ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis

Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson Title: PLANNING AND CONDUCTING EXPERIMENTS Materials:

Board & marker
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this session the students will
be able to: References:
1. In a statistical experiment, define and identify the https://explorable.com/
following: https://www.questionpro.com/
a. dependent and independent variables. https://www.formpl.us/
b. control group and the experimental group. https://www.wisdomjobs.com/
https://www.reference.com/
https://www.engineeringcivil.com/

Productivity Tip: Get a productive environment.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)

Before conducting a research experiment, researchers come up with a research design. Experimental
research design serves as an instruction manual on how the experiment is conducted. The design helps
the researcher stay on track and makes sure all bases are being properly covered to ensure the experiment's
validity. Designed Experiments achieve manufacturing cost savings by minimizing process variation and
reducing rework, scrap, and the need for inspection.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Fill in the first column of what you know to answer the questions on the second column of the table below.

What I Know QUESTION What I Learned

What is an experimental group?

What is a control group?

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

B. MAIN LESSON

1. Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

In planning to conduct an experiment to collect the research data, the following must already be defined.
 The research problem and the research objectives. Formulate the research question or a problem
statement.
 The responses and the factors. The variables of interest, in relation to your research problems or
objectives, should be identified. Indicate the independent and the dependent variables. Make some
predictions or hypothesis of the possible outcome (the dependent variable or the response) when the
independent variables (the factors) are manipulated. Combination of the factors is termed as treatments.
For example, if you designed an experiment to determine how quickly a cup of hot chocolate drink cools,
then, the manipulated independent variable is time and the dependent measured variable is temperature.
 The experiment research design. This is the process of planning an experiment to test the researcher’s
hypothesis. The relationship between two variables - the dependent and the independent variable is
determined. Data collected in experimental research usually are quantitative in nature.

Experimental Design Terminology

Treatment Group. The group in an experiment design where the independent variable is manipulated. This
is also termed as the experimental group.

Control Group. The group of the experimental design not exposed to treatment. The difference in the
performance of the control group and the treatment group measures the effects of the full treatment on the
treatment group.

Important Experimental Designs - Informal experimental designs

(Source: https://www.wisdomjobs.com)

 Before-and-after without control design: In such a design a single test group or area is selected and
the dependent variable is measured before the introduction of the treatment. The treatment is then
introduced and the dependent variable is measured again after the treatment has been introduced. The
effect of the treatment would be equal to the level of the phenomenon after the treatment minus the
level of the phenomenon before the treatment.

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

The main difficulty of such a design is that with the passage of time considerable extraneous variations
may be there in its treatment effect.

 After-only with control design: In this design two groups or areas (test area and control area) are
selected and the treatment is introduced into the test area only. The dependent variable is then
measured in both the areas at the same time. Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value
of the dependent variable in the control area from its value in the test area.

The basic assumption in such a design is that the two areas are identical with respect to their behavior
towards the phenomenon considered. If this assumption is not true, there is the possibility of extraneous
variation entering into the treatment effect. However, data can be collected in such a design without the
introduction of problems with the passage of time. In this respect the design is superior to before-and-
after without control design.

 Before-and-after with control design: In this design two areas are selected and the dependent
variable is measured in both the areas for an identical time-period before the treatment. The treatment
is then introduced into the test area only, and the dependent variable is measured in both for an
identical time-period after the introduction of the treatment. The treatment effect is determined by
subtracting the change in the dependent variable in the control area from the change in the dependent
variable in test area.

This design is superior to the above two designs for the simple reason that it avoids extraneous
variation resulting both from the passage of time and from non-comparability of the test and control
areas. But at times, due to lack of historical data, time or a comparable control area, we should prefer
to select one of the first two informal designs stated above.
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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

Data Collection Methods in Experimental Research

 Observational Study. Here, data are collected through observation from experiments.
 Simulations: This procedure uses a mathematical, physical, or computer models to replicate a real-life
process or situation. It is frequently used when the actual situation is too expensive, dangerous, or
impractical to replicate in real life. This method is commonly used in engineering and operational research
for learning purposes and sometimes as a tool to estimate possible outcomes of real research.

2. Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking).

Read the abstract of a research paper and answer the following questions?
1. What is the research problem of the paper being presented?

