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“K29784_FM” — 2017/12/6 — 17:41 — page 2 — #2

CRC
STANDARD
MATHEMATICAL
TABLES AND
FORMULAS
33RD EDITION
 “K29784_FM” — 2017/12/6 — 17:41 — page 4 — #4

Advances in Applied Mathematics

Series Editor: Daniel Zwillinger

Published Titles
Advanced Engineering Mathematics with MATLAB, Fourth Edition
Dean G. Duffy
CRC Standard Curves and Surfaces with Mathematica®, Third Edition
David H. von Seggern
CRC Standard Mathematical Tables and Formulas, 33rd Edition
Dan Zwillinger
Dynamical Systems for Biological Modeling: An Introduction
Fred Brauer and Christopher Kribs
Fast Solvers for Mesh-Based Computations Maciej Paszyński
Green’s Functions with Applications, Second Edition Dean G. Duffy
Handbook of Peridynamic Modeling Floriin Bobaru, John T. Foster,
Philippe H. Geubelle, and Stewart A. Silling
Introduction to Financial Mathematics Kevin J. Hastings
Linear and Complex Analysis for Applications John P. D’Angelo
Linear and Integer Optimization: Theory and Practice, Third Edition
Gerard Sierksma and Yori Zwols
Markov Processes James R. Kirkwood
Pocket Book of Integrals and Mathematical Formulas, 5th Edition
Ronald J. Tallarida
Stochastic Partial Differential Equations, Second Edition Pao-Liu Chow
Quadratic Programming with Computer Programs Michael J. Best
 “K29784_FM” — 2017/12/6 — 17:41 — page 6 — #6

Advances in Applied Mathematics

CRC
STANDARD
MATHEMATICAL
TABLES AND
FORMULAS
33RD EDITION

Edited by
Dan Zwillinger
 “K29784_FM” — 2017/12/6 — 17:41 — page 8 — #8

MATLAB• is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks
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 “smtf33” — 2017/12/6 — 19:00 — page v — #1

Table of Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Chapter 1
Numbers and Elementary Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Proofs without words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Special numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4 Interval analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5 Fractal Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.6 Max-Plus Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.7 Coupled-analogues of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.8 Number theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.9 Series and products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Chapter 2
Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.1 Elementary algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.2 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.3 Vector algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.4 Linear and matrix algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.5 Abstract algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Chapter 3
Discrete Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.1 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.2 Combinatorics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.3 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.4 Combinatorial design theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.5 Difference equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

Chapter 4
Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.1 Euclidean geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.2 Grades and Degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.3 Coordinate systems in the plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.4 Plane symmetries or isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.5 Other transformations of the plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.6 Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.7 Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
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vi Table of Contents

4.8 Surfaces of revolution: the torus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

4.9 Quadrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
4.10 Spherical geometry and trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
4.11 Conics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
4.12 Special plane curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.13 Coordinate systems in space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4.14 Space symmetries or isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
4.15 Other transformations of space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
4.16 Direction angles and direction cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
4.17 Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
4.18 Lines in space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
4.19 Polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
4.20 Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.21 Cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.22 Differential geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

Chapter 5
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
5.1 Differential calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
5.2 Differential forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
5.3 Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
5.4 Table of indefinite integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
5.5 Table of definite integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
5.6 Ordinary differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
5.7 Partial differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
5.8 Integral equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
5.9 Tensor analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
5.10 Orthogonal coordinate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
5.11 Real analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
5.12 Generalized functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
5.13 Complex analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
5.14 Significant Mathematical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

Chapter 6
Special Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
6.1 Ceiling and floor functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
6.2 Exponentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
6.3 Exponential function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
6.4 Logarithmic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
6.5 Trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
6.6 Circular functions and planar triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
6.7 Tables of trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
6.8 Angle conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
6.9 Inverse circular functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
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Table of Contents vii

6.10 Hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

6.11 Inverse hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
6.12 Gudermannian function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
6.13 Orthogonal polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
6.14 Clebsch–Gordan coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
6.15 Bessel functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
6.16 Beta function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
6.17 Elliptic integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
6.18 Jacobian elliptic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
6.19 Error functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
6.20 Fresnel integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
6.21 Gamma function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
6.22 Hypergeometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
6.23 Lambert Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
6.24 Legendre functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
6.25 Polylogarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
6.26 Prolate Spheroidal Wave Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
6.27 Sine, cosine, and exponential integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
6.28 Weierstrass Elliptic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
6.29 Integral transforms: List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
6.30 Integral transforms: Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
6.31 Fourier integral transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
6.32 Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
6.33 Fast Fourier transform (FFT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
6.34 Multidimensional Fourier transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
6.35 Hankel transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
6.36 Hartley transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
6.37 Hilbert transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
6.38 Laplace transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
6.39 Mellin transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
6.40 Z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
6.41 Tables of transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517

Chapter 7
Probability and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
7.1 Probability theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
7.2 Classical probability problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
7.3 Probability distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
7.4 Queuing theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
7.5 Markov chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
7.6 Random number generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
7.7 Random matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
7.8 Control charts and reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
7.9 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
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viii Table of Contents

7.10 Confidence intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588

7.11 Tests of hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
7.12 Linear regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
7.13 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
7.14 Sample size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
7.15 Contingency tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
7.16 Acceptance sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
7.17 Probability tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628

Chapter 8
Scientific Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
8.1 Basic numerical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
8.2 Numerical linear algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
8.3 Numerical integration and differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
8.4 Programming techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688

