A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces

and Momentum
Guiding questions
How can forces acting on a system be represented both
visually and algebraically?
How can Newton’s laws be modelled mathematically?
How can knowledge of forces and momentum be used
to predict the behaviour of interacting bodies?
 A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Understandings
Standard level and higher level: 10 hours
Students should understand:
• Newton’s three laws of motion
• forces as interactions between bodies
• that forces acting on a body can be represented in a free-body diagram
• that free-body diagrams can be analysed to find the resultant force on a system
the nature and use of the following contact forces
◦ normal force FN is the component of the contact force acting perpendicular to the
surface that counteracts the body
◦ surface frictional force Ff acting in a direction parallel to the plane of contact between
a body and a surface, on a stationary body as given by Ff ≤ μs FN or a body in motion as
given by Ff = μd FN where μs and μd are the coefficients of static and dynamic friction
respectively
◦ tension
◦ elastic restoring force FH following Hooke’s law as given by FH = –kx where k is the
spring constant
◦ viscous drag force Fd acting on a small sphere opposing its motion through a fluid as
given by Fd = 6πηrv where η is the fluid viscosity, r is the radius of the sphere and v is
the velocity of the sphere through the fluid
◦ buoyancy Fb acting on a body due to the displacement of the fluid as given by Fb =
 A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Understandings
the nature and use of the following field forces
◦ gravitational force Fg is the weight of the body and calculated is given by Fg = mg
◦ electric force Fe
◦ magnetic force Fm
that linear momentum as given by p = mv remains constant unless the system is acted
upon by a resultant external force
• that a resultant external force applied to a system constitutes an impulse J as given by J
= FΔt where F is the average resultant force and Δt is the time of contact
• that the applied external impulse equals the change in momentum of the system
• that Newton’s second law in the form F = ma assumes mass is constant whereas F =
Δp/Δt allows for situations where mass is changing
• the elastic and inelastic collisions of two bodies explosions
• energy considerations in elastic collisions, inelastic collisions, and explosions
• that bodies moving along a circular trajectory at a constant speed experience an
acceleration that is directed radially towards the centre of the circle—known as a
centripetal acceleration that circular motion is caused by a centripetal force acting
perpendicular to the velocity
• that a centripetal force causes the body to change direction even if its magnitude of
velocity may remain constant
• that the motion along a circular trajectory can be described in terms of the angular
velocity ω which is related to the linear speed v by the equation as given by v = 2πr/T =
 A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Additional higher level
There is no additional higher level content in A.2.
Guidance
Sketches and interpretations of free-body diagrams and a determination of
the resultant force are for one and two-dimensional situations only.
Forces should be labelled using commonly accepted names or symbols.
Newton’s first law will be applied to problems involving translational
equilibrium.
Examples of Newton’s third law will include the identification of force pairs in
various situations.
The use of simultaneous equations involving conservation of momentum and
energy in collisions is not required.
A quantitative approach to collisions and explosions is for one-dimensional
situations for standard level students and for two-dimensional situations for
higher level students.
Situations should involve both uniform and non-uniform circular motion in
both horizontal and vertical planes.
Analysis of forces on bodies in non-uniform circular motion in a vertical plane
at points other than the top or bottom is not required.
Quantitative treatment of problems involving banked surfaces is not required.
 A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Linking questions
How do collisions between charge carriers and the atomic cores of
a conductor result in thermal energy transfer?
How can knowledge of electrical and magnetic forces allow the
prediction of changes to the motion of charged particles?
How does the application of a restoring force acting on a particle
result in simple harmonic motion?
How are concepts of equilibrium and conservation applied to
understand matter and motion from the smallest atom to the
whole universe?
Why is no work done on a body moving along a circular trajectory?
In which way is conservation of momentum relevant to the
workings of a nuclear power station?
If experimental measurements contain uncertainties, how can laws
be developed based on experimental evidence? (NOS)
What assumptions about the forces between molecules of gas
allow for ideal gas behaviour? (NOS)
Representing forces as vectors
•A force is a push or a pull measured in
Newtons.
•One force we are very familiar with is the force
of gravity, AKA the weight.
•The very concepts of push and pull imply
direction. Thus forces are vectors.
•The direction of the weight is down toward the
center of the earth.
•If you have a weight of 90 Newtons (or 90 N),
your weight can be expressed as a vector: 90 N,
down.
W = mg where g = 10 m s weight
•We will show later that weight
and m is the mass in
-2 has the formula
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Objects as point particles and Free-body
diagrams where g = 10 m s weight
W = mg
and m is the mass in
-2

kg
EXAMPLE: Calculate the weight of a 25-kg Free-
object. body
SOLUTION: diagram
Since m = 25 kg and g = 10 m s-2, mas
W = mg = (25)(10) = 250 N (or 250 s
n).
Note that W inherits its direction from
the fact that g points downward.
We sketch the mass as a point f
particle (dot), and the weight as a oW
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Objects as point particles and Free-body
diagrams there are other forces besides
•Certainly
weight that you are familiar with.
•For example, when you set a mass on a
tabletop, even though it stops moving, it still
has a weight.
•The implication is that the tabletop applies
a counterforce to the weight, called a R
W
normal force.
•Note that the weight and the normal forces
are the same length – they balance.
•The normal
FYI •The forceforce
normal is called a surface
is often called contact
force.
(unwisely) the reaction force – thus the R
 A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Objects as point particles and Free-body
diagrams
•Tension T can only be a pull and never a push.
•Friction Ff tries to oppose the motion.
•Friction Ff is parallel to the contact surface.
•Normal R is perpendicular to the contact
surface.
R and normal are mutually perpendicular.
•Friction
Ff ⊥ R.
•Friction andT normal are surface contact forces.
F•Weight W theis an action-at-a-distance
f force. tension
Contact
surface
W
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Sketching and interpreting free-body diagrams
•Weight is sketched from the center of an object.
•Normal is always sketched perpendicular to the
contact surface.
•Friction is sketched parallel to the contact
surface.
•Tension is sketched at whatever angle is given.
R
T

F
f

W
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Sketching and interpreting free-body diagrams
EXAMPLE: An object has a tension acting on it at
30° as shown. Sketch in the forces, and draw a
free-body diagram.
SOLUTION: R
Weight is drawn from the center, down. T
Normal is drawn perpendicular to the
F
30
surface from the surface.
R T f °
Friction is drawn par- 30°
allel to the surface.
F W
f