2. What are the dependent (response) variable and the independent variables (factors)?

3. What is the control group and the experimental or the treatment group?

Experimental Study of Human Hair in Concrete as Fibre Reinforcement

By: G. Ajaya Kumar O. Ganesh Kumar K. Damodar C. Jayasree Simpa Karmakar
Sai Ganapathi Engineering College, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India

Abstract— Since the ancient times, many researches and advancements were carried to enhance the physical and
mechanical properties of concrete. Fiber reinforced concrete is one among those advancements which offers a convenient,
practical and economical method for overcoming micro cracks and similar type of deficiencies. Since concrete is weak in
tension hence some measures must be adopted to overcome this deficiency. Human hair is generally strong in tension; hence
it can be used as a fiber reinforcement material. Human hair Fiber is an alternative non-degradable matter available in
abundance and at cheap cost. It also reduces environmental problems. Also addition of human hair fibers enhances the
binding properties, micro cracking control, Imparts ductility and also increases swelling resistance. The experimental
findings in our studies would encourage future research in the direction for long term performance to extending this cost
of effective type of fibers for use in structural applications. Experiments were conducted on concrete cubes, cylinders and
beams of standard sizes with addition of various percentages of human hair fiber i.e., 0%, 0.5%, 1% and 1.5% by weight of
cement, fine & coarse aggregate and results were compared with those of plain cement concrete of M-20 grade. For each
percentage of human hair added in concrete, four cubes, three cylinders and three beams were tested for their respective
mechanical properties at curing periods of 3 , 7 and 28 days. Optimum hair fiber content was obtained as 1.5% by weight
of cement.

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, Part 2 (2 mins).

You may now answer the third column of table in activity 1 based on what you know now.
What I Know QUESTION What I Learned

What is an experimental group?

What is a control group?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins).

Underline the correct answer.
In the experiment that you have conducted in your research.
a. The (response, factors) represent your independent variable/s.
b. The data collected should answer the (research problem, research design).
c. (Qualitative data, Quantitative data) are usually collected.
d. The proves of planning an experiment to test research hypothesis is termed as (experimental design,
experimental research problem).

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
You are done with the session! Let's track your progress.
Period 1 Period 2 Period 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Do you have some doubts be clarified regarding today’s lesson?

Think of a possible research problem wherein you will be conducting experiment to collect the data. Share
it with your classmate and reserve this research problem in our next session.

KEY TO CORRECTION
Activity #3
1) Usage of human hair as a fiber reinforcement material.
2) Mechanical properties of concrete are the dependent variable or the response in the experiment.
The various percentage of human hair in concrete are the independent variables or the factors.
3) Mechanical properties of plain cement concrete of of M-20 grade is the control group Mechanical
properties of concrete (dependent variable or the response in the experiment) with the various
percentage of human hair (the independent variables), 0%, 0.5%, 1% and 1.5% by weight is the
experimental group/ the treatment group.

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #9 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson Title: DISCRETE PROBABILITY Materials:

DISTRIBUTION – BINOMIAL DISTIBUTION Board, marker and calculator (casio fx 350EX model)

Lesson Objectives: At the end of this session the References:

students will be able to: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_distribution/
1. define a binomial experiment. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinomialDistribution.html/
2. solve probability problems as an application to Ronald E. Walpole, R, et.al. (2007) Probability &
binomial distribution Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, eBook. Pearson
Prentice Hall Pearson Education: New Jersey.

Productivity Tip: “Tomorrow becomes never. No matter how small the task, take the first step now! “ – T. Ferriss

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (3 mins)

Let us play a Binomial Experiment. To do this, please toss a one-peso coin 20 times and tally the
outcome for each toss whether a head or a tail appears. Fill in the table below for the result of your
statistical experiment.

OUTCOMES TALLY TOTAL

TAIL
HEAD
TOTAL

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (2 mins)

Fill in the first column of what you know to answer the questions on the second column of the table below.

What I Know QUESTION What I Learned

What is Binomial Experiment?

What is the formula for the Binomial

Probability Distribution?

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #9 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

B. MAIN LESSON

1. Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

Statistical Experiments are experiments that have three things in common. The experiments have more
than one possible outcomes, each possible outcome can be specified ahead of time, and each outcome
depends on chance. An examples is flipping a coin; where there two possible outcomes, (more than one
outcome), the outcomes can be specified in advance either a head or tail, and the outcome is uncertain
(depends on chance).