Chapter 9
Mathematical Formulas from the Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
9.1 Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
9.2 Astrophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
9.3 Atmospheric physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
9.4 Atomic Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
9.5 Basic mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
9.6 Beam dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
9.7 Biological Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
9.8 Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
9.9 Classical mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
9.10 Coordinate systems – Astronomical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
9.11 Coordinate systems – Terrestrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
9.12 Earthquake engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
9.13 Economics (Macro) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
9.14 Electromagnetic Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
9.15 Electrostatics and magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
9.16 Electromagnetic Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
9.17 Electronic circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
9.18 Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
9.19 Fluid mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
9.20 Human body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
9.21 Modeling physical systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
9.22 Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
9.23 Population genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
9.24 Quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
9.25 Quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
9.26 Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
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Table of Contents ix

9.27 Relativistic mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721

9.28 Solid mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
9.29 Statistical mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
9.30 Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724

Chapter 10
Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
10.1 Calendar computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
10.2 Cellular automata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
10.3 Communication theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
10.4 Control theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
10.5 Computer languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
10.6 Compressive Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
10.7 Constrained Least Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
10.8 Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
10.9 Discrete dynamical systems and chaos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
10.10 Elliptic curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
10.11 Financial formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
10.12 Game theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
10.13 Knot theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
10.14 Lattices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
10.15 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
10.16 Moments of inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
10.17 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
10.18 Operations research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
10.19 Proof Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
10.20 Recreational mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782
10.21 Risk analysis and decision rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
10.22 Signal processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
10.23 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
10.24 Voting power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
10.25 Greek alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
10.26 Braille code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
10.27 Morse code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
10.28 Bar Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804

List of References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805

List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809

List of Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
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Preface
It has long been the established policy of CRC Press to publish, in handbook form,
the most up-to-date, authoritative, logically arranged, and readily usable reference
material available.
Just as pocket calculators have replaced tables of square roots and trig functions;
the internet has made printed tabulation of many tables and formulas unnecessary.
As the content and capabilities of the internet continue to grow, the content of this
book also evolves. For this edition of Standard Mathematical Tables and Formulae
the content was reconsidered and reviewed. The criteria for inclusion in this edition
includes:
• information that is immediately useful as a reference (e.g., interpretation of
powers of 10);
• information that is useful and not commonly known (e.g., proof methods);
• information that is more complete or concise than that which can be easily
found on the internet (e.g., table of conformal mappings);
• information difficult to find on the internet due to the challenges of entering an
appropriate query (e.g., integral tables).

Applying these criteria, practitioners from mathematics, engineering, and the sci-
ences have made changes in several sections and have added new material.
• The “Mathematical Formulas from the Sciences” chapter now includes topics
from biology, chemistry, and radar.
• Material has been augmented in many areas, including: acceptance sampling,
card games, lattices, and set operations.
• New material has been added on the following topics: continuous wavelet trans-
form, contour integration, coupled analogues, financial options, fractal arith-
metic, generating functions, linear temporal logic, matrix pseudospectra, max
plus algebra, proof methods, and two dimensional integrals.
• Descriptions of new functions have been added: Lambert, prolate spheroidal,
and Weierstrass.

Of course, the same successful format which has characterized earlier editions of the
Handbook has been retained. Material is presented in a multi-sectional format, with
each section containing a valuable collection of fundamental reference material—
tabular and expository.

xi
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xii Preface

In line with the established policy of CRC Press, the Handbook will be updated
in as current and timely manner as is possible. Suggestions for the inclusion of new
material in subsequent editions and comments regarding the present edition are wel-
comed. The home page for this book, which will include errata, will be maintained
at http://www.mathtable.com/smtf.
This new edition of the Handbook will continue to support the needs of practi-
tioners of mathematics in the mathematical and scientific fields, as it has for almost
90 years. Even as the internet becomes more powerful, it is this editor’s opinion that
the new edition will continue to be a valued reference.

MATLAB R is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc.

For product information please contact:
The MathWorks, Inc.
3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA, 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com

Every book takes time and care. This book would not have been possible without the
loving support of my wife, Janet Taylor, and my son, Kent Zwillinger.

May 2017
Daniel Zwillinger
[email protected]
 “smtf33” — 2017/12/6 — 19:00 — page xiii — #9

Editor-in-Chief
Daniel Zwillinger
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Troy, New York

Contributors

George E. Andrews Roger B. Nelsen

Evan Pugh University Professor in Professor Emeritus of Mathematics
Mathematics Lewis & Clark College
The Pennsylvania State University Portland, Oregon
University Park, Pennsylvania
Dr. Joseph J. Rushanan
MITRE Corporation
Lawrence Glasser Bedford, Massachusetts
Professor of Physics Emeritus
Clarkson University Dr. Les Servi
Potsdam, New York MITRE Corporation
Bedford, Massachusetts

Michael Mascagni Dr. Michael T. Strauss

Professor of Computer Science President HME
Professor of Mathematics Newburyport, Massachusetts
Professor of Scientific Computing
Florida State University Dr. Nico M. Temme
Tallahassee, Florida Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica
Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Ray McLenaghan Ahmed I. Zayed

Adjunct Professor in Department of Professor in Department of
Applied Mathematics Mathematical Sciences
University of Waterloo DePaul University
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada Chicago, Illinois

xiii
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Chapter 1
Numbers and
Elementary
Mathematics

1.1 PROOFS WITHOUT WORDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 CONSTANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Divisibility tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Decimal multiples and prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Binary prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.4 Interpretations of powers of 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.5 Numerals in different languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.6 Roman numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.7 Types of numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.8 Representation of numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.9 Representation of complex numbers – DeMoivre’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.10 Arrow notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.11 Ones and Twos Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.12 Symmetric base three representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.13 Hexadecimal addition and subtraction table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.14 Hexadecimal multiplication table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.3 SPECIAL NUMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.3.1 Powers of 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.2 Powers of 10 in hexadecimal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.3 Special constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.4 Factorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.5 Bernoulli polynomials and numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.6 Euler polynomials and numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.7 Fibonacci numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.8 Sums of powers of integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.9 Negative integer powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.10 Integer sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.11 p-adic Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3.12 de Bruijn sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1.4 INTERVAL ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1.5 FRACTAL ARITHMETIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1
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2 CHAPTER 1. NUMBERS AND ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS

1.6 MAX-PLUS ALGEBRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

1.7 COUPLED-ANALOGUES OF FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

1.7.1 Coupled-operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

1.8 NUMBER THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

1.8.1 Congruences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.8.2 Chinese remainder theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.8.3 Continued fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.8.4 Diophantine equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.8.5 Greatest common divisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.8.6 Least common multiple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.8.7 Möbius function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.8.8 Prime numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.8.9 Prime numbers of special forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.8.10 Prime numbers less than 7,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.8.11 Factorization table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.8.12 Euler totient function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

1.9 SERIES AND PRODUCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

1.9.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.9.2 General properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.9.3 Convergence tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.9.4 Types of series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.9.5 Fourier series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.9.6 Series expansions of special functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.9.7 Summation formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.9.8 Faster convergence: Shanks transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.9.9 Summability methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.9.10 Operations with power series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.9.11 Miscellaneous sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.9.12 Infinite products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.9.13 Infinite products and infinite series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
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1.1. PROOFS WITHOUT WORDS 3

1.1 PROOFS WITHOUT WORDS

A Property of the Sequence of Odd
Integers (Galileo, 1615)
1 1+3 1+3+5
The Pythagorean Theorem = = =...
3 5+7 7+9+11

—the Chou pei suan ching 1+3+ . . . +(2n–1) =

1
(author unknown, circa B.C. 200?) (2n+1)+(2n+3)+ . . . +(4n–1) 3

n(n+1)
1+2+ . . . + n =
2 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2n–1) = n
2

1 1 n(n+1)
1+2+ . . . +n = . n 2 + n . =
2 2 2
1+3+ . . . + (2n–1) = 1 (2n) 2 = n 2
—Ian Richards 4
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4 CHAPTER 1. NUMBERS AND ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS

Geometric Series Geometric Series

...
r2
r2

1–r r

1 1

1
2 3 2
1 1 1 1 1 + r + r + ... = 1
+ + + . .. = 1 1–r
4 4 4 3
—Benjamin G. Klein
—Rick Mabry and Irl C. Bivens

Addition Formulae for the Sine The Distance Between a Point and a Line
and Cosine
y
sinxsiny
cosxsiny

(a,ma + c)
sin

x
y

1
m
1+

m
|ma + c – b|
1
sy
sinxcosy

co
y
d
(a,b)
x x
cosxcosy y = mx + c

d |ma + c – b|
=
sin(x + y) = sinxcosy + cosxsiny 1 1 + m2
cos(x + y) = cosxcosy – sinxsiny —R. L. Eisenman
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1.2. CONSTANTS 5

The Arithmetic Mean-Geometric Mean The Mediant Property

Inequality a c a a +c c
< < <
a+b b d b b +d d
a,b > 0 ab
2

c
a+b
2
d
ab a a

a b b d

—Charles D. Gallant —Richard A. Gibbs

Reprinted from “Proofs Without Words: Exercises in Visual Thinking,” by

Roger B. Nelsen, 1997, MAA, pages: 3, 40, 49, 60, 70, 72, 115, 120. Copyright
The Mathematical Association of America. All rights reserved.
Reprinted from “Proofs Without Words II: More Exercises in Visual Thinking,”
by Roger B. Nelsen, 2001, MAA, pages 46, 111. Copyright The Mathematical As-
sociation of America. All rights reserved.

1.2 CONSTANTS
1.2.1 DIVISIBILITY TESTS
1.
Divisibility by 2: the last digit is divisible by 2
2.
Divisibility by 3: the sum of the digits is divisible by 3
3.
Divisibility by 4: the number formed from the last 2 digits is divisible by 4
4.
Divisibility by 5: the last digit is either 0 or 5
5.
Divisibility by 6: is divisible by both 2 and 3
6.
Divisibility by 9: the sum of the digits is divisible by 9
7.
Divisibility by 10: the last digit is 0
8.
Divisibility by 11: the difference between the sum of the odd digits and the
sum of the even digits is divisible by 11
EXAMPLE Consider the number N = 1036728.
• The last digit is 8, so N is divisible by 2.
• The last two digits are 28 which is divisible by 4, so N is divisible by 4.
• The sum of the digits is 27 = 1 + 0 + 3 + 6 + 7 + 2 + 8. This is divisible by 3, so N
is divisible by 3. This is also divisible by 9, so N is divisible by 9.
• The sum of the odd digits is 19 = 1 + 3 + 7 + 8 and the sum of the even digits is
8 = 6 + 2; the difference is 19 − 8 = 11. This is divisible by 11, so N is divisible
by 11.
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6 CHAPTER 1. NUMBERS AND ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS

1.2.2 DECIMAL MULTIPLES AND PREFIXES

The prefix names and symbols below are taken from Conference Générale des Poids
et Mesures, 1991. The common names are for the United States.

Factor Prefix Symbol Common name

100
10(10 )
googolplex
10100 googol
1024 yotta Y heptillion
1021 zetta Z hexillion
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 1018 exa E quintillion
1 000 000 000 000 000 = 1015 peta P quadrillion
1 000 000 000 000 = 1012 tera T trillion
1 000 000 000 = 109 giga G billion
1 000 000 = 106 mega M million
1 000 = 103 kilo k thousand
100 = 102 hecto H hundred
10 = 101 deka da ten
0.1 = 10−1 deci d tenth
0.01 = 10−2 centi c hundredth
0.001 = 10−3 milli m thousandth
0.000 001 = 10−6 micro µ millionth
0.000 000 001 = 10−9 nano n billionth
0.000 000 000 001 = 10−12 pico p trillionth
0.000 000 000 000 001 = 10−15 femto f quadrillionth
0.000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10−18 atto a quintillionth
10−21 zepto z hexillionth
10−24 yocto y heptillionth

