upward force,

in the opposite direction to gravity. Lift is just the vector in the The downward force exerted on the air accelerates a mass of
vertical direction. See Fig. 6e-ii. air downwards with gravity. Air is pushed downwards by the
underside of the parachute, and pulled downwards by the low air
pressure created above the parachute. In turn, this action pushes
and pulls air elsewhere upwards against gravity, to replace the
air pushed downwards. In short, as it descends, the parachute
circulates a mass of air.

Fig. 6e-ii. Forces acting on a wing.

For simplicity, it is assumed that an airplane in flight at a very

low wing AOA, the upward force is close to the vertical
direction. Therefore, induced drag is negligible, and lift equals
the upward force, as shown by the equation:
Force UP = Lift This space is intentionally left blank.

The equations above for the momentum transferred from the

wings to the air (i.e. the change in momentum of the air) are
combined as follows:
Force DOWN = Force UP (Lift) = m/dt * dv
Simplified to: Lift = m/dt * dv

The Newtonian approach based on the mass flow rate is a

different approach to the old Newtonian explanations of lift
based on a change in momentum or flow turning.

18
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

7. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 9. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Author: Mr. Nicholas Landell-Mills, independent researcher.

A. Comment.
Corresponding email: [email protected]
Paragliders can passively or actively generate forces., as
described by Newtonian mechanics based on the mass flow rate Funding: This paper was self-funded by the author.
(Force = m/dt * dv). The Newtonian approach means that forces
can be analyzed according to how ‘m/dt’ and ‘dv’ change with Personal background: The author is British, currently living
the different parameters such as AOA and the wind speed. in France, and was born in 1966 in Botswana. The author is
dyslexic. The author held a private pilot’s license (PPL) for 18
The differences between active and passive force creation years. He flew and maintained a small, single-engine, home-
have been overlooked or ignored by pilots, academics, and built airplane (Europa XS monowheel, registration: G-OSJN).
engineers. Consequently, explaining this argument to people
who have studied lift (engineers), is akin to telling a group of Academic qualifications: The author is a graduate of The
athletes playing basketball that they are in a football game, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK. He was awarded a
which is subject to completely different rules. They have M.A. degree class 2:1 in economics and economic history in
fundamentally misunderstood what has been going on and the 1989.
rules that apply.
Professional background: The author qualified as an
It should not be surprising that Newtons laws of motion can accountant (ACA) in England & Wales, as well as a Chartered
explain the physics of how lift is generated. It would be more Financial Analyst (CFA). He worked in finance for 24 years in
surprising to claim the reverse, that Newtons laws do not explain numerous countries for different companies (1990 – 2013).
lift (as claimed by advocates of fluid mechanics).
Author Contributions: This paper is entirely the work of
the author, Mr. Nicholas Landell-Mills.
B. Insights. Affiliations: None.

This analysis is significant as it provides new and useful Acknowledgements: None.

insights to design better paragliders and improve piloting skills.
The insights provided by Newtonian mechanics are not available Disclaimer: All data in the manuscript is authentic. There
from other theories of how paragliders fly, including fluid are no conflicts of interest. All sources of data used in the paper
mechanics. are identified where possible.

The insights obtained are extremely significant because they ORCID ID: 0000-0003-4814-0443
challenge the prevailing method used by engineers to calculate
how wings, propellers, wind turbine blades, and sails generate Project duration: This paper is a product of applied physics
forces or lift; based on fluid mechanics (Navier-Stokes research by the author in the period 2014 – 2024, into how
equations), and relative airflows. objects fly, sail, fall, and swim.

The importance of this conclusion cannot be overstated as Funding: This paper was self-funded by the author.
almost all explanations of how lift is actively generated in the
last 100 years have relied on relative airflow diagrams and fluid Project costs: The direct expenses used to write this paper
mechanics. were minimal and included things like a computer, internet
access, and living expenses. However, the opportunity cost of
the salary forgone by not being employed while conducting
research over ten years (2014 – 2024) was substantial.