Probability Distribution. A probability distribution is a table or an equation that links each different
outcomes of a statistical experiment with its probability of occurrence. In some cases, the probability
distribution is represented as a graph. The outcomes of the experiment are represented by a random
variable.

For example, in flipping a coin two times. An outcome of the experiment might be the number of heads that
we see in two coin flips. If we let the variable X be the number of heads that come up, then X is termed as
the random variable which could take a value of X = 1 (meaning of the two coins flipped only one head
appears, so a tail appears on the other coin) or X= 2 (meaning of the two coins flipped e heads appear, so
no heads appear) or X = 0 (meaning no head appears and that 2 heads appear in flipping the 2 coins).

Let the outcome be the number of heads that you see in flipping two coins. Represented by the random
variable X. Note that the possible outcomes of this experiment are {HH, HT, TH, & TT}. Below is the
probability distribution of the above statistical experiment.
Probability Distribution of tossing a coin 2 times

a. Tabular presentation of Probability Distribution (PROBABILITY DISTRBUTION TABLE)

NUMBER OF OUTCOMES ; ( x) Probability of X, P( X = x) ; f (x)

x=2 P ( X= 2 ) = 1/4
x=1 P (X= 1 ) = 1/2
x=0 P ( X= 0) = 1/4

b. Graphical presentation of Probability Distribution (HISTOGRAM)

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #9 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

c. An equation representing the Probability Distribution (Probability Density Function).

2!
f ( x)   (0.5) x
x!(2  x)!

 Binomial distribution describes the probability of a particular outcome in a series of experiment where
the outcome has two distinct possibilities, success or failure. The prefix bi means two. Binomial
distributions are discrete ( that is the events are separate ) and can be used to model the total number
of successes in repeated trials as long as each trial is independent ( means the outcome of one trial does
not affect the outcome of another trial) and the probability of getting either outcome remains constant.

Binomial distribution is a series of independent and identically distributed Bernoulli trials. In a Bernoulli trial,
the experiment is said to be random and could only have two possible outcomes: success or failure. For
example, flipping a coin is considered to be a Bernoulli trial; each trial can only take one of two values (heads
or tails), each success has the same probability (the probability of flipping a head is 0.5), and the results of
one trial do not influence the results of another. The Bernoulli distribution is a special case of the binomial
distribution where the number of trials n = 1. So, repeated flipping of a coin is considered as a binomial
experiment.

BINOMIAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION.

The random variable X which has a binomial probability distribution can be represented as ,

 X ~ B (n, p) where: n - the total number of experiments

p - the probability of success of each experiment

 𝑃(𝑥: 𝑛, 𝑝) = 𝑛𝐶𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 (1 − 𝑝)𝑛−𝑥 or 𝑃(𝑥: 𝑛, 𝑝) = 𝑛𝐶𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 𝑞 𝑛−𝑥

where: n = the number of experiments
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …
p = probability of success in a single experiment
q = probability of failure in a single experiment = 1 – p

Descriptive Statistics for a Binomial Distribution

Mean / Median / Mode

The mean is also termed as the expected value or the average of the outcomes. Mean =n p ; where n= the
total number of trials and p = probability of success. For, example the number of heads in 100 trials is 50,
then the mean is 100*0.5.

Median is the middle value in sorted (in an increasing or decreasing arrangement) outcomes. There is no
single formula to find the median for a binomial distribution. However, several special results have been

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #9 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

established: If np is an integer, then the mean, median, and mode coincide and equal np.

Standard Deviation / Variance

Standard deviation is a measure of dispersion of the data set from its mean. Dispersion help you to interpret
the variability of data i.e. to know how much homogenous or heterogenous the data is. In simple terms, it
shows how data approaches the mean. The greater is the standard deviation, the greater is the deviation of
the value of each data from the mean. For a binomial experiment the standard deviation,  , is,

  n  p  (1  p)

The variance is the square of the standard deviation,  2 .

2. Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking) .

A. A coin is tossed 5 times.

a. What is the probability distribution of this binomial experiment?

b. Find the probability that exactly 2 heads will appear.

c. Find the probability that no head will appear.

d. Find the probability that at most 2 heads will appear.

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #9 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

B. In the automobile spare part production of your company, 90% pass final inspection (and 10% fail and
need to be fixed). What is the mean and the standard deviation that will pass in the next 5 inspections?