W
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving problems involving forces and resultant
force
•The resultant (or net) force is just the vector
sum of all of the forces acting on a body.
EXAMPLE: An object has mass of 25 kg. A
tension of 50 n and a friction force of 30 n are
acting on it as shown. What is the resultant
force?
SOLUTION:
R
Since the weight and the
normal forces cancel out in
50
the y-direction, we only need F T
n
to worry about the forces in f
the x-direction. 30
The net force is thus n W
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving problems involving forces and resultant
force
•The resultant (or net) force is just the vector
sumFnetof
=all of the forces
Fx,net = ΣFxacting
Fy,neton
= aΣFbody.
y net
ΣF force
EXAMPLE: An object has exactly two forces F1 =
50. n and F2 = 30. n applied simultaneously to
it. What is the resultant force’s magnitude?
SOLUTION: F2
Fnet = ΣF = F1 + F2 so we Fnet
simply graphically add the
two vectors:
The magnitude is given by 50. F
3
0 n 1
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving problems involving forces and resultant
force
•The resultant (or net) force is just the vector
sum
Fnetof
=all of the forces
Fx,net = ΣFxacting
Fy,neton
= aΣFbody.
y net
ΣF force
EXAMPLE: An object has exactly two forces F1 =
50. n and F2 = 30. n applied simultaneously to it
as shown. What is the resultant force’s
direction?
SOLUTION: F2
Direction is measured from the (+) Fnet
x-axis. θ
Opposite and adjacent are given 50. F
directly, so use tangent. n 1 3
tan θ = opp / adj = 30 / 50 = 0.6 0
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving problems involving forces and resultant
force
EXAMPLE: An object has exactly two forces F = 1
50. n and F2 = 30. n applied simultaneously to
it. What is the resultant force’s magnitude?
SOLUTION:
Begin by resolving F1 into F2
its x- and y-components.
Then Fnet,x = 44 n and F1
Fnet,y = 23 + 30 = 53 n.
3 50.28
Fnet2 = Fnet,x2 + Fnet,y2 n 44
°
0
Fnet2 = 442 + 532 . 50 n
cos
28° 2
Fnet = 69 n. n 3
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solid friction
•Recall that friction acts opposite to the intended
direction of motion, and parallel to the contact
surface.
•Suppose we begin to pull a crate to the right,
with gradually increasing force.
•We plot the applied force, and the friction force,
as functions of time:
tensi static dynamic
on
fricti frictio friction
on
n
T
f
Tim
F
stati e
dynamic
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solid friction Fs,ma
•During the static phase,x
tensi
the static frictionFforce on
fricti
Fs exactly dmatches the on
applied (tension) force.
Tim
•Fs increases linearly until F static dynamic
e
it reaches a maximumo value Fs,max.
r
•The friction force then almost c instantaneously
decreases to a constant value e Fd, called the
dynamic friction force.
•Take note of the following general properties of
the friction force:
0 ≤ Fs ≤ Fd < Fd = a
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solid friction
•So, what exactly causes friction?
•People in the manufacturing sector who work
with metals know that the more you smoothen
and polish two metal surfaces, the more strongly
they stick together if brought in contact.
•In fact, if suitably polished in a vacuum,
they will stick so hard that they
cannot be separated.
•We say that the two pieces of metal
have been cold-welded.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solid friction
•At the atomic level, when two surfaces come
into contact, small peaks on one surface cold
weld with small peaks on the other surface.
surfac
•Applying the initial sideways force, all e 1
of the cold welds oppose the
motion.
surfac
surfac
•If the force is sufficiently large, the cold
ee11
welds break, and new peakssurfaccontact
e2
each other and coldcold
weld.
welds
•If the surfaces remain in relative
sliding motion, fewer welds have a
chance to form.
•We define the unitless constant, called the
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Describing solid friction by coefficients of friction
•Since there are two types of friction, static and
dynamic, every pair of materials will have two
coefficients of friction, μs and μd.
•In addition to the "roughness" or "smoothness"
of the materials, the friction force depends, not
surprisingly, on the normal force R.
•The harder the two surfaces are squished
together (this is what the normal force
measures) the more cold welds can form.
•Here are the relationships between the friction
force Ff, the coefficients of friction μ, and the
normal force R:
Ff ≤ μs R static Ff = μd R dynamic friction
 A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces yR
and Momentum F
f x
Describing solid friction by coefficients of friction
EXAMPLE: A piece of wood with a coin on it is m 15
raised on one end until the coin just FBD,g °
coin
begins to slip. The angle the
wood makes with the horizontal is θ
= 15°. What is the θ=
coefficient of static friction?
∑Fy = 0 ∑Fx = 0 15°
•Thus the coefficient of static friction between
R – mg cos 15° Ff – mg sin 15°
the metal R of =
the
mgcoin
cosand the wood ofFthe plank
f = mg sin
=0 =0
is 0.268. 15° 15°
Ff = μs μs mg sin = tan
N = μs mg cos
mg sin 15° = 15° 15°
mg cos =
15° 0.268
15°
 A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces yR
and Momentum F
f x
Describing solid friction by coefficients of friction
EXAMPLE: Now suppose the plank of wood ism 12
g
long enough so that you can lower it FBD, °
to coin
the point that the coin keeps slipping, but
no longer accelerates (a = 0). If this new angle
is 12°, what is the coefficient of dynamic
friction? θ=
•Thus the∑Fycoefficient
=0 ∑Fx = 0
of dynamic friction 12°
R between 12° metal of theFfcoin
– mg cos the – mgand
sin the
12° wood of
=the
0 plank is R= mg cos
0.213. =0 Ff = mg sin
12°
Fd = μd 12°
⇒ μd = tan =
mg sin 12°
R = μd mg cos
12° 0.213
12°
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Newton’s laws of motion – The first law
•Newton’s first law is related to certain studies
made by Galileo Galilee which contradicted
Aristotelian tenets.
•Aristotle basically said “The natural state of
FALSE
motion of all objects (but the heavenly ones) is
one of rest.”
•A child will learn that if you stop pushing a
wagon, the wagon will eventually stop moving.
•This simple observation will lead the child to
come up with a force law that looks
something like this: FALSE
“In order for a body to be in motion, there must
be a force acting on it.”
 Inertia will
A: Space, time and motionA2
only change - Forces
and Momentum if there is a
force.
Newton’s laws of motion – The first law
•Here’s how Galileo (1564-1642) thought:
•If I give a cart a push on a smooth, level
surface, it will eventually stop.
•What can I do to increase the distance it rolls
without pushing it harder or changing the slope?
•If I can minimize the friction, it’ll go farther.
•In fact, he reasoned, if I eliminate the friction
altogether the cart will roll forever!
•Galileo called the tendency of an object to not
change its state of motion inertia.
 A body’s
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
velocity will only
change if there
and Momentum is a net force
acting on it.
Describing the consequences of Newton’s first
law for translational equilibrium
•Newton’s first law is drawn from his concept of
net force and Galileo’s concept of inertia.
•Newton’s first law says that the velocity of an
object will not change if there is no net force
acting on it. v=
0
•In his words...“Every body continues in its state
v=
of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line,
CONST
unless it is compelled to change that state Σ by
forces impressed thereon.” F
•In symbols...
If ΣF = 0, then v = Newton’s first
•ΣF = 0 is the CONST.
condition for translational
law
equilibrium.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Translational equilibrium
•As a memorable demonstration of inertia –
matter’s tendency to not change its state of
motion (or its state of rest) - consider this:
•A water balloon is cut very rapidly with a knife.
•For an instant the water remains at rest!
•Don’t try this at home, kids.
 3 4 T
T0° 5°
A: Space, time and motionA2 - 1Forces T2
and Momentum kno m 3
t
Translational equilibrium
EXAMPLE: An object of mass m is hanging via
three cords as shown. Find the tension T
in each of the three cords, in 3

