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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR HVDC GROUND ELECTRODE SYSTEM

Conference Paper · April 2020

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 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR HVDC GROUND ELECTRODE SYSTEM

S.K. Ray Mohapatra, Chief Engineer

([email protected])
Central Electricity Authority
R K Puram, New Delhi - 110066

SYNOPSIS
The phenomenal growth of Indian Power transmission system, which includes both HVAC & HVDC
system, has resulted in formation of one of the largest synchronous Grid in the world. Seven long
distance bulk power HVDC transmission links of 22.5GW capacity, four back-to-back interconnections
between regions of 3GW capacity are in operation. A unique combination of +/-800kV classical HVDC
link and +/-320kV VSC based HVDC link is under execution. India is also linked to neighboring
country, Bangladesh, through 400kV D/c link with HVDC back-to-back station (2x500MW) in
Bangladesh. The HVDC interconnection between New Madurai (India) and New Haberana (Sri Lanka)
is under discussion.

Many factors are involved in the design and operation of HVDC earthing systems, which determines
the influence of the DC grounding current on the nearby and far away environment. Either Dedicated
Metallic Return (DMR) conductors or HVDC electrode are being commonly used for HVDC system.
HVDC electrodes are in general less costly and have lower losses than DMR conductors. An appropriate
grounding system is required to provide a safe and reliable operation of the HVDC system. Selection
of site and design of Ground Electrode stations are very important for planning consideration for HVDC
system’s rating and its overload capability.
In the paper, important design considerations including the safety & environmental impact / interference
issues, material & layout of HVDC land electrode system have been discussed in brief.
Keywords: HVDC System, mono-polar operation, Land Electrode, Dedicated Metallic Return
(DMR), Voltage Source Converter (VSC), Step voltage and Touch voltage

1. INTRODUCTION

Indian Power system includes a vast power transmission network, which has been developed over the
years for evacuating power from generating stations and connecting the consumers for meeting load
demands. The phenomenal growth in transmission network includes HVAC & HVDC transmission
system and associated substations including HVDC terminal stations. At present Indian Power System
is operating as one of the largest single synchronous grids in the World with highest transmission system
voltage of 765kV AC and +/- 800kV DC. In coming years, huge generation capacity addition including
large scale integration of generation from renewable sources (i.e expected Installed Capacity: about
480GW by 2021-22), expansion of electricity market and exchange of Power between India &
neighbouring countries (Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Myanmar) would further require
commensurate expansion & strengthening of the associated Transmission & Distribution network.
Considering economic, ecological and technical benefits, long distance bulk power HVDC transmission
links have become optimum solution for connecting energy sources that are located far away from the
main users. The main advantages of HVDC transmission are that the power can be transferred between
separate AC networks and power flow can be controlled without the risk of a major power system
collapse.

Since the first commercial implementation in 1954 in Sweden, HVDC systems have become very
popular in modern power systems. The basic configuration of HVDC systems includes back-to-back,
mono-polar, bi-polar and multi-terminal systems. HVDC transmission is being widely recognized as
advantageous for long distance bulk power delivery, asynchronous interconnections (between areas
operating with different frequency regimes) and submarine cable crossings / underground cable
transmission. HVDC transmission may also be considered in transmission corridors that have AC links
carrying heavy power flows to control and supplement AC transmission network. Two basic converter
technologies are used in modern HVDC transmission systems. These are conventional Line-
Commutated Current Source Converters (CSC) using Thyristors and self-commutated Voltage Source
Converters (VSCs) using Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT). The break-even distance for
classical HVDC transmission is typically about 700 km.

A number of long distance HVDC systems are in operation world over at different voltage levels (up to
1000 kV). In India, seven long distance bulk power HVDC transmission links including one +/- 800kV
multi-terminal HVDC links of 15556 ckms (+/- 500kV: 9432ckms and +/-800kV: 6124ckms) &
22.5GW capacity and four back-to-back interconnections between regions of 3GWMW capacity are in
operation. A unique combination of +/-800kV classical HVDC link and +/-320kV VSC based HVDC
link is under execution. The main driving factor for such links is presence of large generation in few
regions of the country far away from major load centres. India is also linked to neighboring country,
Bangladesh, through Berhempur (WB) - Bheramara 400kV D/c line with HVDC back-to-back station
(2x500MW) at Bheramara in Bangladesh. The HVDC interconnection between New Madurai (India)
and New Haberana (Sri Lanka) is under discussion.