1.2.3 BINARY PREFIXES

A byte is 8 bits. A kibibyte is 210 = 1024 bytes. Other prefixes for power of 2 are:
Factor Prefix Symbol
210 kibi Ki
220 mebi Mi
230 gibi Gi
240 tebi Ti
250 pebi Pi
260 exbi Ei
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1.2. CONSTANTS 7

1.2.4 INTERPRETATIONS OF POWERS OF 10

10−43 Planck time in seconds
10−35 Planck length in meters
10−30 mass of an electron in kilograms
10−27 mass of a proton in kilograms
10−15 the radius of the hydrogen nucleus (a proton) in meters
10−11 the likelihood of being dealt 13 top honors in bridge
10−10 the (Bohr) radius of a hydrogen atom in meters
10−9 the number of seconds it takes light to travel one foot
10−6 the likelihood of being dealt a royal flush in poker
100 the density of water is 1 gram per milliliter
101 the number of fingers that people have
102 the number of stable elements in the periodic table
104 the speed of the Earth around the sun in meters/second
105 the number of hairs on a human scalp
106 the number of words in the English language
107 the number of seconds in a year
108 the speed of light in meters per second
109 the number of heartbeats in a lifetime for most mammals
1010 the number of people on the earth
1011 the distance from the Earth to the sun in meters
1013 diameter of the solar system in meters
1014 number of cells in the human body
1015 the surface area of the earth in square meters
1016 the number of meters light travels in one year
1017 the age of the universe in seconds
1018 the volume of water in the earth’s oceans in cubic meters
1019 the number of possible positions of Rubik’s cube
1021 the volume of the earth in cubic meters
1024 the number of grains of sand in the Sahara desert
1025 the mass of the earth in kilograms
1030 the mass of the sun in kilograms
1050 the number of atoms in the earth
1052 the mass of the observable universe in kilograms
1054 the number of elements in the monster group
1078 the volume of the universe in cubic meters

(Note: these numbers have been rounded to the nearest power of ten.)
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8 CHAPTER 1. NUMBERS AND ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS

1.2.5 NUMERALS IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGES

1.2.6 ROMAN NUMERALS

The major symbols in Roman numerals are I = 1, V = 5, X = 10, L = 50, C = 100,
D = 500, and M = 1,000. The rules for constructing Roman numerals are:
1. A symbol following one of equal or greater value adds its value. (For example,
II = 2, XI = 11, and DV = 505.)
2. A symbol following one of lesser value has the lesser value subtracted from
the larger value. An I is only allowed to precede a V or an X, an X is only
allowed to precede an L or a C, and a C is only allowed to precede a D or
an M. (For example IV = 4, IX = 9, and XL = 40.)
3. When a symbol stands between two of greater value, its value is subtracted
from the second and the result is added to the first. (For example, XIV=
10+(5−1) = 14, CIX= 100+(10−1) = 109, DXL= 500+(50−10) = 540.)
4. When two ways exist for representing a number, the one in which the symbol
of larger value occurs earlier in the string is preferred. (For example, 14 is
represented as XIV, not as VIX.)
Decimal number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Roman numeral I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX
10 14 50 200 400 500 600 999 1000
X XIV L CC CD D DC CMXCIX M
1995 1999 2000 2001 2017 2018
MCMXCV MCMXCIX MM MMI MMXVII MMXVIII
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1.2. CONSTANTS 9

1.2.7 TYPES OF NUMBERS

1. Natural numbers The set of natural numbers, {0, 1, 2, . . .}, is customarily
denoted by N. Many authors do not consider 0 to be a natural number.
2. Integers The set of integers, {0, ±1, ±2, . . .}, is customarily denoted by Z.
3. Rational numbers The set of rational numbers, { pq | p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0}, is
customarily denoted by Q.
(a) Two fractions pq and rs are equal if and only if ps = qr.
(b) Addition of fractions is defined by pq + rs = ps+qr
qs .
(c) Multiplication of fractions is defined by pq · rs = pr
qs .

4. Real numbers Real numbers are defined to be converging sequences of

rational numbers or as decimals that might or might not repeat. The set of real
numbers is customarily denoted by R.
Real numbers can be divided into two subsets. One subset, the algebraic num-
bers, are real numbers which solve√a polynomial equation in one variable with
integer coefficients. For example; 2 is an algebraic number because it solves
the polynomial equation x2 − 2 = 0; and all rational numbers are algebraic.
Real numbers that are not algebraic numbers are called transcendental num-
bers. Examples of transcendental numbers include π and e.
5. Definition of infinity The real numbers are extended to R by the inclusion
of +∞ and −∞ with the following definitions

(a) for x in R: −∞ < x < ∞ (e) if x > 0 then x · ∞ = ∞

(b) for x in R: x + ∞ = ∞ (f) if x > 0 then x·(−∞) = −∞
(c) for x in R: x − ∞ = −∞ (g) ∞+∞= ∞
(h) −∞ − ∞ = −∞
x x
(d) for x in R: = =0 (i) ∞·∞= ∞
∞ −∞
(j) −∞ · (−∞) = ∞
6. Complex numbers The set of complex numbers is customarily denoted
by C. They are numbers of the form a + bi, where i2 = −1, and a and b are
real numbers.
Operation computation result
addition (a + bi) + (c + di) (a + c) + i(b + d)
multiplication (a + bi)(c + di) (ac − bd) 
 + (ad + bc)i 
1 a b
reciprocal 2 2
− i
a + bi a +b a + b2
2
complex conjugate z = a + bi z = a − bi

Properties include: z + w = z + w and zw = z w.