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, Part 2 (2 mins)

You may now answer the third column of table in activity 1 based on what you know now.
What I Know QUESTION What I Learned

What is Bernoulli Experiment?

What is formula for the Binomial

Probability Distribution?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins).

a. From your binomial experiment game (page 1, introduction) and from 5 of your classmate’s data, fill
in the table below:

P( head comes up)

From your game
From your classmates’ game
A
B
C
D
E
Average

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #9 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

b. From the binomial graphs below, what is P (X = 2)

i) ii )

c. In tossing a dice, what is the probability that a non-zero number will appear?

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)

You are done with the session! Let's track your progress.
Period 1 Period 2 Period 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

What are other examples of a binomial experiments?

 Throwing a dice, wherein you are interested to find the probability that an even number will appear.
 Identifying the probability of obtaining exactly one item defective from a set of production.

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #9 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

KEY TO CORRECTION
Activity #3
A.
a) From the formula;
𝑃(𝑥: 𝑛, 𝑝) = 𝑛𝐶𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 (1 − 𝑝)𝑛−𝑥

where: n = the number of experiments

x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …
p = probability of success in a single experiment
q = probability of failure in a single experiment = 1 – p
b) Here, n= 5
x=2
p = 0.5
using the equation above,

P (exactly 2 heads will appear) = 5𝐶2 × 0.52 × (1 − 0.5)5−2 = 0.3125

c) Here, n = 5; x = 0 and p = 0.5
using the equation above,
P (no head will appear) = 5𝐶0 × 0.50 × (1 − 0.5)5−0 = 0.03125
d) P(at most 2 heads will appear/ 2 or less) = P( no head will appear) + P ( exactly 1 head will
appear) + P( exactly 2 heads will appear)
P (no head will appear) = 0.03125
P (exactly 2 heads will appear) = 0.3125
P (exactly 1 head will appear) = 5𝐶1 × 0.51 × (1 − 0.5)5−1 = 0.15625
P (at most 2 heads will appear/ 2 or less) = 0.03125 + 0.15625 + 0.3125 = 0.5

B. The mean, or "expected value", is: μ = np = 5 x 0.9 = 4.6. Meaning we expect 4.6 parts to pass out of
the 5 inspections.
The standard deviation is   n  p  (1  p)  5  0.9  (1  0.9)  0.671 . Meaning, the average
difference of the spare parts that will pass inspection between the overall mean of the 5 inspections to
each individual inspection is 0.671.

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #10 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson Title: DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION – Materials:

POISSON DISTRIBUTION Board, marker, and calculator(casio fx
350EX model)
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this session the students will
be able to: References:
1. define Poisson distribution.
2. solve probability problems on events following Poisson https://probabilityformula.org/
processes. https://towardsdatascience.com/
https://www/toppr.com/

Productivity Tip:
“In life, people tend to wait for good things to come to them, and by waiting, they miss out’” - Neil Strauss

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

1) Introduction (2 mins)

The Poisson distribution is a discrete distribution. It is named after Simeon-Denis Poisson (1781-1840), a
French mathematician, who published its essentials in a paper in 1837.

The Poisson distribution is a special case of the Binomial distribution. Since, as n approaches infinity, the
binomial distribution also approaches the Poisson distribution. Poisson distribution is actually an important
type of probability distribution formula. Poisson distribution models rare events and is asymmetric —
meaning it is always skewed toward the right.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Fill in the first column of what you know to answer the questions on the second column of the table below.

What I Know QUESTION What I Learned

What is a Poisson process?

What is a Poisson distribution?

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #10 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

B. MAIN LESSON

1. Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

An experiment is a Poisson experiment when it possesses the following probabilities:

 The outcomes of the experiment can be easily classified as either success or failure.
 The average of the number of successes within a region that is specified is known.
 The probability of occurrence of a success is always proportional to the size of the specified region. The
region may in the form of volume, area, length, time periods, etc.

Poisson Distribution has the following characteristics:

 It is a discrete distribution.
 Each occurrence is independent of the other occurrences.
 It describes discrete occurrences over an interval.
 The occurrences in each interval can range from zero to infinity.
 The mean number of occurrences must be constant throughout the experiment.