Many factors are involved in the design and operation of HVDC earthing systems, which determines
the influence of the DC grounding current on the nearby and far away environment. Either Dedicated
Metallic Return (DMR) conductors or HVDC electrode are being commonly used for HVDC system.
HVDC electrodes have traditionally been installed on HVDC transmission systems to provide a low
resistance current return path during both mono-polar and bipolar operation. Selection of site and design
of Ground Electrode stations are very important for planning consideration for HVDC system’s rating
and its overload capability.
In the paper, important design consideration including the safety & environmental impact / interference
issues, material & layout of HVDC land electrode system have been discussed in brief.
2. GROUNDING ELECTRODE FOR HVDC SYSTEM

The basic configuration of HVDC systems for long distance bulk power transfer includes mono-polar,
bipolar and multi-terminal operation. The bipolar configuration is the most common HVDC system in
which each converter station consists of two converters which are operating with opposite polarity with
respect to a common neutral point.
In this configuration, current flows from the positive pole of the rectifier through the line, inverter and
returns to the negative pole of the rectifier. When one pole or a pole converter is unavailable, there is
need for current path in order to transmit part of the power by the DC system as the other pole is still
able to operate with 50 % capacity. This can be done using ground path or metallic return, the former
being the most common option.

(a) General Layout (b) Under transmission line or (c) under converter outage
Converter outage (earth electrode or line
conductor can be used)

[Bipolar configuration]
 Grounding electrode for HVDC system

Unlike earthing electrodes of HVAC networks, which are designed mainly for fault conditions and
protection purposes, HVDC grounding systems are designed for normal operation of the system,
maintenance and fault conditions. Therefore, an appropriate grounding system is required to provide a
safe and reliable operation of the HVDC system. Many factors are involved in the design and operation
of HVDC earthing systems, which determines the influence of the DC grounding current on the nearby
and far away environment. HVDC electrodes have traditionally been installed on HVDC transmission
systems to provide a low resistance current return path during both mono-polar and bipolar operation,
using the earth and/or sea as the conductive medium. HVDC electrodes are in general less costly and
have lower losses than Dedicated Metallic Return (DMR) conductors. There are three main types of
electrodes namely Land Electrodes, shore / pond electrodes and sea electrodes. Sea or shore electrodes
are generally associated with submarine cable system.
There are number of HVDC installations in operation world-wide with ground returns. The sea
electrodes either directly immersed in the sea water or close to the sea to benefit from high conductivity
saltwater.

In India Champa-Kurukshetra +/-800kV HVDC link, the only one out of seven HVDC links, is
operating with metallic return and the ongoing +/-800kV HVDC link between Raigarh and Pugalur will
also operate with metallic return.

3. SELECTION OF SITE AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR LAND ELECTRODE

STATION OF BIPOLAR HVDC SYSTEM

Selection of site and design of Ground Electrode stations are very important for planning consideration
for HVDC system’s rating and its overload capability. The design of HVDC grounding system plays an
important role in smooth and reliable operation of HVDC systems.
In a bi-polar configuration, the earth return circuit under normal operation carries only the bi-polar
imbalance current and full pole current including overload current under the contingency of loss of a
pole. The scheme can incorporate a metallic return provision to limit the use of earth return operation
under a contingency.
For loss of ground electrode connection, due to open circuit or short circuit of electrode line, bipolar
operation can continue with converter station ground, until there is large unbalance between two pole
current. Such an unbalance may arise due to commutation failure, DC line faults or tripping of a pole.
Such an event leads to blocking of both poles.
(a) Selection of Site for Land Electrode station

The land electrodes (one at the rectifier and another at the inverter terminal) in general are located at 15
to 50 km from the converter station to avoid interference problems of the current flowing to the ground,
provided that adequate surface and deep soil resistivity are found. This current establishes a voltage
drop in the electrode line and electrode, and the neutral point of the converter station shall have adequate
insulation for that.