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10 CHAPTER 1. NUMBERS AND ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS

1.2.8 REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS

Numerals as usually written have radix or base 10, so the numeral an an−1 . . . a1 a0
represents the number an 10n + an−1 10n−1 + · · · + a2 102 + a1 10 + a0 . However,
other bases can be used, particularly bases 2, 8, and 16. When a number is written in
base 2, the number is said to be in binary notation. The names of other bases are:
2 binary 6 senary 10 decimal 20 vigesimal
3 ternary 7 septenary 11 undenary 60 sexagesimal
4 quaternary 8 octal 12 duodecimal
5 quinary 9 nonary 16 hexadecimal
When writing a number in base b, the digits used range from 0 to b − 1. If
b > 10, then the digit A stands for 10, B for 11, etc. When a base other than 10 is
used, it is indicated by a subscript:

101112 = 1 × 24 + 0 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 1 × 2 + 1 = 23,
A316 = 10 × 16 + 3 = 163, (1.2.1)
2
5437 = 5 × 7 + 4 × 7 + 3 = 276.

To convert a number from base 10 to base b, divide the number by b, and the
remainder will be the last digit. Then divide the quotient by b, using the remainder
as the previous digit. Continue this process until a quotient of 0 is obtained.
EXAMPLE To convert 573 to base 12, divide 573 by 12, yielding a quotient of 47 and a
remainder of 9; hence, “9” is the last digit. Divide 47 by 12, yielding a quotient of 3 and
a remainder of 11 (which we represent with a “B”). Divide 3 by 12 yielding a quotient
of 0 and a remainder of 3. Therefore, 57310 = 3B912 .
Converting from base b to base r can be done by converting to and from base
10. However, it is simple to convert from base b to base bn . For example, to con-
vert 1101111012 to base 16, group the digits in fours (because 16 is 24 ), yielding
1 1011 11012, and then convert each group of 4 to base 16 directly, yielding 1BD16 .

1.2.9 REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS –

DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM
A complex number a + bi can be written in the form reiθ , where r2 = a2 + b2 and
tan θ = b/a. Because eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ,

(a + bi)n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ),

√
n 2kπ 2kπ
1 = cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1. (1.2.2)
n n
√
n (2k + 1)π (2k + 1)π
−1 = cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1.
n n
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1.2. CONSTANTS 11

1.2.10 ARROW NOTATION

{z· · · m},
Arrow notation is used to represent large numbers. Start with m ↑ n = |m · m
n
then (evaluation proceeds from the right)
m ↑↑ n = m ↑ m ↑ · · · ↑ m m ↑↑↑ n = m ↑↑ m ↑↑ · · · ↑↑ m
| {z } | {z }
n n
(mm )
For example, m ↑ n = m , m ↑↑ 2 = m , and m ↑↑ 3 = m
n m
.
1.2.11 ONES AND TWOS COMPLEMENT
One’s and two’s complement are ways to represent numbers in a computer. For
positive values the binary representation, the ones’ complement representation, and
the twos’ complement representation are the same.


• Ones’ complement represents integers from − 2N −1 − 1 to 2N −1 − 1. For
negative values, the binary representation of the absolute value is obtained, and
then all of the bits are inverted (i.e., swapping 0’s for 1’s and vice versa).
• Twos’ complement represents integers from −2N −1 to 2N −1 − 1. For negative
vales, the two’s complement representation is the same as the value one added
to the ones’ complement representation.
Number Ones’ complement Twos’ complement
7 0111 0111
6 0110 0110
5 0101 0101
4 0100 0100
3 0011 0011
2 0010 0010
1 0001 0001
0 0000 0000
−0 1111
−1 1110 1111
−2 1101 1110
−3 1100 1101
−4 1011 1100
−5 1010 1011
−6 1001 1010
−7 1000 1001
−8 1000

1.2.12 SYMMETRIC BASE THREE REPRESENTATION

In the symmetric base three representation, powers of 3 are added and subtracted
to represent numbers; the symbols {↓, 0, ↑} represent {−1, 0, 1}. For example, one
writes ↑↓↓ for 5 since 5 = 9−3−1. To negate a number in symmetric base three, turn
its symbol upside down, e.g., −5 =↓↑↑. Basic arithmetic operations are especially
simple in this base.
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12 CHAPTER 1. NUMBERS AND ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS

1.2.13 HEXADECIMAL ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION TABLE

A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15.
Example: 6 + 2 = 8; hence 8 − 6 = 2 and 8 − 2 = 6.
Example: 4 + E = 12; hence 12 − 4 = E and 12 − E = 4.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
1 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10
2 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11
3 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11 12
4 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11 12 13
5 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11 12 13 14
6 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11 12 13 14 15
7 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
8 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
9 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A
C 0D 0E 0F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B
D 0E 0F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C
E 0F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C 1D
F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E

1.2.14 HEXADECIMAL MULTIPLICATION TABLE

Example: 2 × 4 = 8.
Example: 2 × F = 1E.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
1 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F
2 02 04 06 08 0A 0C 0E 10 12 14 16 18 1A 1C 1E
3 03 06 09 0C 0F 12 15 18 1B 1E 21 24 27 2A 2D
4 04 08 0C 10 14 18 1C 20 24 28 2C 30 34 38 3C
5 05 0A 0F 14 19 1E 23 28 2D 32 37 3C 41 46 4B
6 06 0C 12 18 1E 24 2A 30 36 3C 42 48 4E 54 5A
7 07 0E 15 1C 23 2A 31 38 3F 46 4D 54 5B 62 69
8 08 10 18 20 28 30 38 40 48 50 58 60 68 70 78
9 09 12 1B 24 2D 36 3F 48 51 5A 63 6C 75 7E 87
A 0A 14 1E 28 32 3C 46 50 5A 64 6E 78 82 8C 96
B 0B 16 21 2C 37 42 4D 58 63 6E 79 84 8F 9A A5
C 0C 18 24 30 3C 48 54 60 6C 78 84 90 9C A8 B4
D 0D 1A 27 34 41 4E 5B 68 75 82 8F 9C A9 B6 C3
E 0E 1C 2A 38 46 54 62 70 7E 8C 9A A8 B6 C4 D2
F 0F 1E 2D 3C 4B 5A 69 78 87 96 A5 B4 C3 D2 E1
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1.3. SPECIAL NUMBERS 13