Poisson Distribution gives the probability of a number of events in an interval generated by a Poisson
process. The Poisson distribution is defined by the rate parameter, λ, which is the expected number of
events in the interval and the highest probability number of events.
Applications of the Poisson distribution can be found in many fields including:
 Asymptotic Poisson model of seismic risk for large earthquakes.
 Number of decays in a given time interval in a radioactive sample.
 The number of photons emitted in a single laser pulse.
 The number of yeast cells used when brewing Guinness beer. This example was used by William Sealy
Gosset (1876–1937).
 The number of phone calls arriving at a call centre within a minute. This example was described by A.K.
Erlang (1878–1929).
 Failure of a machine in one month.

The Poisson Distribution Formula

x 
e
P( X  x)  where : x = 0 , 1, 2, 3, . .
x! ; λ = mean of the occurrences in the interval
e = Euler’s constant = 2.72828

Example . A particular river overflows every 25 years on the average. Find the probability that there are
x = 2 overflows in a 25 year interval.
Here, λ = 1, x = 2, hence,

𝜆𝑥 𝑒 −𝜆 12 𝑒 −1
P (there are 2 overflows in a 25-year interval, X = 2) 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥) = 𝑥!
= 2!
= 0.1839

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #10 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

Descriptive Statistics for a Poisson Distribution

The mean and the variance of the Poisson distribution is  .

Examples. Some vehicles pass through a junction on a busy road at an average rate of 300 per hour. Find
out the probability that none passes in a given minute.
a. What is the average number of vehicles passing per minute?
b. What is the probability that no vehicle will pass in a given hour?
c. What is the expected number of vehicles passing in three minutes?
Solution.
a. The average number of vehicles passing per minute, λ = 300 /60 = 5,

x e  
b. Using the formula; P( X  x) 
x!
50 e 5
P ( X  0)   0.00674
0!
c. Expected number of vehicles passing in three minutes = 3· λ = 3· 5 = 15

Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

1. Twenty cars were examined for defective surface coating. The frequency of the number of cars with a
given number of defective surface coating per were was as follows:

Number of Defective Surface Coating, n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Frequency, f 4 3 5 2 4 1 1
Total Number of Defective Surface Coating, (n· f) 0 3 10 6 16 5 6

If a car is chosen at random, what is the probability that a car has 3 or more defective surface coating?

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #10 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

2. If electricity power failures occur according to a Poisson distribution with an average of 5 failures every
20 weeks, calculate the probability that there will not be more than one failure during a particular week.

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, Part 2 (2 mins)

You may now answer the third column of table in activity 1 based on what you know now.
What I Know QUESTION What I Learned

What is a Poisson process?

What is a Poisson distribution?

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #10 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

A company makes electric motors. The defects of the motors follow a Poisson distribution. The probability
an electric motor is defective is 0.01. What is the probability that a sample of 100 electric motors will contain
exactly 3 defective motors?

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)

You are done with the session! Let's track your progress.
Period 1 Period 2 Period 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

What are some characteristics of the Poisson distribution?

Experiments follows a Poisson distributions are unimodal (one peak); exhibit positive skew (that decreases
as λ increases); are centred roughly on λ; and have variance (spread) that increases as λ increases.

KEY TO CORRECTION
Activity #3
1)
Total number of defective surface coating = 0 + 3 + 10 + 6 + 16 + 5 +6 = 46, hence, λ = 46 / 20 = 2.3.
You may use the property of complement of probability, here,
P (finding 3 defective surface coating or more) = 1  P (finding 3 defective surface coating or more) C
P (finding 3 defective surface coating or more) C = 1  P (finding less than 3 defective surface coating)
P (finding less than 3 defective surface coating) =

P( X  3)  P( X  0)  P( X  1)  P( X  2) ;
x e  
using the formula, P( X  x) 
x!

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #10 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

2.30 e 2.3 2.31 e 2.3 2.32 e 2.3

   0.59604
0! 1! 2!
Hence, P (X≥ 3) = 1 – 0.59604 = 0.40396
2.3 x e 2.3
You may predict also the probability using the histogram, a graph of, P ( X  x ) 
x!

2)
Here, the average power failure per week is λ = 5 /20 = 0.25.
x e 
P( X  1)  P( X  0)  P( X  1) ; using the formula, P ( X  x ) 
x!

0.250  e 0.25 0.251  e 0.25

P ( X  1)    0.9735
0! 1!