Selection of proper ground electrode site is of prime importance for the availability and reliability of
the bipolar HDVC systems. As the quantum of power being considered is very large, a good earth
electrode site shall ensure not only smooth operation but also rule out the requirements of any mitigation
measures against adverse effects of ground currents. It is advisable to carry out the thorough soil
investigation for shallow and deep resistivity, thermal conductivity etc. at the proposed location.
It is important to know the resistivity profile of the electrode station up to the depth of the least 10 kms
at different location distributed over a radius of 20 km from the proposed electrode station. To map the
resistivity profile, detailed geophysical studies to determine shallow resistivity (up to 150 meters depth)
and deep resistivity structures (up to 10kms depth) should be carried out at the proposed electrode
station. Shallow resistivity measurement data is useful for designing the earth electrode to take care of
the safe step and touch potential during continuous large DC earth current. Deep electrical resistivity
structure up to the depth of 10kms around proposed Earth electrode station sites may be delineated by
using Magnetotelluric (MT) method. MT measurement are to be carried out at different locations in an
area of 20 kms x 20kms to get an idea of deep resistivity structure around the electrode station.
In addition to resistivity measurements, the thermal conductivity and moisture content should also be
measured.

(b) The Design Considerations

The function of a HVDC ground electrode is to transfer the HVDC system current from a metallic
overhead or insulated conductor into the earth via converter neutral point. It does not serve as protective
ground for the HVDC scheme or for equipment.
Following important inputs are required to be considered in design of land electrodes.

 Design life (typically 40-50 years)

 Soil Characteristics
 Rated ground Current and duration of operation at this current
 Current Density at soil-coke interface
 Electrode DC resistance with reference to remote earth
 Related safety (Step & touch voltages, Ground Potential Rise, potential gradient)
 Environmental Impact / Interference issues / influence of electrode operation on other facilities
 Maximum allowable temperature rise of the soil near electrode
 Unbalance operation of poles during service life
 Practicality of building an electrode at the site

Design life
Design life for electrode station is typically 40-50 years, same as that of useful life of HVDC system.
Ground electrodes are normally designed in a bipolar system to run at full load for 30 to 40 days per
year. Life of the electrode is generally defined in million-Ampere-Hours. The ground electrode for
HVDC system should be designed for both planned and forced outage of poles. Ground Pole forced
outages is generally considered as 2 days per year. The pole Scheduled outages is considered as 10 days
per year (i.e. about 5 days /pole/year). Hence total duration of high current operation could be 12 days
per year. For example, 60 million ampere-hours corresponds to electrode current of 5000Amps
(considering 33% overload over normal rated current of 3750A) for 12.5 days over 40 years of life of
HVDC installation.
Soil Characteristics

During the design of earth electrodes, the physical properties of the soil at the electrode site should be
measured during different seasons of the year in order to determine the electrical, thermal and physical
parameters needed to model the site and evaluate the impact of the earth electrodes on the environment.

The main properties of soil include:

 Soil resistivity / conductivity
 Soil thermal capacity
 Soil thermal conductivity
 Soil highest natural temperature
  Type of soil or rock material
 Moisture content
 Depth to water table
 Temperature at electrode depth
 Susceptibility to Electro-osmosis
 Chemical properties

Current Ratings

From a system point of view, the most important criteria are the rated current (continuous, short-time
overload, and transient) and the time of operation at this current.

The earth return is employed only when one pole is disabled for some reason. The allowable duration
of earth-return operation is generally limited to short periods for emergencies and maintenance /
scheduled outage. This limit is intended to minimize interference (corrosion, etc.) with underground
facilities such as pipelines, communication cables, power cables etc. The type of operation the ground
electrode depends on which of the two poles has been out of service, therefore, all the electrodes shall
be designed for both types of operation, anodic and cathodic.
The earth electrode current for a monopole or bi-pole or multi-terminal scheme depends on the mode
of operation of the scheme. The normal unbalance currents is generally of the order of 1.0 -1.5% of
rated current in modern converter station design. Rated current of electrode is usually the rated current
of one pole and its overload capability. Duration for which electrode is used will depend on the duration
before switching to metallic return which may be for short time (say few minutes). However, the time
duration may be long, if line pole is out for planned line maintenance.

The ground current magnitude and time duration for normal operation and overload condition is an
important factor for land electrode because of the thermal time constant of the soil. The maximum
temperature of the soil must not exceed 85 deg. C in order to prevent steam formation of water. The
steam while trapped inside the soil might develop excessive pressure and at times, the electrode can
even explode. Overheating will effectively reduce the moisture content of soil. In order to replenish the
moisture content of the soil, drip irrigation may be adopted over the entire electrode in case of prolonged
ground return mode of operation.