terms of m.
SOLUTION: m
Give each tension a name to organize your FBD, g
effort. m
Draw a free body diagram of the mass and T T
the knot. 1
3 42
T3 is the easiest force to find. Why? 5°
0°
Since m is not moving, its FBD tells us that T
ΣFy = 0 or T3 – mg = 0 or T3 = mg FBD,
. 3
 3 4 T
T0° 5°
A: Space, time and motionA2 - 1Forces T2
and Momentum kno m 3
t
Translational equilibrium
EXAMPLE: An object of mass m is hanging via
three cords as shown. Find the tension in T
each of the three cords, in terms of 3
m.
SOLUTION: T3 = mg m
Now we break T1 and T2 down to components. g
FBD,
m
Looking at the FBD of the knot we see that
T1x = T1 cos 30° = 0.866T1 T T
T1y = T1 sin 30° = 0.500T1 1
3 42
T2x = T2 cos 45° = 0.707T2 0° 5°
T
T2y = T2 sin 45° = 0.707T2
FBD,3
 3 4 T
T0° 5°
A: Space, time and motionA2 - 1Forces T2
and Momentum kno m 3
t
Translational equilibrium
EXAMPLE: An object of mass m is hanging via
three cords as shown. Find the tension in T
each of the three cords, in 3

terms of m.
SOLUTION: T∑F
3 =x mg
=0 m
0.707T2 - 0.866T1 = FBD,g
0 T2 = 1.225T1 m
∑Fy = 0
0.707T2 + 0.500T1 - T3 = 0 T T
0.707(1.225T1) + 0.500T1 = T3 1
3 42
T1 = mg / 0° 5°
1.366 T
T2 = 1.225(mg /
1.366)
T2 = 0.897mg FBD, 3
 3 4 T
T0° 5°
A: Space, time and motionA2 - 1Forces T2
and Momentum kno m3
t
Solving problems involving forces and resultant
force
PRACTICE: A 25-kg mass is hanging via three
cords as shown. Find the tension in each of the
three cords, in Newtons.
SOLUTION:
Since all of the angles are the same use the
formulas we just derived:
T3 = mg = 25(10) = 250 n
T1 = mg / 1.366 = 25(10) / 1.366 = 180 n
T2 = 0.897mg = 0.897(25)(10) = 220 n
FYI •This was an example of using Newton’s
first law with v = 0. The next example shows
how to use Newton’s first law when v is
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving problems involving forces and resultant
force
EXAMPLE: A 1000-kg airplane is flying at a
constant velocity of 125 m s-1. Label and
determine the value of the weight W, the lift L,
the drag D and the thrust F if the
L drag is 25000
N.
SOLUTION: D F
Since the velocity is constant,W
Newton’s first law applies. Thus ΣFx =
0 and ΣFy = 0.
W = mg = 1000(10) = 10000 N (down).
•Since ΣFy = 0, L - W = 0, so L = W = 10000 N
(up).
 a = Fnet /
A: Space, time and motionA2
m - Forces
and Momentum
Newton’s laws of motion – The second law
•Newton reasoned: “If the sum of the forces is
not zero, the velocity will change.”
•Newton knew (as we also know) that a change
in velocity is an acceleration.
•So Newton then asked himself: “How is the sum
of the forces related to the acceleration?”
•Here is what Newton said: “The acceleration of
an object is proportional to the net force acting
on it, and inversely proportional to its mass.”
•The bigger the force the bigger the
acceleration, and the bigger the mass the
smaller the acceleration.
Fnet = ma (or ΣF = Newton’s second
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Newton’s laws of motion – The second law
•Looking at the
Fnet = ma (or form
ΣF = ΣF = maNewton’s
note thatsecond
ma )if a = 0, then ΣF = law
0.
•But if a = 0, then v = CONST.
•Thus Newton’s first law is just a special case of
his second – namely, when the acceleration is
zero.

FYI
•The condition a = 0 can is thus the condition
for translational equilibrium, just as ΣF = 0
is.
•Finally, if you take a physics course and you
can’t use notes, memorize the more general
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Newton’s laws of motion – The second law
Fnet = ma (or ΣF = Newton’s second
ma ) law
EXAMPLE: An object has a mass of 25 kg. A
tension of 50 n and a friction force of 30Rn are
acting on it as shown. What is its
acceleration? 50
F T
SOLUTION: n
f 30
The vertical forces W and R
cancel out. n W
The net force is thus
Fnet = 50 – 30 = 20 n (+x-dir).
From Fnet = ma we get 20 = 25 a so that
-2
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Newton’s laws of motion – The second law
Fnet = ma (or ΣF = Newton’s second
ma ) law
PRACTICE: Use F = ma to show that the formula
for weight is correct.
SOLUTION:
F = ma.
But F is the weight W.
And a is the freefall acceleration g.
Thus F = ma becomes W = mg.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Newton’s laws of motion – The second law
Fnet = ma (or ΣF = Newton’s second
ma ) law
EXAMPLE: A 1000-kg airplane is flying in
perfectly level flight. The drag D is 25000 n and
the thrust F is 40000 n. Find its acceleration.
L
SOLUTION:
Since the flight is level, ΣFy = 0.
D F
•ΣFx = F – D = 40000 – 25000 = 15000 n = Fnet.
W
•From Fnet = ma we get 15000 = 1000a, or
a = 15000 / 1000 = 15 m s-2.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving problems involving forces and resultant
force
EXAMPLE: A 25-kg object has exactly two forces
F1 = 40. n and F2 = 30. n applied simultaneously
F2
to it. What is the object’s acceleration?
SOLUTION:
Resolve F1 into its components: F1
Then Fnet,x = 36 n and 4025
Fnet,y = 17 + 30 = 47 n. Then 3 n36 °
Fnet2 = Fnet,x2 + Fnet,y2 0 40ncos 1
Fnet2 = 362 + 472 and Fnet = n5925° 7
n. n 4
Then from Fnet = ma we get 59 = 0
25a, or si
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving problems involving forces and resultant
force
EXAMPLE: A 25-kg object resting
R
on a frictionless incline is released,
6
as shown. What is its.
acceleration? 60
°0 30
SOLUTION: mg cos
mg
30° sin 30m °
•Begin with a FBD. ° m
30° g
•Break down the weight into its components.
•Since R and mg cos 30°are perpendicular to the
path of the crate they do NOT contribute to its
acceleration.
•Thus Fnet = ma
mg sin 30° = ma
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving problems involving forces and resultant
force
EXAMPLE: A 25-kg object resting u =
0
on a frictionless incline is released,a=5
6
as shown. What is its speed
m s-2 at
the bottom? .s
0 v=
SOLUTION: 30 ?
•We found that its acceleration is 5.0 m s-2. °
m
•We will use v = u + 2as to find v, so we
2 2