1.3 SPECIAL NUMBERS

1.3.1 POWERS OF 2
1 2 0.5
2 4 0.25
3 8 0.125
4 16 0.0625
5 32 0.03125
6 64 0.015625
7 128 0.0078125
8 256 0.00390625
9 512 0.001953125
10 1024 0.0009765625
11 2048 0.00048828125
12 4096 0.000244140625
13 8192 0.0001220703125
14 16384 0.00006103515625
15 32768 0.000030517578125
16 65536 0.0000152587890625
17 131072 0.00000762939453125
18 262144 0.000003814697265625
19 524288 0.0000019073486328125
20 1048576 0.00000095367431640625
21 2097152 0.000000476837158203125
22 4194304 0.0000002384185791015625
23 8388608 0.00000011920928955078125
24 16777216 0.000000059604644775390625
25 33554432 0.0000000298023223876953125

1.3.2 POWERS OF 10 IN HEXADECIMAL

n 10n 10−n
0 116 116
1 A 16 0.19999999999999999999. . .16
2 64 16 0.028F5C28F5C28F5C28F5. . .16
3 3E8 16 0.004189374BC6A7EF9DB2. . .16
4 2710 16 0.00068DB8BAC710CB295E. . .16
5 186A0 16 0.0000A7C5AC471B478423. . .16
6 F4240 16 0.000010C6F7A0B5ED8D36. . .16
7 989680 16 0.000001AD7F29ABCAF485. . .16
8 5F5E100 16 0.0000002AF31DC4611873. . .16
9 3B9ACA00 16 0.000000044B82FA09B5A5. . .16
10 2540BE400 16 0.000000006DF37F675EF6. . .16
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14 CHAPTER 1. NUMBERS AND ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS

1.3.3 SPECIAL CONSTANTS

1.3.3.1 The constant π
The transcendental number π is defined as the ratio of the circumference of a circle
to the diameter. It is also the ratio of the area of a circle to the square of the radius
(r) and appears in several formulas in geometry and trigonometry
4 3
circumference of a circle = 2πr, volume of a sphere = πr ,
3
area of a circle = πr2 , surface area of a sphere = 4πr2 .
One method of computing π is to use the infinite series for the function tan−1 x and
one of the identities
1
π = 4 tan−1 1 = 6 tan−1 √
3
1 1 1 1
= 2 tan−1 + 2 tan−1 + 8 tan−1 − 2 tan−1
2 3 5 239 (1.3.1)
−1 1 −1 1 −1 1
= 24 tan + 8 tan + 4 tan
8 57 239
−1 1 −1 1 1
= 48 tan + 32 tan − 20 tan−1
18 57 239
There are many identities involving π. For example:
X∞  
1 4 2 1 1
π= − − −
i=0
16i 8i + 1 8i + 4 8i + 5 8i + 6
v v
u u v
u u u v
u u u s r
u u u u q
u u t t √
kt t
π = lim 2 2 − 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ···+ 2 + 2
k→∞
| {z }
k square roots
k square roots
z
s }| {
r q
√
2
∞
Y 2+ 2 + ···+ 2 + 2
=
π 2
k=1
X∞
π3 (−1)n 1 1 1
= =1− + − + ...
32 n=0 (2n + 1)3 27 125 343

To 100 decimal places:

π ≈ 3. 14159 26535 89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 41971 69399 37510
58209 74944 59230 78164 06286 20899 86280 34825 34211 70679
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
that the Christian religion was almost entirely destroyed in his
kingdom, set himself zealously to restore it; and, after long
considering the matter in his own mind and taking advice with other
Christians who were in his confidence, he discovered no more
healthful plan by which he could bring it to a successful result than to
send messengers to Saint Kentigern, to recall him to his first see.’ It
was by the great battle of Ardderyd, fought at Arthuret on the river
Esk a few miles north of Carlisle, in which the pagan and Christian
parties met in conflict, and a decisive struggle for the supremacy
took place between them, that the victory of the Christian chiefs
placed Rydderch Hael, or the Liberal, on the throne; and as this
battle took place in the year 573, it gives us a fixed date for the recall
of Kentigern. He responded to the call, and, having appointed
Asaph, one of the monks, his successor, he enthroned him in the
cathedral see; and, ‘blessing and taking leave of them all he went
forth by the north door of the church, because he was going forth to
combat the northern enemy. After he had gone out, that door was
closed, and all who witnessed and heard of his egress and departure
bewailed his absence with great lamentations. Hence a custom grew
up in that church that that door should never be opened save once a
year, on the day of St. Asaph, that is, on the kalends of May, for two
reasons—first in deference to the sanctity of him who had gone forth,
and next that thereby was indicated the great grief of those who had
bewailed his departure.’ Jocelyn tells us that six hundred and sixty-
five of the monks accompanied him, and that three hundred only
remained with St. Asaph.[369]
Kentigern fixes his King Rydderch and his people went forth to
see first at meet him, and they encountered each other at a
Hoddam. place called Holdelm, now Hoddam, in
Dumfriesshire, where Kentigern addressed the multitude who had
assembled to meet him; and in the supposed address which Jocelyn
puts in his mouth we have probably a correct enough representation
of the paganism which still clung to the people and influenced their
belief—a sort of cross between their old Celtic heathenism and that
derived from their pagan neighbours the Angles, who now occupied
the eastern districts of their country. According to Jocelyn, he
showed them ‘that idols were dumb, the vain inventions of men, fitter
for the fire than for worship. He showed that the elements, in which
they believed as deities, were creatures and formations adapted by
the disposition of their Maker to the use, help and assistance of men.
But Woden, whom they, and especially the Angles, believed to be
the chief deity, from whom they derived their origin, and to whom the
fourth day of the week is dedicated, he asserted with probability to
have been a mortal man, king of the Saxons, by faith a pagan, from
whom they and many nations have their descent.’ The ground on
which he sat there ‘grew into a little hill, and remaineth there unto
this day;’ and ‘men and women, old men and young men, rich and
poor, flock to the man of God to be instructed in the faith.’ And here
he fixed his see for a time; for Jocelyn then tells us that ‘the holy
bishop Kentigern, building churches in Holdelm, ordaining priests
and clerics, placed his see there for a time for a certain reason;
afterwards, warned by divine revelation, justice demanding it, he
transferred it to his own city Glasgow.’[370]
Mission of It was while his see was still at Hoddam, and
Kentigern in before he returned to Glasgow, that we are told
Galloway, Alban, by Jocelyn that Kentigern, ‘after he had converted
and Orkneys.
what was nearest to him, that is to say, his
diocese, going forth to more distant places, cleansed from the
foulness of idolatry and the contagion of heresy the home of the
Picts, which is now called Galwiethia, with the adjacent parts.’ There
are, however, in Galloway proper no dedications to Kentigern, which
somewhat militates against the accuracy of this statement. We are
also told that ‘he went to Albania, and there with great and almost
unbearable toil, often exposed to death by the snares of the
barbarians, but ever standing undeterred, strong in the faith, the Lord
working with him and giving power to the voice of his preaching, he
reclaimed that land from the worship of idols and from profane rites
that were almost equal to idolatry, to the landmarks of faith, and the
customs of the church, and the laws of the canons. For there he
erected many churches, and dedicated them when erected,
ordaining priests and clerics; and he consecrated many of his
disciples bishops. He also founded many monasteries in these parts,
and placed over them as fathers the disciples whom he had
instructed.’[371] By Albania are meant the eastern districts of Scotland
north of the Firth of Forth, and Jocelyn here entirely ignores the work
of Columba; but that the missionary labours of Kentigern were to
some extent carried into these northern districts appears from the
dedications to him; and, strangely enough, the traces of his
missionary work are mainly to be found north of the great range of
the Mounth, where, in the upper valley of the Dee, on the north side
of the river, we find a group of dedications which must have
proceeded from a Welsh source. These are Glengairden dedicated
to Mungo, or Kentigern, Migvie and Lumphanan to Finan, the latter
name being a corruption of Llanffinan, and Midmar dedicated to
Nidan; while in the island of Anglesea we likewise find two adjacent
parishes called Llanffinan and Llannidan. In the Welsh Calendar
Nidan appears on 30th September, and his pedigree in the Bonedd y
Seint makes him a grandson of Pasgen, son of Urien, and therefore
a cousin of Kentigern.[372] Jocelyn’s statement that Kentigern likewise
sent forth missionaries ‘towards the Orcades, Norwagia and
Ysalanda,’ or Iceland, must be rejected as improbable in itself and
inconsistent with the older and more trustworthy account given by
Diciul, the Irish geographer, in the early part of the ninth century, that
the earliest Christian missionaries to the northern islands were
anchorites who had all proceeded from Ireland.[373] ‘All this being duly
done,’ says Jocelyn, ‘he returned to his own church of Glasgow,
where as elsewhere, yea, where as everywhere, he was known to
shine in many and great miracles;’ and among those which he
relates is the incident of the queen’s ring found in the salmon, which
appears in the arms of the city of Glasgow.
Meeting of The only remaining incident which may be
Kentigern and considered as historical is the meeting of
Columba. Kentigern with Columba. Adamnan tells us that
‘King Roderc, son of Tothail, who reigned on the rock of Cluaith,’ that
is, at Alcluith, or Dumbarton, ‘being on friendly terms with the holy
man, sent to him on one occasion a secret message by Lugbe
Mocumin, as he was anxious to know whether he would be killed by
his enemies, or not,’ and received from the saint the assurance that
he should never be delivered into the hands of his enemies, but
would die at home on his own pillow; and, says Adamnan, ‘the
prophecy of the saint regarding King Roderc was fully accomplished,
for, according to his word, he died quietly in his own house.’[374] It is
plain, therefore, on better authority than that of Jocelyn, that during
King Rydderch’s life some friendly intercourse had taken place
between him and his people and Columba, and that clerics
proceeded from Iona to Strathclyde. This could hardly have taken
place without a meeting between the two saints, though Adamnan
does not mention the name of Kentigern. Kentigern could hardly
have returned to Glasgow much before 582; and we have seen that,
after 584, Columba extended his missionary work into the region
about the river Tay. He would thus be brought very near to the
frontiers of the Strathclyde kingdom, and so be led to visit Kentigern.
Jocelyn’s description of the meeting is too graphic to be omitted.
‘Saint Columba the abbot, whom the Angles call Columkillus, a man
wonderful for doctrine and virtues, celebrated for his presage of