Current density

The current density at the electrode element surface must be selected so as to avoid electro-osmosis for
land electrodes, and to reduce chlorine selectivity for elements in contact with saline water for beach
and sea electrodes.

The most significant parameters giving the major dimensions of the electrode are current density at
coke-soil interface and temperature rise of the soil near coke.

The maximum average current density in the range of 0.5 - 1 A/m2 is recommended for land electrodes
and 6 -10 A/m2 for beach and sea electrodes to reduce chlorine selectivity for elements in contact with
saline water. Higher current densities can be used for pond electrodes where the access by people and
animals can be restricted so that safety concerns are addressed.

The electrode resistance

The electrode resistance may appear to be an important parameter, however in practice, the ohmic value
is always very low in relation to line resistance, of the order of 0.3 to 0.4Ω, and seldom a defining
parameter.
Safety Requirement / Criteria

The safety requirements of a ground electrode should have single objective i.e. “The operation of the
electrodes must not result in unsafe conditions for people or animals either in publicly accessible areas
or within controlled areas accessible only to authorized maintenance workers.” This general objective
requires consideration of the full range of possible operating modes of the electrode and consideration
of possible conditions and facilities within the areas that can be influenced by the electrode in operation.

The operational conditions considered for safety fall into two categories:
 condition which can persists for 10 seconds or longer are considered to be continuous for safety
purpose, and
 transient conditions which would persists for 10 seconds or less.

It is also necessary to ensure that during ground return mode of operation, current penetrates deep into
the earth near the electrode station so that grounding resistance/potential rises in the vicinity of the
electrode are within acceptable limits.

Safety aspect for electrode design are defined in terms of the following:

 Step Voltage
 Touch Voltage
 Metal-to-Metal Touch Voltage
 Transferred Voltage or Transferred Potential

The acceptable values are not based on voltage but rather on acceptable levels of currents within the
human body (or in the bodies of animals).

The step / touch / Metal-to-Metal Touch voltage should be limited to values that will be in line with
following criteria:

Under continuous operating conditions The body currents (IBc) < 5mA i.e. the threshold
of perception
During short time and transient operating The body currents (IBt) < 30mA i.e. the threshold
conditions and transient faults of let-go-current

Hence, in the electrode design process, the body currents resulting from touch, step and transferred
potentials would be limited to 5 mA continuously and 30 mA during transient conditions. Step voltage
and touch voltage are important factor in the design of HVDC grounding electrodes which depends on
ground current, human body resistance, contact resistance between human body and soil resistivity. If
the step voltage exceeds a certain magnitude, electric shock might occur. The step voltage, touch voltage
and metal to metal touch voltage limit for human is calculated by the following expressions.
Safety Steady State Limit Transient Limit
Parameters
Step Voltage

Touch
Voltage

Metal to
Metal Touch
Voltage
[where Esc & Est and Etc & Ett are the step & touch voltages (in V) under continuous/steady state &
transient conditions, IBc is the maximum permissible body current in A, RB is the human body
resistance in Ω (assumed to be 1000 ohms) and Rf is the resistance between one foot and soil in Ω and
𝜌𝑠 is the surface soil resistivity. The foot is represented as a circular plate with a radius “b” of 0.08
m. The resistance from each foot to ground (Rf)= 4𝑏 𝜌𝑠 =3.125∗ 𝜌𝑠]

The highest transfer potential that can occur would be equal to the difference between maximum and
minimum values of ground potential on the site. The maximum transfer potential will occur under
transient and short-time overload current conditions. Transferred potential is a special case of touch
voltage and thus the same body current limits, associated continuous & transient voltage limits would
apply. However, in this case the distance can be any unspecified value. The risk of transferred potentials
cannot be entirely eliminated by design but can be reduced by adopting design measures and procedures.

Lightning strike or any other events that trigger transient over current do not have much significance
at the electrode station, but have an impact at the neutral bus of the terminal because of high
impedance offered by the line to lightning strikes. The potential of the station neutral would be
increased in the event of transient over current which has to be taken care while considering
insulation level and providing metal oxide arrester at the station neutral bus.