need s.
•We have opposite and we want hypotenuse s
so from trigonometry, we use sin θ = opp /
hyp.
•Thus s = hyp = opp / sin θ = 6 / sin 30° = 12
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving problems involving forces and resultant
force
EXAMPLE: A 100.-n crate is to be y
dragged across the floor by an applied R F
force F = 60 n, as shown. F The 3
coefficients of staticf and x
0°
dynamic friction are 0.75 and a
0.60, respectively. What is m
the acceleration of the crate? FBD, g
crate
SOLUTION:
•Static frictionFwill oppose the applied force until
it is overcome.
N FYI •Since friction is
30 proportional to the normal
° a force, be aware of problems
F
where an applied force changes
f m
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving problems involving forces and resultant
force
SOLUTION: y
R F
•Determine if the crate even moves.
•Thus, find the maximum value of the F 3
static friction, and compare itf to the 0° x
horizontal applied force: a
m
FH = F cos 30°= 60 cos = 51.96 gcrate
•The maximum30° n. force is
static friction FBD,
Fs,max = μs =
R
•The normal force0.75R
is found from...
R + F sin 30° - mg = 0
R + 60 sin 30° - 100 = 0 R =
Fs,max = 0.75(70) = 70
•Thus the crate 52.5
willNnot even begin to move!
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving problems involving forces and resultant
force
EXAMPLE: If someone gives the crate a y
small push (of how much?) it will R F
“break” loose. WhatFwill its
3
acceleration be then? x
f
0°
•The horizontal applied force is
SOLUTION: a
still F cos 30°= 60 cos m
= 51.96
•The dynamic friction
30° forcen.
is FBD, g
crate
Fd = μd R = 0.60R.
•The reaction force is still R = 70.
n.
•Thus Fd = 0.60(70) = 42 n.
•The crate will accelerate.
F cos 30° - Fd = ma
51.96 - 42 = (100 /
10)a a = 0.996
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Newton’s laws of motion – The third law
•In words “For every action force there is an
equal and opposite reaction force.”
•In symbols
the
•InFAB = big
- picture, if every forceNewton’s
in the universe
third
hasFBAa reaction
FAB isforce that ison
the force equal
bodyand
A byopposite,
lawbody B.
the sum of allFthe forces in the whole universe is
BA is the force on body B by body
zero! A.

FYI •So why are there accelerations all around

us?
•Because each force of the action-reaction pair
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Identifying force pairs in context of Newton’s
third law When you push on a
EXAMPLE:
door with 10 n, the door pushes
you back with exactly the same t
your
h
10 n, but in the opposite action
e
direction. Why does the door
move, and not you? FB FA
SOLUTION: •Even though the dA B
o
forces are equal and opposite, B
o
A A
they are acting on different r
Each body acts in response only to the force
bodies. ’
acting on it.
s
The door CAN’T resist FAB, but you CAN resist
r
FBA. e
a
 FB
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum E

Identifying force pairs in context of Newton’s

third law NB
EXAMPLE: T
Consider a baseball resting on a
tabletop. Discuss each of the NT
forces acting on the baseball, B
and the associated reaction
force. FEB
SOLUTION:
Acting on the ball is its weight
FBE that
•Note priorFto contact with the
BE (the weight force) and NBT (the
table.force) are acting on the ball.
normal
NTB (the normal force) acts on the table.
FEB (the weight force) acts on the earth.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Identifying force pairs in context of Newton’s
third law
•We define a system as a collection of more
than one body,
EXAMPLE: Threemutually interacting
billiard balls with on
interacting each
a
other.
pool table constitute a system.
•The action-reaction force pairs between the
balls are called internal forces.
•For any system, all internal forces always
cancel!
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Identifying force pairs in context of Newton’s
third law
•We define a system as a collection of more
than one body,
EXAMPLE: Threemutually
collidinginteracting with
billiard balls each
constitute
other.a system. Discuss all of the internal forces.
•The internal force pairs only exist while the
balls are in contact with one another.
•Note that a blue force and a red force act on
the white ball. The white ball responds only to
those two forces.
•Note that a single white force acts on the red
ball. The red ball responds only to that single
force.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Identifying force pairs in context of Newton’s
third law
•We define a system as a collection of more
than one body,
EXAMPLE: Threemutually interacting
billiard balls with on
interacting each
a
other.
pool table constitute a system. Describe the
external forces.
•External forces are the forces that the balls
feel from external origins (not each other).
•For billiard balls, these forces are the balls’
weights, their reaction forces, the cushion
forces, and the cue stick forces.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Newton’s second law in terms of momentum
•Linear momentum, p, is defined to be the
product of an object’s mass m with its velocity v.
p units
•Its = mvare obtained directly linear
from the formula
momentum
and are kg m s-1.

EXAMPLE: What is the linear

momentum of a 4.0-gram NATO SS
109 bullet traveling at 950 m/s?
SOLUTION:
Convert grams to kg (jump 3
decimal places left) to get m
= .004 kg.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Newton’s second law in terms of momentum
•Fp
net =
= mv
ma = m (Δv / Δt ) = ( mlinear
Δv ) /momentum
Δt = Δp /
Δt.
This last is just Newton’s second law in terms
of change in momentum rather than mass and
acceleration.
Fnet = Δp / Δt Newton’s second law (p-
form)
EXAMPLE: A 6-kg object increases its speed from
5 m s-1 to 25 m s-1 in 30 s. What is the net force
acting on it?
SOLUTION:
Fnet = Δp / Δt = m( v – u ) / Δt
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Kinetic energy in terms of momentum
p = mv linear momentum
EK = (1/2)mv kinetic energy
2