Request for financial support: This paper could not have

8. CONCLUSIONS been produced through the established academic and scientific
systems. There is no intention to publish this paper or its
contents in an academic journal, as then it would no longer be
available for free to all. If you found this research to be useful,
Newtonian mechanics based on the mass-flow rate (Force = valuable, informative, entertaining, or otherwise worthy. Then
m/dt * dv) provides a simple explanation of how paragliders fly, kindly support the author with a financial donation via:
which is consistent with what is observed in practice, and
accepted physics. It is puzzling that no one has presented this - PayPal.com at: https://paypal.me/landell66
approach previously. - Or buy me a coffee: https://bmc.link/zhJIg4zRCW

It was a pleasure to write this paper. Thank you in advance

for any contributions, which will encourage further research!

19
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

[31] Paragliding wingtip vortices visualization; Jan 10, 2021;

YouTube cgannel: Quentin Aubourg;
10. REFERENCES https://youtu.be/AxDtNij1cPA
[32] Image from Wiki Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/
[33] Y. Nakamura, N. Fukamachi; Visualization of the flow past a
frisbee; Fluid Dynamics Research, Volume 7, Issue 1, pp. 31-35
(1991). Jan 1991; DOI: 10.1016/0169-5983(91)90004-3 .
[1] NASA, Glenn Research Centre. www.grc.nasa.gov
[34] H Tang, K-M Lam, K-M Shum 3 and Yongle Li ; Wake Effect of
a Horizontal AxisWind Turbine on the Performance of a
Unpublished papers by the author:
Downstream Turbine; Energies 2019, 12, 2395;
doi:10.3390/en12122395.
[2] N Landell-Mills (2019), How airplanes generate lift is disputed.
[35] Y Chen, B Lin, J Lin, S Wang, Experimental study of wake
Pre-Print DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.34380.36487.
structure behind a horizontal axis tidal stream turbine, Applied
[3] N Landell-Mills (2019), Newton explains lift; Buoyancy explains
Energy, Volume 196, 2017, Pages 82-96, ISSN 0306-2619,
flight. Pre-Print DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.16863.82084.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.03.126.
[4] N Landell-Mills (2020), How gliders can circumnavigate the globe
[36] N-J Vermeer, J Sørensen, A Crespo; Wind turbine wake
by soaring against the jet stream; Pre-Print DOI:
aerodynamics; Oct 2003; Progress in Aerospace Sciences
10.13140/RG.2.2.18506.52162/1.
39(6):467-510; DOI: 10.1016/S0376-0421(03)00078-2
[5] N Landell-Mills (2019), The paradox of sailing faster than the
[37] Images from WB Sails; https://wb-sails.fi .
wind; Pre-Print DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.33918.33600.
[38] Bolmethod naval architecture. www.boldmethod.com .
[6] N Landell-Mills (2021), Kitesurfing explained by Newtonian
[39] Image source: Airliners.net.
physics. Pre-Print DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.28835.37929;
[40] Wind Tunnel 787 Model Tuft Test; Dec 3, 2014; YoutTube
[7] N Landell-Mills (2020), Navier-Stokes fails to explain lift
Channel: Alec Watson; https://youtu.be/o-it7hJ-0fw
generation; Pre-Print DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.10678.52809.
[41] Boeing www.boeing.com
[8] Removed.
[42] N Sharp; Flow Around a Complex Airfoil; July 11, 2013; FYFD;
[9] N Landell-Mills (2021), Relative airflow analysis is flawed. Pre-
https://fyfluiddynamics.com/2013/07/flow-around-an-airfoil-with-
Print DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.19517.38886
a-leading-edge-slat-is/
[10] N Landell-Mills (2023), A classic wind tunnel experiment re-
[43] H Tang, K-M Lam, K-M Shum 3 and Yongle Li ; Wake Effect of
evaluated. Pre-Print DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.31272.03846 .
a Horizontal AxisWind Turbine on the Performance of a
Downstream Turbine; Energies 2019, 12, 2395;
doi:10.3390/en12122395.
Other references:
[44] Y Chen, B Lin, J Lin, S Wang, Experimental study of wake