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #11 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson Title: CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION – Materials:

NORMAL DISTIBUTION Calculator(casio fx 350EX model),
board and pen
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this session the students will
be able to: References:
1. solve probability problems for normally distributed data. https://www3.nd.edu/~rwilliam/stats1/x
21.pdf
https://www.stat.colostate.edu/
https://www.mathsisfun.com/l
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Productivity Tip: “Hard work keeps the wrinkles out of the mind and spirit.”– Helena Rubinstein

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
The normal distribution is the most commonly used probability distribution. This is also known as the
Gaussian distribution. A random variable that follows a normal distribution is said to be normally
distributed. If we know a random variable is normally distributed, then, you can use the known properties
of the normal distribution to calculate the probability of this variable on certain values. Random variables
representing height and intelligence are approximately normally distributed.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Fill in the first column of what you know to answer the questions on the second column of the table below.

What I Know QUESTION What I Learned

What is normal distribution?

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Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

What are the properties of a normal

distribution graph?

B. MAIN LESSON

1. Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

The random variable X which has a normal distribution can be represented as,

where: µ - mean of the distribution

X ~ N ( µ, σ 2 )
σ 2 - variance of the distribution

Characteristics of the Normal Distribution.

 It is bell shaped.
 It is defined by its mean (µ) and its variance (σ 2) or its standard deviation (σ).
 The mean, median, mode is at the same coordinates.

The Normal Distribution Curve

The Normal Probability Density Function (PDF)

where:
x = random variable
1 (𝑥−𝜇)2 µ = mean
−
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 2 𝜎2 σ = standard deviation
𝜎√2𝜋 e = 2.71828…, a constant
π = 3.1416…, a constant

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The standard Normal Distribution

A standard Normal distribution is when mean ( µ ) = 0 and standard deviation (σ ) =1, substituting these
values to the above equation gives the pdf of the standard normal distribution

( x )2
1 
f ( x)  e 2
2

The number of standard deviation from the mean is called as the standard score or the z- score. A positive
z-score indicates the raw score is higher than the mean average. For example, if a z-score is equal to +1, it
is 1 standard deviation above the mean. A negative z-score reveals the raw score is below the mean
average. For example, if a z-score is equal to - 2, it is 2 standard deviations below the mean.

In terms of the standard score, z

1 
( z )2
x
f ( z)  e 2 where: z
2 

Example 1. The heights of the male adults are normally distributed with a mean of 1.7 meter and a standard
deviation of 0.20. What is the corresponding standard score of if the heights of these adults are x1 = 1.4
meter and 1.6 meter.

Solution: For x1 = 1.4 meter, corresponding z-score is . . .

x 1.4  1.7
z   1.5
 0.2

For x1 = 1.6 meter, corresponding z-score is . . .

x 1.6  1.7
z   0.5
 0.2
The z – score allows the researchers to calculate the probability of a score occurring within a
standard normal distribution and enable you to compare two scores that are from different samples
( which have different means and standard deviations).

The Standard Normal Probability Distribution Curve ( mean , µ = 0 and standard deviation, σ = 1.0 ).
Note that the total area under the probability distribution curve is equal to 1.

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Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

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From example 1. There are 400 males adults in the population.

a. What is the probability that the height will be between 1.4 meter and 1.6 meter.
b. How many male adults have heights between 1.4 meter and 1.6 meter.

Solution: Referring to the Areas Under the Normal Curve ( Statistical Table).

At z = -1.5 , the area is 0.06881 and at z = - 0.5 , the area is 0.30854.

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a) The area between z = - 1.5 and z = - 0.5 is 0.24173. This is also the probability that male adults
have heights between x = 1.4 meter and x = 1.6 meter. Mathematically expressed as

P(1.4  x  1.6)  P(1.5  z  0.5)  0.24173

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Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

b) Number of male adults having a height between x= 1.4 meter and 1.6 meter is 97 (400 x 0.24173).

The normal curve below shows the probability distribution of z (in percentage) given its standard deviation.

Source: https://www.mathsisfun.com/data/standard-normal-distribution.html

Example 2: A machine produces electrical components. 99.7 % of the components have lengths between
1.176 cm and 1.224 cm. Assuming the data is normally distributed, what are the mean and the standard
deviation ?
Solution :

At 99.7 %, z  2.97 .
x
z     x  z

Since

At x = 1.176 & z = - 2.97 ; µ = 1.176 + 2.97σ → eqn.1

x = 1.224 & z = 2.97 ; µ = 1.224 – 2.97σ → eqn.2

From eqn. 1 and eqn. 2 , solve for the mean, µ , and the standard deviation , σ.
This equations gives the following solution : µ = 1.20 cm; σ =0.008 cm

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Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

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2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking).