EXAMPLE: Show that kinetic energy can be

calculated directly from the momentum using
the
EK following:
= p2 / kinetic energy
(2m)
SOLUTION:
•From p = mv we obtain v = p / m. Then
EK = (1/2) mv 2
= (1/2) m (p / m)2
= mp 2 / (2m2)
= p 2 / (2m)
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Kinetic energy in terms of momentum
EK = p 2 / kinetic energy
(2m)
PRACTICE: What is the kinetic
energy of a 4.0-gram NATO SS 109
bullet traveling at 950 m/s and
having a momentum of
3.8 kg m s-1?
SOLUTION: You can work from
scratch using EK = (1/2)mv 2 or you
can use EK = p 2 / (2m).
•Let’s use the new formula…
EK = p 2 / (2m)
= 3.8 2 / (2×0.004)
 A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Collisions FYI
•Consider two colliding pool balls… •A system
boundary is
the “area of
interest”
“Before” used by
system physicists in
phase
bounda the study of
ry
“During” complex
system processes.
phase
bounda •A closed
ry
“After” system has
system phase no work done
bounda on its parts
 A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Collisions
•If we take a close-up look at a collision between
two bodies, we can plot the force acting on each
mass during the collision vs. the time :
vAi vBi “Before
A B ” phase F
Duri
Befor ng Aft
FAB FBA e er
A B
t
“During
FAB A B FBA
” phase
FAB FBA FYI
A B
•Note the perfect
vAf vBf “After” symmetry of the
A B
phase action-reaction force
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Impulse and force – time graphs
•Although the force varies
with time, we can simplify it
by “averaging it out” as F
follows: t
•Imagine an ant farm (two F ∆t
sheets of glass with sand
o in
between) filled with
r the sand in the
shape of the above force curve:
c
•We now let the sand level itself
e out (by tapping
or shaking the ant farm):
•The area of the rectangle is the same as the
area under the original force vs. time curve.
•The average force F is the height of this
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Impulse and force – time graphs
•We define a new quantity F
called impulse J as the t
averageF force times∆t the
time. o
t
•This amounts to the area r
under the forcecvs. time graph.
J = F ∆t F F vs. t
area under impulse
e
graphF = Δp / Δt we see that
•Since o F ∆t = Δp and so
we can interpret the impulser as the change in
momentum of the object during
c the collision.
J = F ∆t = Δp = area undere F vs. t impulse
graph
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Impulse and force – time graphs
•ItJ is
=well
F ∆t to
= point
Δp = out
areahere
under F vs. t impulse
graph that during a collision there
are two
F objects interacting
with one t
another.
•Because of Newton’s thirdF
law, the forces are equal but opposite so
that F = - F.
•Thus for one object, the area (impulse or
momentum change) is positive, while for the
other object the area (impulse or momentum
change)
FYI is negative.
•Thus impulse can be positive or negative.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Impulse and force – time graphs
EXAMPLE: A 0.140-kg baseball comes in at 40.0
m/s, strikes the bat, and goes back out at 50.0
m/s. If the collision lasts 1.20 ms (a typical
value), find the impulse imparted to the ball
from the bat during the collision.
SOLUTION: v 0 = -
40 m
•We can use J = Δp: s
p -1
0 = -
40( 0.14
J = p f – p0 Befo )
p 0 = -
5.6 kg m
re s -1
vf = +50
= 7 – 5.6
-

= 12.6 Ns. m/s

p f =
After p50(
+
f = 0.14
+
7 kg)m s-1

FYI •The units for impulse can also be kg m s-1.

A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Impulse and force – time graphs
EXAMPLE: A 0.140-kg baseball comes in at 40.0
m/s, strikes the bat, and goes back out at 50.0
m/s. If the collision lasts 1.20 ms (a typical
value), find the average force exerted on the
ball during the collision.
SOLUTION: We can use J = F Δt. Thus Fmax
F = J / Δt
F
= 12.6 / 1.20×10-3
= 10500 N.
FYI
•Since a Newton is about a quarter-pound, F is
about 10500 / 4 = 2626 pounds – more than a
ton of force!
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Sketching and interpreting force – time graphs
J = F ∆t = Δp = area under F vs. t impulse
graph
PRACTICE: A bat striking a ball imparts a force to
it as shown in the graph. Find the impulse.
SOLUTION:
Break the graph into simple areas of
rectangles and triangles. 9
A1 = (1/2)(3)(9) = 13.5 N s
6
A2 = (4)(9) = 36 N s
A3 = (1/2)(3)(9) = 13.5 N s 3
Atot = A1 + A2 + A3 0
0 5 1
Atot = 13.5 + 36 + 13.5 = 63 N s. Time t/ 0
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
•Recall Newton’s second law (p-form):
Fnet = Δp / Δt
•If the net force actingNewton’s second
on an object law we
is zero, (p-
have form)
Fnet = Δp / Δt
0 = Δp / Δt
0 = Δp
•In words, if the net force is zero, then the
momentum does not change – p is constant.
If Fnet = 0 then p = conservation of
CONST linear
momentum
FYI •If during a process a physical quantity
does not change, that quantity is said to be
 The
internal
A: Space, time and motionA2 forces
- Forces
and Momentum cancel
Conservation of linear momentum
•Recall that a system is a collection of more than
one body, mutually interacting with each other –
for example, colliding billiard balls:
•Note that Fnet = ΣFexternal + ΣFinternal.
•But Newton’s third law guarantees that ΣFinternal
= 0.
•Thus we can refine the conservation of
momentum:

If Fext = 0 then p = conservation of

CONST linear
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
If Fext = 0 then p = conservation of
CONST linear
momentum
EXAMPLE: A 2500-kg gondola car
traveling at 3.0 ms-1 has 1500-kg
of sand dropped into it
as it travels
by. Find the initial momentum of
the system.
SOLUTION: The system consists of sand and car:
p0,car = mcar v0,car = 2500(3) = 7500 kgms-1.
p0,sand = msandv0,sand = 1500(0) = 0 kgms-1.
-1
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
If Fext = 0 then p = conservation of
CONST linear
momentum
EXAMPLE: A 2500-kg gondola car
traveling at 3.0 ms-1 has 1500-kg
of sand dropped into it
as it travels
by. Find the final speed of
the system.
SOLUTION: The initial and final momentums are
equal:
p0 = 7500 kgms-1 = pf.
pf = (msand + mcar) vf = (2500 + 1500) vf =
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
If Fext = 0 then p = conservation of
CONST linear
momentum
EXAMPLE: A 2500-kg gondola car
traveling at 3.0 ms-1 has 1500-kg
of sand dropped into it
as it travels
by. If the dump lasts 4.5 s, what is
the average force on the car?
SOLUTION: Use Fnet = Δp / Δt:
p0 = 7500 kgms-1 = pf.
pf = (msand + mcar) vf = (2500 + 1500) vf =
4000 vf.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
If Fext = 0 then p = conservation of
CONST linear
momentum
EXAMPLE: A 12-kg block of ice is struck by a
hammer so that it breaks into two pieces. The
4.0-kg piece travels travels at +16 m s-1 in the x-
direction. What is the velocity of the other
piece? 8 4
SOLUTION: Make before/after sketches!
The initial momentum of the two is 0. v 8 4 1
From p = CONST we have p0 = pf. 6
Since p = mv, we see that
(8 + 4)(0) = 8v + 4(16) → v = -8.0 m s-1.
 befo aft
re2 0 er v
A: Space, time and motionA2 5 - Forces f
73 180 730
and Momentum 0 0 +1800
Conservation of linear momentum
If Fext = 0 then p = conservation of
CONST linear
momentum
EXAMPLE: A 730-kg Smart Car traveling at 25 m
s-1 (x-dir) collides with a stationary 1800-kg
Dodge Charger. The two vehicles stick together.
Find their velocity immediately after the
collision.
SOLUTION: Make sketches!
p0 = pf so that (730)(25) + 1800(0) = (730 +
1800) vf.
18250 = 2530 vf → vf = 18250 / 2530 = 7.2 m
s-1.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
If Fext = 0 then p = conservation of
CONST linear
momentum
EXAMPLE: A loaded Glock-22,
having a mass of 975 g, fires
a 9.15-g bullet with a muzzle
velocity of 300 ms -1.
Find the gun’s recoil velocity.
SOLUTION: Use p0 = pf. Then
p0 = pGlock,f + pbullet,f
975(0) = (975 – 9.15)v + (9.15)(-
300)
0 = 965.85 v – 2745
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
If Fext = 0 then p = conservation of
CONST linear
momentum
EXAMPLE: A loaded Glock-22,
having a mass of 975 g, fires
a 9.15-g bullet with a muzzle
velocity of 300 ms -1.
Find the change in kinetic energy
of the gun/bullet system.
SOLUTION: Use EK = (1/2)mv 2 so EK0 = 0 J. Then
EKf = (1/2)(0.975 – 0.00915)2.842 + (1/2)
(0.00915)3002
= 416 J.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
If Fext = 0 then p = conservation of
CONST linear
EXAMPLE: Fmomentum
How do the ailerons on a plane’s
wing cause it to roll?
SOLUTION: F
•Note that the ailerons oppose each other.
•In this picture the right aileron deflects air
downward.
•Conserving momentum, the right wing dips
upward.
•In this picture the left aileron deflects air
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Comparing elastic collisions and inelastic
collisions
•In an elastic collision, kinetic energy is
conserved (it does not change). Thus EK,f = EK,0.
EXAMPLE:
Two billiard balls colliding in such a way that the
speeds of the balls in the system remain
unchanged.
•The red ball has the same speed as the white
ball…
•Both balls have same speeds both before and
after…
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Comparing elastic collisions and inelastic
collisions
•In an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is not
conserved (it does change). Thus EK,f ≠ EK,0.
EXAMPLE:
A baseball and a hard wall colliding in such a
way that the speed of the ball changes.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Comparing elastic collisions and inelastic
collisions
•In a completely inelastic collision the
colliding bodies stick together and end up with
the same velocities, but different from the
EXAMPLE:
originals. EK,f ≠ EK,0.
Two objects colliding and sticking together.
•The train cars hitch and move as one body…
u v u v
•The1 cars collide and move
2 (at first) as one
body…
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Comparing elastic collisions and inelastic
collisions
• An explosion is similar to a completely inelastic
collision in that the bodies were originally stuck
together and began with the same velocities. EK,f
EXAMPLE:
≠ EK,0.
Objects at rest suddenly separating into two
pieces.
•A block of ice broken in two by a hammer
stroke…
•A bullet leaving a gun
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
If Fext = 0 then p = conservation of
CONST linear
momentum
EXAMPLE: Two train cars having equal masses of
750 kg and velocities u1 = 10. m s-1 and u2 = 5.0
m s-1 collide and hitch together. What is their
final speed?
u
SOLUTION: v
Use momentumu v
conservation p0 = pf .
Then 1 2

p1,0 + p2,0 = p1,f + p2,f

mu1 + mu2 = mv + mv
m(u1 + u2) = 2mv
10 + 5 = 2v → v = 7.5 m s-1.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
If Fext = 0 then p = conservation of
CONST linear
momentum
EXAMPLE: Two train cars having equal masses of
750 kg and velocities u1 = 10. m s-1 and u2 = 5.0
m s-1 collide and hitch together. Find the change
in kinetic energy.
u
SOLUTION: Use EKv= (1/2)u mvv2. Then
EK,f = (1/2) (m + m) 2v 2
1

= (1/2) (750 + 750) 7.5 2 = 42187.5 J.

EK,0 = (1/2) (750) 10 2 + (1/2) (750) 5 2 =
46875 J.
ΔEK = EK,f – EK,0 = 42187.5 – 46875 = - 4700
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
If Fext = 0 then p = conservation of
CONST linear
momentum
EXAMPLE: Two train cars having equal masses of
750 kg and velocities u1 = 10. m s-1 and u2 = 5.0
m s-1 collide and hitch together. Determine the
type of collision.
u
SOLUTION: v u v
•Since
1 EK,f ≠ EK,0, this is an
2 inelastic collision.
•Since the two objects travel as one (they are
stuck together) this is also a completely
inelastic collision.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
If Fext = 0 then p = conservation of
CONST linear
momentum
EXAMPLE: Two train cars having equal masses of
750 kg and velocities u1 = 10. m s-1 and u2 = 5.0
m s-1 collide and hitch together. Was mechanical
energy conserved?
u
SOLUTION: v u v
•Mechanical
1 energy E =2EK + EP.
•Since the potential energy remained constant
and the kinetic energy decreased, the
mechanical energy was not conserved.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
If Fext = 0 then p = conservation of
CONST linear
momentum
EXAMPLE: Two train cars having equal masses of
750 kg and velocities u1 = 10. m s-1 and u2 = 5.0
m s-1 collide and hitch together. Was total energy
conserved?
u
SOLUTION: v u v
1 energy is always conserved.
•Total 2

•The loss in mechanical energy is ΔEK = - 4700 J.