structure behind a horizontal axis tidal stream turbine, Applied
[11] E Regis, No One Can Explain Why Planes Stay in the Air. 1 Feb
Energy, Volume 196, 2017, Pages 82-96, ISSN 0306-2619,
2020, Scientific American Magazine.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.03.126.
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/no-one-can-explain-
[45] N-J Vermeer, J Sørensen, A Crespo; Wind turbine wake
why-planes-stay-in-the-air/
aerodynamics; Oct 2003; Progress in Aerospace Sciences
[12] K. Chang (Dec 9, 2003), Staying Aloft; What Does Keep Them Up
39(6):467-510; DOI: 10.1016/S0376-0421(03)00078-2
There? New York Times. See: www.nytimes.com or
[46] Amazing Aircraft Wake Vortices by Emirates & Etihad at Sunset;
https://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/09/news/staying-aloft-what-
Jan 11, 2018; YouTube channel: ePixel Images;
does-keep-them-up-there.html
https://youtu.be/Efq65ZFIIW0
[13] R Matthews (Jan 1, 2012), The secret to airplane flight. No one
[47] Cape Horn Engineering, UK; www.cape-horn-eng.com
really knows. The National newspaper, UAE.
[48] 'SPECTACULAR! A-380 Condensation and Vortices on Landing
[14] R. Allain, There's No One Way to Explain How Flying Works;
at Zurich Kloten Airport,' uploaded on 15 Jul 2017, on youtube
Wired Magazine, 22 Feb 2018, Website:
channel PlanesWeekly. Link:
https://www.wired.com/story/theres-no-one-way-to-explain-how-
www.youtube.com/watch?v=BaRb46vv_bQ
flying-works/
[49] Source: ‘planes clouds and vortices’ video on youtube channel of
[15] E Regis, No One Can Explain Why Planes Stay in the Air. 1 Feb
flugsnug, uploaded 6 Nov 2014.
2020, Scientific American Magazine.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=dfY5ZQDzC5s
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/no-one-can-explain-
[50] youtube video channel: FLY8MA.com Flight Training; Wake
why-planes-stay-in-the-air/
Turbulence Aircraft Accident Inflight Breakup; Oct 14, 2020;
[16] New World Record RC Airplane Speed 548mph; Jan 20, 2021;
www.youtube.com/watch?v=W72QE4FENpY ;
youtube channel: sll914; https://youtu.be/4eFD_Wj6dhk .
[51] Beautiful Kestrel Hovers in Hunting Mode || ViralHog; Jun 3,
[17] Removed.
2021; YouTube Channel: ViralHog;
https://youtu.be/mDRcLAkRZ50
Images:
[52] The Secret of Flight 10: Lift Theory, High Lift Devices; YouTube
channel: University of Iowa; Aug 23, 2019;
[18] Wiki commons Paragliding - Hunstanton sea cliffs; by DeFacto,
https://youtu.be/zmn7bJvCDn4 .
July 2016.
[53] Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, multimedia
[19] Wiki commons – by Ввласенко, Sept 2013.
video from Physics Education, 2003, by Holger Babinsky.
[20] Image of Davis Wing licensed from Critical Past;
https://youtu.be/6UlsArvbTeo
www.criticalpast.com .
[54] Boundary layer separation and stall; YouTube channel: Dfan 315;
[21] Images of wing in a wind tunnel licensed from Critical Past;
Jan 7, 2015; https://youtu.be/SiOiVHUEYao .
www.criticalpast.com .
[55] Easy PPL Course Video: POF - Stalling Aerofoil Airflow
[22] Source: youtube: Phoenix FD 3.0 - Wind Tunnel; Nov 2016;
Separation; YouTube channel: Easy PPL Training; Feb 26, 2017;
https://youtu.be/IOLaoHbuVGY
https://youtu.be/yK7zz3PeNrU .
[23] Wiki commons ; by Michal Osmenda, Oct 2006.
[56] R Bourgeois; May 25, 2023; Image from wings and wheels
[24] Wiki commons; by Don Ramey Logan, April 2016.
website; https://wingsandwheels.com/blog/post/soaring-with-
[25] Cape Horn Engineering, UK; www.cape-horn-eng.com
water-ballast .
[26] Sources: http://i.stack.imgur.com/cyr0c.jpg ; Bernal Saborio,
[57] Removed.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/44073224@N04/
[27] Wiki commons – by Ad Meskens - July 2016.
[28] LeTourneau CCW Senior Design - Smoke Flow Visualization;
Mar 19, 2014; YouTube channel: acidreign424;
https://youtu.be/v9bYx7xRASA
[29] Source: jetphotos.net
[30] N Sharp; Flow Around a Complex Airfoil; July 11, 2013; FYFD;
https://fyfluiddynamics.com/2013/07/flow-around-an-airfoil-with-
a-leading-edge-slat-is/