Environmental impact / Interference issues of DC current

When DC current is injected into the grounding electrodes between the converter stations, it creates
high surface potential around the electrodes, especially in high resistivity areas. This potential depends
on the ground resistance between the electrodes and the magnitude of the DC current injected into the
ground. The surface potential is highest around the electrodes and falls gradually with increase in the
distance from the grounding electrodes. As a result, surface potential varies at different distances from
the grounding electrodes. This potential difference in the vicinity of the electrodes, known as step
voltage, could endanger humans and livestock safety. Experience from the existing HVDC systems
show that the area affected by the ground potential could reach out to a radius of tens of kilometres
from the electrode, which depends on the current amplitude and properties of the current return medium.
The ground current adversely affects the adjacent systems in two ways; (i) stray current corrosion i.e
buried metallic structures, pipelines, railways, telecommunication systems etc. are affected and (ii) AC
power system in their vicinity i.e. DC bias of neutral point of power transformers (wye grounded
transformers) in AC substations.

[DC bias of AC transformers in the vicinity of a HVDC system]

(Alternative return path through the AC system via the grounded neutrals of the transformers)

The direct current causes half-cycle saturation of transformers which creates harmonics to flow in the
ac system, causing overheating of some equipment and mal-operation of protective relays. The DC
current flowing through the neutral point of transformers may cause excessive vibration, acoustic noise
from transformer and voltage & current distortion. It cannot be determined by only based on the distance
between the AC substations and the electrodes, but in fact it depends on the resistance of the ground
path. The potential difference between the substations caused by the DC current is also a key factor and
should be considered in the design of the grounding system of the HVDC system and AC substations.
Use of a series resistor / capacitor in the neutral of the transformer, as a blocking device for the direct
current, mitigates the DC bias of transformers created by the ground current due to land electrode.
Typical values of criteria associated with various interference effects and their mitigation method when
locating & designing a land electrode are as follows:

Sl. Interference Effects Typical values of Mitigation Method

No. criteria associated
with interference
issues
1 Potential gradient on the surface at 2–20 V/m Mitigated by electrode depth
electrode site
2 Step voltage at electrode site 2–8 V/m Mitigated by the depth or
fencing higher areas
3 Current density to avoid electro- 0.5 - 1 A/m2 (typical) -
osmosis in the anode operation of
land electrode
4 Touch voltages to fences, metallic 2–5 V (typical) Mitigated by distance or
structures and buried pipes nearby section insulation (of say
fences, pipes)
5 Corrosion of buried metallic Requires local survey, Requires local survey, 1–5
structures, pipes or foundations 1–5 km distances km distances (typical), may
(typical) consider also the cathodic
protection or increase in
existing protection
6 Stray current in power lines, - Requires local survey and
especially via transformer neutrals study of mitigation methods
7 Stray current in telephone circuits - Requires local survey and
study of mitigation methods.

The most effective mitigation option / method for the possible interference issues (except step voltage,
which is a function of current density at the electrode) is to maintain adequate distance from the
electrode site and to choose the site where the soil resistivity is low, thus limiting the area over which
the current density at the surface has a significant value.

Not only the conditions of the site and surrounding area but also the local regulations regarding safety
and interference must be taken into consideration. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) will need
to be carried out to determine the effects of the electrodes on the environment. In some cases,
environmental considerations will prevent permission to construct electrode station. Present and future
land use also need to be considered e.g. recreational areas, town development, mining activities. A
challenge could be that the area around an electrode site becomes populated after some years of
operation.

Normal separation distance of Land Electrode site should be as follows:

Facility Distance (km)

Substation (grounded Transformers) 10
Oil or gas pipe lines 8
 Submarine cables, urban areas gas and sewer 5
lines
Railways, Rural Power Distribution 2
Wharfs, Bridges 1

It is generally difficult to find a suitable electrode site which meets all the applicable requirements. A
number of different sites may need to be investigated and an iterative approach may need to be followed
to select a suitable site. The location of the ground electrode should be selected to minimize electrical
interference.

4. MATERIAL AND LAYOUT OF HVDC GROUNDING ELECTRODES

Electrode material

Electrolytic corrosion is usually one of the most important factors in the design of HVDC grounding
electrodes which is related to the anodic and cathodic performance of the electrodes. Cathodic
electrodes of HVDC systems are not influenced by corrosion and, hence, if the grounding electrode is
implemented as a cathodic electrode only, the obvious electrode material to use is copper.
In bipolar HVDC systems, power flow direction can be either way, and both electrodes at the sending
and receiving ends of the HVDC system are designed to accommodate bidirectional current flow, i.e.
the electrodes should be able to operate as anodic and cathodic electrodes.
The main types of electrode material used for HVDC electrodes: silicon-iron / high silicon iron alloys
electrode (SiCrFe) [high resistance to corrosion and but, brittle], steel or mild steel, copper, titanium
coated mesh electrodes, and graphite (not commonly used because of low mechanical strength)
electrode. All land electrodes are surrounded by coke to ensure good contact to soil.