Solve the following.

a. A coffee company packs coffee marked as 250 g. A large number of coffee packs were weighed and the
mean and the standard deviation were calculated as 255 grams and 2.5 grams respectively. Assuming
that the data follows a normal distribution, what percentage of the coffee is underweight?

b. A company makes parts for a machine. The lengths of the parts must be within certain limits or they will
be rejected. A large number of parts were measured and the mean and standard deviation were
calculated as 3.1 and 0.005 m respectively. Assuming this data is normally distributed and 99.7 % were
accepted, what are the limits ?

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
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Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, Part 2 (2 mins)

You may now answer the third column of table in activity 1 based on what you know now.
What I Know QUESTION What I Learned

What is normal distribution ?

What are the properties of a

normal distribution graph?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

Solve the following.

The ages of the population is normally distributed with mean 43 and standard deviation 14. A town has a
population of 5,000, how many would you expect aged 22 to 57.

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
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Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
You are done with the session! Let's track your progress.
Period 1 Period 2 Period 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Enumerate at least 2 sets of data which are normally distributed.

FAQs
Many events are normally distributed, or very close to it. For a large sample size, N, the distribution of
non – normal random variables approaches that of the normal distribution.

KEY TO CORRECTION
Activity #3
a)
Given: µ = 255 grams; σ = 2.5 grams; x = 250 grams
Solution:
x 250  255
Solving for the standard score, z    2.0
 2.5
From the table at z = - 2.0, area = 0.02275. Mathematically, P( x  250)  0.02275 .
Thus, the percentage of coffee that are underweight is 2.275 % (0.02275 x 100).

b)
Given : µ = 3.1 meter; σ = 0.005 meter ; P(a  x  b)  0.997

Solution :
x
At 99.7 % probability of acceptance, z  2.97 z  x   →
z eqn.3

Using eqn 3, the limits are . . . . x = 3.1  2.97(0.005) = 3.085 meter
x = 3.1 + 2.97(0.005) = 3.115 meter

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Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

Areas Under the Normal Curve (Statistical Table).

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 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
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Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

This document is a property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 ECE 069: Engineering Data Analysis
Module #11 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

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Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson Title: CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION Materials:

– EXPONENTIAL DISTIBUTION Board, marker, and calculator(casio fx
350EX model)
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this session the students
will be able to: References:
1. write the formula and plot the exponential density https://courses.lumenlearning.com/
function. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
2. solve probability problems on events having an
https://www.researchgate.net/
exponential distribution.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/

Productivity Tip: Stay Healthy.

A. LESSON PREVIEW / REVIEW

1) Introduction (2 mins)

Questions that concern the time you need to wait before a given event occurs and if this waiting time is
unknown, it is often appropriate to think of it as a random variable having an exponential distribution.
Further, the time you need to wait before an event occurs has an exponential distribution if the probability
that the event occurs during a certain time interval is proportional to the length of that time interval. For
example, you may ask, how long will a piece of machinery work without breaking down?

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Fill in the first column of what you know to answer the questions on the second column of the table below.

What I Know QUESTION What I Learned

Draw a sketch of an exponential

function with y as the dependent
variable and x as the independent
variable.

What is an exponential distribution?

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Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________ Date: _______________

B. MAIN LESSON

1. Activity 2 : Content Notes (13 mins)

The random variable X which has an exponential distribution can be represented as,

X ~ Exponential (λ) where: λ - rate parameter, a constant

The exponential distribution refers to the probability distribution that is used to define the time between two
successive events that occur independently and continuously at a constant average rate. Here, the
exponential random variable has fewer large values and more small values.

The assumption of a constant rate is very rarely satisfied in the real world scenarios, however, if the time
interval is selected in such a way that the rate is roughly constant, then you can approximate the random
variable to follow an exponential distribution.

The Exponential Probability Density Function

The exponential probability density function (pdf) is ,

; for x ≥ 0
e  x
f ( x)  
where: X is a non-negative continuous random variable
λ = the rate parameter ( a constant )
 0 ; for x < 0

e  x dx  1  e  x
x
and the probability of X = x is , P( X  x)   0
.