20
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

APPENDIX I – SAILING INTO THE WIND Airflows and forces – in 3D.

The relevant airflows and the resultant forces generated can

be illustrated using a 3D model. See Fig. 4e-(iii-vi).

A. Newtonian mechanics explains sailing

Put simply, the sail steals momentum from the wind by re-
directing the headwind (relative airflow) to slow it down and
passively generate a force.

Boats sailing into the wind on a close haul tack at a positive

sail AOA, passively re-directs a mass of air each second (m/dt)
from the apparent wind (relative airflow), helped by the Coanda
effect on the leeward side of the sail. The re-directed airflow
pushes against undisturbed apparent wind at the trailing edge of Fig. 4e-iii. Sailboat shown with
the sail, creating turbulence. The turbulence provides something and without airflows.
to push against and causes the re-directed airflow to decelerate
to a reduced velocity (dv). This action generates a backward
force, as described by the equation: See Fig. III-d.
Force BACK = m/dt * dv

The inertia arising from the wind slowing down allows for the
reactive equal and opposite force (Thrust). The thrust generated
pushes the sail ahead. This dynamic is summarized by the
equations: See Fig. I-a.
Force BACK = Force FORWARDS (Thrust) = m/dt * dv
Simplified to: Thrust = m/dt * dv
Fig. 4e-iv. Sailboat airflows and forces.
– side view.

Fig. I-a. Newtonian forces

acting on a sailboat.

The force generated by the sail pushes against the turbulence

behind the sail, and not directly against the sail as commonly
believed. Fig. 4e-v. Sailboat airflows and forces
– top view.
The boat’s hull and keel provide resistance against the
downwind force of the wind pushing against the hull and the
sail. In the absence of the resistance from the hull and keel, the
boat would keel-over onto its side, and/or simply be blown
downwind by the wind. This dynamic allows the sail to remain
vertical and maintain a positive AOA, and therefore, generate
forward thrust.

Momentum is transferred from the wind to the sail, to push

the boat ahead. There is no net gain or loss of momentum,
energy, or mass in the process of sailing. The apparent-wind has
significant momentum and kinetic energy due to its mass and
velocity.
Fig. 4e-vi. Sailboat airflows and forces
shown at 45° view downward.

21
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

B. Example calculation.

The example calculation below demonstrates the Newtonian

approach applied to sailing.

It is assumed that: See Fig. I-b-i.

- Apparent wind is 10 m/s,
- The wind decelerates to 0 m/s.
- Air density is 1.2 kg/m3.
- Sail 12 m high.
- Sail reach of 1 m; which means the wind is re-directed
0.5 m on either side of the sail.

Fig. I-b-i. Volume of air re-directed

by the sail.