Layout of HVDC grounding electrodes

The electrode line is typically similar to a 33 kV or higher voltage distribution line. The difference is
that normally there is no voltage or very low current in bipolar mode of operation. Apart from the
inherent properties of the ground (or the soil medium in general), the geometry or layout of the
grounding electrode is a significant factor to meet the criteria and requirements of an optimized
performance of the grounding system. Generally, the Ground Electrodes are of two types; vertical also
known as deep well or bore hole electrodes and horizontal electrodes which come in many shapes and
sizes like circular, linear, star shapes and segmented or continuous.

The selection of a particular electrode configuration depends on available land area, geographical
location and electrical properties of the soil medium. Ring or star configurations are usually preferred
when a wide area is available; while linear electrodes are chosen when a long and narrow strip of land
is available. These electrodes are usually buried at a depth of a few meters. Vertical electrodes, on the
other hand, are not limited by space, since they are buried vertically in the ground and, hence, occupy
less land. Vertical electrodes are an alternative when implementation of horizontal electrodes is not
feasible, e.g. in areas with high resistivity in the top soil layer, vertical electrodes are preferred because
using horizontal electrodes might result in high step voltage.
The ring type is a very common design. Circular ring shaped electrodes buried at a depth close to the
surface of earth have been used widely as part of the return path of HVDC transmission system during
mono-polar operation. One ring has the advantage of symmetry, which makes it easy to obtain uniform
gradient all along the electrode circumference. More than one ring electrode arrangement are used to
meet the current density and step voltage criteria.
If soil resistivity is completely uniform, the current would be equally distributed in the sub-electrodes.
However, in case of outage of some sub-electrodes, more current will flow in the sub-electrodes
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adjacent to de-energized sub-electrodes. If the resistivity is not evenly distributed, which is the normal
case, the current into these sub-electrodes will vary even under no-outage condition.
High current associated with large transmission projects would favour the use of vertical electrode
elements in order to reduce required land. These could perhaps be arranged in star or double circle
configuration.

5. CONCLUSION

HVDC transmission systems (both LCC and VSC based) have become very popular in long distance
bulk power delivery system as it offers advantages over HVAC system. Selection of site and design of
Ground Electrode stations are very important for planning consideration for HVDC system’s rating and
its overload capability. The design of HVDC grounding system plays an important role in smooth and
reliable operation of HVDC systems. A good earth electrode site shall ensure not only smooth operation
but also rule out the requirement of any mitigation measures against adverse effects of ground currents.

Design lifetime (typically 40-50 years), soil characteristics, rated ground current and duration of
operation at this current, current density at soil coke interface, electrode DC resistance with reference
to remote earth, related safety (Step & touch voltages, Ground Potential Rise, potential gradient),
environmental impact / interference issues / influence of electrode operation on other facilities,
maximum allowable temperature rise of the soil near electrode, unbalance operation of poles during
service life and practicality of building an electrode at the site are important inputs required to be
considered for design of land electrodes of HVDC system. In the paper these issues have been discussed
in brief. The safety and environmental impact need to be addressed properly for successful operation of
HVDC system.

Disclaimer: The views expressed in the paper are solely of the author, and is not necessarily of the
author’s organization.

References:

[1] CIGRE Working Group B4.61: “General Guidelines for HVDC electrode Design”
[2] CIGRE Joint Working Group B2/B4/C1.17: “Impacts of HVDC lines on the economics of
HVDC projects”
[3] Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Report on “Advanced HVDC Systems for Voltages
at ± 800 kV and Above” - EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2007.
[4] H Hamzehbahmani, H. Griffiths, A Haddad, D Guo “Earthing Requirements for HVDC
Systems” - Advanced High Voltage Engineering Research Centre, Cardiff School of
Engineering, Cardiff, CF24 3AA UK and National Grid, Warwick CV34 6DA, UK

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