•The energy lost is mostly converted to heat
(there is some sound, and possibly light, but
very little).
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
EXAMPLE: Suppose a .020-kg bullet traveling
horizontally at 300. m/s strikes a 4.0-kg block of
wood resting on a wood floor. How fast is the
block/bullet combo moving immediately after
collision?
SOLUTION:
•If we consider the bullet-block combo as our
system, there are no external forces in the x-
direction at collision. Thus pf = the
p0 so that and the
bullet
mvf + MVf = mvi + MVi block move at the
.02v + 4 v = (.02)(300) + 4(0) same speed after
collision
4.02v = 6
(completely
 f
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum s
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
EXAMPLE: Suppose a .020-kg bullet traveling
horizontally at 300. m/s strikes a 4.0-kg block of
wood resting on a wood floor. The block/bullet
combo slides 6 m before coming to a stop. Find
the friction f between the block and the floor.
SOLUTION: Use the work-kinetic energy
theorem:
∆EK = W
(1/2)mv 2 – (1/2)mu 2 = f s cos θ
(1/2)(4.02)(0)2 – (1/2)(4.02)(1.5)2 = f (6) cos
180°
- 4.5225 = - 6f
 f
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum s
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
EXAMPLE: Suppose a .020-kg bullet traveling
horizontally at 300. m/s strikes a 4.0-kg block of
wood resting on a wood floor. The block/bullet
combo slides 6 m before coming to a stop. Find
the dynamic friction coefficient µd between the
block and the floor. R
SOLUTION: Use f = µdR:
•Make a free-body diagram to f
find R: W
•Note that R = W = mg
= (4.00 + 0.020)(10) = 40.2 N.
•Thus
 F s
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
EXAMPLE: Suppose a .020-kg bullet traveling
horizontally at 300. m/s strikes a 4.0-kg block of
wood resting on a wood floor. If the bullet
penetrates .060 m of the block, find the average
force F acting on it during its collision.
SOLUTION: Use the work-kinetic energy theorem
on only the bullet:
∆EK = W
(1/2)mv 2 – (1/2)mu 2 = F s cos θ
(1/2)(.02)(1.5)2 – (1/2)(.02)(300)2 = - F (.06)
- 900 = - 0.06F
F = 15000 n.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Angular displacement and arc length
•Consider the rotating arm which θ
has 6 paint cans along its radius. s
s
•Each can has a spout that is s
opened for exactly a quarter s
of a revolution. s
•We call θ the angular
displacement.
•All 6 color trails represent the
same angular displacements of 90˚.
•Each color traces out a different displacement
s.
•We call s the arc length.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Angular displacement and arc length
•At this point it is useful to define a new way to
measure angles – called radians.
π rad = 180° = 1/ 2 radian-degree-revolution
•Looking
2π rad =
rev at360°
the above conversions
= 1 rev we see that
conversions
there are 2π rad in 360˚.

EXAMPLE:
Convert 30° into radians (rad) and convert 1.75
rad to degrees.
SOLUTION:
• 30°( π rad / 180° ) = 0.52 rad.
• 1.75 rad ( 180° / π rad ) = 100°.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Angular displacement and arc length
π rad = 180° = 1/ 2 radian-degree-revolution
•The
2π relationship
rad
rev = 360° =between
1 rev angular displacement
conversions
θ and arc length s is
where r is the radius.
s=r θ θ in radians relation between s
and θ
EXAMPLE: Suppose the red line is located
at a radius of 1.50 m and the green line is
located at 1.25 m. Find their
lengths.
SOLUTION: 90°( π rad / 180°) = 1.57 rad.
•s = r θ = 1.50×1.57 = 2.4 m.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Angular speed and speed
s = rarc
•The θ lengthθ ins radians
is simply the displacement
relation between we
s
learned about in Topic 2, and is theand s that
θ is in s
= ut + (1/2) at 2.
•Because speed is v = s / t, we see that
v = s / t (definition of speed)
= ( r θ ) / t (substitution)
= r ( θ / t ) (associative property)
=r ω (define ω ≡ θ / t )
•Thus
•We call ω the angular -speed.
v = r ω ω = θ / t (rad s relation between v
1
) and ω
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Angular speed and speed
v = r ω ω = θ / t (rad s- relation between v
1
) and ω
EXAMPLE: Consider the following point mass
moving at a constant speed v in a circle of
radius r as shown. v
Find … r
(a) the period T of the point mass, and

(b) the frequency f of the point mass, and

(c) the angular speed ω of the point mass.
SOLUTION: We need a time piece.
•For one revolution the period is T = 12 s.
•Frequency f = 1 / T = 1 / 12 = 0.083 s.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Angular speed and speed
v = r ω ω = θ / t (rad s- relation between v
1
) and ω
EXAMPLE: Find the angular speed of the second
hand on a clock. Then find the speed
of the tip of the hand if it is 18.0 cm
long.
SOLUTION: A second hand turns 2π rad each 60
s.
•Thus it has an angular speed given by
ω = 2π / T = 2π / 60 = 0.105 rad s-1.
•The speed of the tip is given by
FYI v = r ω depends
•Speed on length
= 0.180(0.105) or position
= 0.0189 ms-1.but
angular speed does not.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Angular speed and speed
v = r ω ω = θ / t (rad s- relation between v
1
) and ω
EXAMPLE: A car rounds a
90° turn in 6.0 seconds.
What is its angular speed
during the turn?
SOLUTION:
•Since ω needs radians we
begin by converting θ:
θ = 90°( π rad / 180° ) = 1.57 rad.
•Now we use
ω = θ / t = 1.57 / 6.0 = 0.26 rad s-1.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Centripetal force and acceleration
•What force must be applied to Helen to keep
her moving in a circle?
•How does it depend on the Helen’s radius r ?
•How does it depend
on Helen’s
r velocity v?
m •How does it depend
on Helen’s mass
v m?
On the next pass,
however, Helen
failed to clear the
mountains.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Centripetal force and acceleration
•A particle is said to be in uniform circular
motion if it travels in a circle (or arc) with
constant speed v.
•Observe that the velocity vector is always
tangent to the circle.
v red
•Note that the magnitude of the velocity vector r
is NOT changing. y blue
v
•Note that the direction of the velocity
vector IS changing. r
•Thus, there is an acceleration, even
though the speed is not changing! x
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Centripetal force and acceleration
•To find the direction of the acceleration (a =
Δv / Δt ) we observe two nearby snapshots of
the particle:
•The direction of the acceleration is gotten from
Δv = v2 – v1 = v2 + (-v1):
v red
•The direction of the acceleration is toward the r
center of the circle - you must be yv to
able
v blue
sketch
- 2 this. 2
v
Δ v -
Δ
v v
1
v 1 v
1
1
x
FYI
•Centripetal means center-
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Centripetal force and acceleration
•How does centripetal acceleration ac depend on
r and v ?
•To explore this we define the centripetal force
Fc:Fc = mac centripetal force
•Picture yourself as the passenger in a
car that is rounding a left turn:
•The sharper the turn, the harder you
and your door push against each other.
(Small r = big Fc.)
The faster the turn, the harder you
and your door push against each other.
(Big v = big Fc.) F
c
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Centripetal force and acceleration
•We know the following things about ac:
•If v increases, ac increases.
v first guess
•If r increases, ac decreases. ac =
r formula
•From dimensional analysis
we have ? m/ ? 1
a = v ⇒ m
2 =
•What can wec dorto v or rsto “fix” =
s the units?
s
•This is the correct one! m
ac = v 2 / r centripetal acceleration
2 2 ?
ac = v2
⇒ m ?
= /s = m2
m
r s m s
2
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving centripetal acceleration and force
problems
Fc = mac centripetal force
ac = v 2 / r centripetal acceleration
EXAMPLE: A 730-kg Smart Car negotiates a 30.
m radius turn at 25. m s-1. What is its centripetal
acceleration and force? What force is causing
this acceleration?
SOLUTION:
ac = v2 / r = 252 / 30 = 21 m s-2.
Fc = mac = (730)(21) = 15000 n.
The centripetal force is caused by the friction
force between the tires and the pavement.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Period and frequency
•The period T is the time for one complete
revolution.
•The frequency f (measured in Hz or cycles / s)
is defined as how many cycles (oscillations,
repetitions, revolutions) occur each second.
•Since period T is seconds per revolution,
frequency
f = 1 / T must be1 1/ f/ T. relation between T and
or T =
f
EXAMPLE: Find the period and the frequency of a
day.
SOLUTION:
•The period is T = (24 h)(3600 s h-1) = 86400 s.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Period and centripetal acceleration
•Sometimes the period of a revolution is given,
rather than a velocity.
•One revolution is one circumference C = 2πr.
•Therefore v = distance / time = 2πr / T.
•Thus v 2 = 4π 2 r 2 / T 2 so that
ac = v 2 / r
= 4π 2 r 2 / T 2r
= 4π 2 r / T 2.
ac = v 2 / r centripetal
ac = 4π 2 r / acceleration
T2
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving centripetal acceleration and force
problems
ac = v 2 / r centripetal
ac = 4π 2 r / acceleration
T2
EXAMPLE: Albert the 2.50-kg physics cat is being
swung around by a string harness having a
radius of 3.00 meters. He takes 5.00 seconds to
complete one fun revolution. What are ac and Fc?
Albe
SOLUTION:
•ac = 4π 2 r / T 2 rt
= 4π 2 (3) / (5)2 = 4.74 m s-2. the
Fc = mac = (2.5)(4.74) = 11.9 n. Phys
•The tension is causing the centripetal ics
force, so the tension is Fc = 11.9 n.
Cat
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Banking
•Using control surfaces on the tail and the
main wings, planes can execute three
types of maneuver:
ROLL – Ailerons act in opposing directions
YAW – Tail rudder turns left or right
PITCH – Ailerons and horizontal stabilizer
act together