Example calculation:

The sail displaces a volume of air each second of 120 m3/s:

This space is intentionally left blank.
Volume/dt = Height * Sail Reach * Wind Speed
= 12m * 1m * 10 m/s
= 120 m3/s

This volume of air displaced equals a mass of 144 kg/s of air:

m/dt = Volume/dt * Air Density
= 120 m3/s * 1.2 kg/m3
= 144 kg/s

If the apparent wind re-directed by the sail slowed by 8 m/s

(dv). Then a backward force of 1,152 N is generated, as shown
by the equation: See Fig. I-b-ii.

Force BACK = m/dt * dv

= 144 kg/s * 8 m/s
= 1,152 N

Fig. I-b-ii. Example calculation

of Newtonian forces.

The reaction generates an equal and opposite forward force of

1,152 N, as shown by the equation:

Force BACK = 1,152 N = Force FORWARD

22
 Independent Research – Paragliding explained by Newtonian physics.

APPENDIX II – DYNAMIC SOARING APPENDIX III – KITESURFING

A. Dynamic soaring by albatrosses. A. Newtonian mechanics explains kitesurfing.

Put simply, the albatross’ wing steals momentum from the Put simply, the kite steals momentum from the wind by re-
headwind by re-directing the headwind (relative airflow) to slow directing the headwind (relative airflow) to slow it down and
it down and passively generate a forward force (thrust). The passively generate a force. The kite pulls the kitesurfer forward;
albatross’ wings propel the bird forwards. which is similar to how a person wakeboarding alongside a
motorboat is pulled forward.
The albatross’ wing with a positive AOA passively re-directs
a mass of air each second (m/dt) from the apparent wind The kite with a positive AOA passively re-directs a mass of
(relative airflow), helped by the Coanda effect on the topside of air each second (m/dt) from the apparent wind (relative airflow),
the wing. The re-directed airflow pushes against undisturbed helped by the Coanda effect on the topside of the kite. The re-
apparent wind behind the albatross (at the trailing edge of the directed airflow pushes against undisturbed apparent wind
wings), creating turbulence. The turbulence provides something behind the kite (at the trailing edge of the kite), creating
to push against and causes the re-directed airflow to decelerate turbulence. The turbulence provides something to push against
to a reduced velocity (dv). This action generates a backward and causes the re-directed airflow to decelerate to a reduced
force, as described by the equation: See Fig. II-a-(i-ii). velocity (dv). This action generates a backward force, as
described by the equation: See Fig. III-a-(i-ii).
Force BACK = m/dt * dv
Force BACK = m/dt * dv
The inertia arising from the wind slowing down allows for the
reactive equal and opposite force (Thrust). The thrust generated The inertia of the air provides resistance to the backward
pushes the albatross forwards and up, allowing it to soar. This force, which allows for the generation of a reactive equal and
dynamic is summarized by the equations: See Fig. II-a-(i-ii). opposite forward force (Force KITE) which pushes the kite ahead:
Force BACK = Force FORWARDS (Thrust) = m/dt * dv Force BACK = Force KITE (Thrust) = m/dt * dv

Fig. II-a-i. Coanda effect and turbulence

on an albatross’s wing. Fig. III-a-i. Kitesurfing. [19]

Fig. II-a-ii. Newtonian forces acting on

an albatross’s wing dynamic soaring. Fig. III-a-ii. Forces acting on a kitesurfer.

The albatross can maintain a stable altitude if the thrust The kitesurfer’s board functions in a similar manner to the
generated soaring is at least equal to the backward force from keel of a boat, it provides resistance against the downwind force
the wind. The albatross can adjust the wing AOA to control its of the wind. In the absence of the board pushing against the
direction as needed desired. A stronger wind increases both water, the kitesurfer would simply be blown backwards
‘m/dt’ and ‘dv’, and therefore, increases the thrust generated (downwind) by the wind. This action allows the kite to maintain
(Thrust = m/dt * dv). a positive AOA, and therefore, generate forward thrust.

23

View publication stats