Sample plot of the exponential probability density function, f (x) vs. x.

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Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

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The mean, median and the variance of the exponential random variables, X.

1 ; hence, λ = 1 /mean
The mean or the expected value of X is, E ( X )  mean 

ln( 2)
the median , median( X )  , and

1
the variance of X is, var( X ) 
2

Sample Problem. On the average, a certain computer has a life time of 10 years. If the life of the
computer is exponentially distributed.

a. Plot the probability density function, f (x) versus x.

You may use excel to plot f ( x)  e x versus x, with   1  1  0.10

mean 10

b. What is the probability that a computer has a life of less than 7 years?
1
Let X be the random variable representing the life of the computer. Here,    0.10
10
7

P ( X  7)   0.10e  0.10 x dx   e  0.10 x
0
 7
0  1  e  0.7  1  0.497   0.503

The shaded area

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c. What is the probability that a computer has a life of more than 10 years?
P (X > 10) = 1 - P (X > 10) C ; P ( X > 10 )c = P ( X ≤ 10 )

P ( X  10)  
10

0

0.10e 0.10 x dx   e 0.10 x  10
0  1  e 1.0  1  0.368   0.632

hence, P ( X >10 ) = 1- P ( X>10 )c = 1 - 0.632 = 0.368

d. What is the probability that a computer has a life of more than 7 years but less than 10 years?

Note that from b) P( X  7)  0.503 and from c) P ( X < 10 ) = 0.632 , s o

P(7  X  10)  P( X  10)  P( X  7)  0.632  0.503  0.129

e. What is the median of X ?

ln( 2) ln( 2)
median( X )    6.93
 0.01

f. What is the variance of X ?

1 1
var( X )    100
 2
(0.10) 2
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Name: _________________________________________________ Class number: _______

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3) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking
Problem. Suppose that the lifetime (x) of certain model of car battery follows an exponential distribution
with a mean life of 5 years”
a. What is the probability distribution of the life of the car battery?
b. Plot the probability density function, f(x) versus the lifetime of the car battery (x).
c. What is the probability that the life of the battery will be greater than 2 years?
d. What is the probability that the life of the battery is greater than 2 years but less than 4 years?
e. What is the var(x)?

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3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, Part 2 (2 mins)

You may now answer the third column of table in activity 1 based on what you know now.
What I Know QUESTION What I Learned

Draw a sketch of an exponential

function with y as the dependent
variable and x as the independent
variable.

What is an exponential distribution?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Encircle the correct answer.

1. The mean of the exponential distribution is . . .

1 1
a.
 b.
 2 c.  d. 2
2. The variance of the exponential distribution is . . .

1 1
a.
 b.
 2 c.  d. 2
3. A conversation follows an exponential distribution, f ( x)  e x , with a mean time of 3 minutes.
a) Find the probability that the conversation will be more than 5 minutes.

e 5
5
1 3 
5

a.
e b. e 15 c. e 3
d.
3 3

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b) Find the probability that the conversation will be less than 5 minutes.

e 5
5
1  
5

a.
1 e 3 b. 1  e 15 c. 1 e 3
d.
1
3 3

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
You are done with the session! Let's track your progress.
Period 1 Period 2 Period 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

What are some events having an exponential distribution?

Answer. The amount of time (beginning now) until an earthquake occurs; the amount of time, in months,
a car battery lasts. The exponential distribution is widely used in the study of the amount of time a
product lasts (field of reliability).

KEY TO CORRECTION
Activity #3
Solution:

a. From the probability density function for exponential random variables,


f ( x)  e x , and for this model,   1  1  0.20
mean 5

hence, the probability density function of the battery life is f ( x)  0.20e0.2 x .

0.2 x
b. Plot of f ( x)  0.20e versus x.

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2
P( X  2)  1  P( X  2)C , but P( X  2)  P( X  2)  0 0.20e dx   e
0.2 x 0.2 x 2
c.
C
 0.33
0

hence, P( X  2)  1  P( X  2)C  1  0.33  0.67

d. P(2  X  4)  P( X  4)  P( X  2)  [1  e (0.2)(4) ]  0.33  0.22

1 1
e. var( X )    25 var(x) =
 2
0.20 2

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