FYI
•It is the ROLL maneuver that
gives a plane a centripetal
force as we will see on the
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Banking
•As the plane banks (rolls), the lift vector
begins to have a horizontal
component.
•The centripetal force causes the plane
to begin traveling in a horizontal circle.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Banking
•Even though cars use friction,
roads are banked so that the
need for friction is reduced.
•Instead of a component of the LIFT
force providing a centripetal force,
a component of the NORMAL
force does so.

R FYI •A banked curve

can be designed so that
a car can make the turn
F even if it is perfectly
W
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Angular speed and centripetal acceleration
•Sometimes the angular speed of an object in
circular motion is given, rather than its velocity.
•From v = r ω we get v 2 = r 2 ω 2.
•From ac = v 2 / r we get
ac = r 2 ω 2 / r
ac = r ω 2.
•Putting it all together we have
ac = v 2 / r Fc = mv 2 / r ac and Fc
ac = 4π 2 r / T Fc = 4π 2 mr / T (all three
2 2
ac = r ω 2 Fc = m ω 2 r forms)
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Angular velocity
ω =speed
•As 2π / Twith a direction
= 2πf =θ is called
relation velocity,
between ω, T
/t
angular speed with a direction is and called
f angular
velocity.
•To assign a direction to a rotation we v
use a right hand rule as follows:
1. Rest the heel of your right hand on the
r
rotating object.
2. Make sure your fingers are curled

in the direction of rotation. ω

3. Your extended thumb points
FYI •Angular
velocity
in the direction of the always
angular
velocity. points
perpendicular to
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Angular velocity
ω = 2π / T = 2πf = θ relation between ω, T
/t and f
PRACTICE: Find the angular velocity
(in rad s-1) of the wheel on the shaft.
It is rotating at 30.0 rpm
(revolutions per
minute).
SOLUTION:
•The magnitude of ω is given by
ω = (30.0 rev / 60 s)(2π rad / rev)
= 3.14 rad s-1.
•The direction of ω is given by the right hand
rule:
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving centripetal acceleration and force
problems Suppose a 0.500-kg baseball is placed
EXAMPLE:
in a circular orbit around the earth at slightly
higher that the tallest point, Mount Everest
(8850 m). Given that the earth has a radius of RE
= 6400000 m, find the speed of the ball.
SOLUTION: The ball is traveling in a circle
of radius r = 6408850 m.
•Fc is caused by the weight of the ball so
that Fc = mg = (0.5)(10) = 5 n.
•Since Fc = mv 2 / r we have
5 = (0.5)v 2 / 6408850
v = 8000 m s-1!
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving centripetal acceleration and force
problems Suppose a 0.500-kg baseball is placed
EXAMPLE:
in a circular orbit around the earth at slightly
higher that the tallest point, Mount Everest
(8850 m). How long will it take the ball to return
to Everest?
SOLUTION: We want to find the period T.
•We know that v = 8000 m s-1.
•We also know that r = 6408850 m.
•Since v = 2πr / T we have
T = 2πr / v
T = 2π(6408850)/ 8000
= (5030 s)(1 h / 3600 s) = 1.40 h.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving centripetal acceleration and force
problems
PRACTICE: Find the angular speed of the minute
hand of a clock, and the rotation of
the earth in one day.
SOLUTION:
•The minute hand takes 1 hour to go around one
time. Thus
ω = 2π / T = 2π / 3600 s = 0.00175 rad s-1.
•The earth takes 24 h for each revolution so that
ω = 2π / T
= ( 2π / 24 h )( 1 h / 3600 s )
= 0.0000727 rad s-1.
•This small angular speed is why we can’t really
feel the earth as it spins.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving centripetal acceleration and force
problems The Foucault pendulum is
EXAMPLE:
a heavy pendulum on a very long
cable that is set in oscillation over a
round reference table. Explain
how it can be used to tell
time.
SOLUTION:
•The blue arcs represent the motion
of the pendulum bob relative to the
universe at large.
•The the green lines represent the
plane of motion of the pendulum
relative to the building.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving centripetal acceleration and force
problems The Foucault pendulum is
EXAMPLE:
a heavy pendulum on a very long
cable that is set in oscillation over a
round reference table. Explain
how it can be used to tell
time.
SOLUTION:
•Since the building is rotating with the earth at
ω = 0.0000727 rad s-1, each hour the green line
rotates by
θ = ωt = 0.0000727(3600)
FYI •This solution
= 0.262 only works
rad (360°/ when
2π rad) the
= 15.0°.
pendulum is at one of the poles. See the Wiki for
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving centripetal acceleration and force
problems

•Use F = kx (k = CONST).
•kx = FC = mv / r implies that as v increases, so does
2

the centripetal force FC needed to move it in a circle.

•Thus, x increases.
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
•Use v = r ω (ω =
and Momentum CONST).
•Use a = r ω 2 (ω =
CONST).and force
Solving centripetal acceleration
problems

•At P •At Q
r=R r = 2R
v = Rω v = 2Rω = 2v
a = R ω2 a = 2Rω 2 =
A: Space, time and motionA2 - Forces
and Momentum
Solving centripetal acceleration and force
problems

•Objects moving in uniform circular motion feel a

centripetal (center-seeking) force.