future events, full of the spirit of prophecy, and living in that glorious
monastery which he had erected in the island of Yi, desired
earnestly, not once and away, but continually, to rejoice in the light of
Saint Kentigern. For, hearing for a long time of the fame in which he
was estimated, he desired to approach him, to visit him, to behold
him, to come into his close intimacy, and to consult the sanctuary of
his holy breath regarding the things which lay near his own heart.
And, when the proper time came, the holy father Saint Columba
went forth, and a great company of his disciples and others, who
desired to behold and look upon the face of so great a man, went
with him. When he approached the place called Mellindonor, where
the saint abode at the time, he divided all his people into three
bands, and sent forward a message to announce to the holy prelate
his own arrival and that of those who accompanied him. The holy
pontiff was glad when they said unto him these things concerning
them, and, calling together his clergy and people similarly in three
bands, he went forth with spiritual songs to meet them. In the front of
the procession were placed the juniors in the order of time; in the
second, those more advanced in years; in the third, with himself,
walked the aged in length of days, white and hoary, venerable in
countenance, gesture and bearing, yea, even in grey hairs. And all
sang “In the ways of the Lord how great is the glory of the Lord;” and
again they answered, “The way of the just is made straight, and the
path of the saints prepared.” On Saint Columba’s side, they sang
with tuneful voices, “The saints shall go from strength to strength,
until with the God of gods appeareth every one in Sion,” with the
“Alleluia.”’ When they met, ‘they mutually embraced and kissed each
other, and,’ says Jocelyn, naïvely enough, ‘having first satiated
themselves with the spiritual banquet of divine words, they after that
refreshed themselves with bodily food.’ Jocelyn then narrates a
miracle of the usual character, and concludes by telling us that ‘they
interchanged their pastoral staves, in pledge and testimony of their
mutual love in Christ. But the staff which Saint Columba gave to the
holy bishop Kentigern was preserved for a long time in the church of
Saint Wilfrid, bishop and confessor at Ripon, and held in great
reverence, on account of the sanctity both of him who gave it and of
him who received it.’[375] It must, however, have reached Ripon after
St. Wilfrid’s time, as otherwise he could hardly have expressed
ignorance of Columba, as he did at the council of Whitby. Jocelyn
concludes by saying that, ‘during several days, these saints, passing
the time together, mutually conversed on the things of God and what
concerned the salvation of souls; then saying farewell, with mutual
love, they returned to their homes, never to meet again.’
Death of Of Kentigern’s death Jocelyn gives the
Kentigern. following strange account, which probably reports
the tradition of the church:—‘When the octave of the Lord’s
Epiphany, on which the gentle bishop himself had been wont every
year to wash a multitude of people in sacred baptism, was dawning
—a day very acceptable to Saint Kentigern and to the spirits of the
sons of his adoption—the holy man, borne by their hands, entered a
vessel filled with hot water, which he had first blessed with the sign
of salvation; and a circle of the brethren standing round him awaited
the issue of the event. And when the saint had been some little time
in it, after lifting his hands and his eyes to heaven, and bowing his
head as if sinking into a calm sleep, he yielded up his spirit.’ ‘The
disciples, seeing what was taking place, lifted the body out of the
bath, and eagerly strove with each other to enter the water; and so,
one by one, before the water cooled, they slept in the Lord in great
peace; and, having tasted death along with their holy bishop, they
entered with him into the mansions of heaven.’ ‘The brethren,’
continues Jocelyn, ‘stripped the saint of his ordinary clothes, which
they partly reserved and partly distributed as precious relics, and
clothed him in the consecrated garments which became so great a
bishop. Then he was carried by the brethren into the choir with
chants and psalms, and the life-giving victim was offered to God for
him by many. Diligently and most devoutly, as the custom of the
church in those days demanded, celebrated they his funeral; and on
the right side of the altar laid they beneath a stone, with as much
becoming reverence as they could, that abode of virtues, etc. The
sacred remains of all these brethren were devoutly and disposedly
consigned to the cemetery for sepulture, in the order in which they
had followed the holy bishop out of this life.’[376] He is thus said to
have died on the 13th of January, which is the octave of the
Epiphany. If we are to understand that he died on a Sunday, then the
year of his death may most probably be fixed as 603, in which year
the 13th of January fell upon a Sunday. The Annales Cambriæ,
however, record his death in the year 612, which may otherwise be
accepted as the true date.[377] Jocelyn tells us that he died full of
years, when he was one hundred and eighty-five years old, but we
cannot give him so many years. Such long periods of life are not an
unusual feature in the traditionary acts of these early saints, and are
usually inserted to reconcile some anachronism in the events of their
life. The great anachronism in Kentigern’s life is the tale that he was
a disciple of Servanus, and the latter of Palladius, and as Palladius
died in the year 432, one hundred and eighty years before the death
of Kentigern according to the Cambrian Annals, this long life was
given him in order to fill up the interval; but, if we drop the century
which has been added to it, we shall find that a life of eighty-five
years is more consistent with the narrative, and furnishes us with an
unexceptionable chronology. This would place his birth either at 518
or 527, according to the date we assume for his death; and, as
Jocelyn states that he was twenty-five when he was consecrated a
bishop, this gives us 543 or 552 as the date of it. We have thus an
interval of about twenty or twenty-five years for his life at Glasgow,
his expulsion to Wales, and his foundation of the monastery of
Llanelwy, as his return under the auspices of King Rydderch must
have taken place soon after the year 573.
 627.
A.D. Of the immediate successors of Kentigern we
Conversion of the have no record whatever; but a quarter of a
Angles to century had not elapsed from his death when the
Christianity.
nation of the Angles were by the conversion of
their king Aeduin, brought over to the Christian faith. Bede tells us
that Aeduin was baptized at York by Paulinus on the holy day of
Easter in the year 627, and that, ‘at a certain time, coming with the
king and queen to the royal seat which is called Adgefrin, now
Yevering, one of the Cheviots near Wooler, Paulinus stayed there
with them thirty-six days, fully occupied in catechising and baptizing;
during all which days from morning till night he did nothing else but
instruct the people resorting thither from all villages and places in
Christ’s saving word, and, when instructed, he washed them with the
water of remission in the river Glen, which is close by.’ ‘These
things,’ says Bede, ‘happened in the province of the Bernicians,’[378]
which at this time extended to the Firth of Forth. By the continuator
of Nennius, however, a different tradition has been handed down to
us. He states that ‘Eadguin received baptism on Easter day, and that
twelve thousand men were baptized along with him;’ and adds, ‘If
any one would know who baptized them, Rum, son of Urbgen,
baptized them, and for forty days did not cease to baptize the whole
nation of the Ambrones; and by his preaching many believed in
Christ.’[379] The Urbgen of Nennius is the Urien of the Welsh pedigree
of Kentigern, which would place Rum in the position of being his
uncle, which is hardly possible. But the tradition seems to indicate
that the Cumbrian Church did play a part in the conversion of their
Anglic neighbours; and the Angles occupying the district between the
Tweed and Forth, being more immediately within their reach and
coming directly in contact with them, may have owed their
conversion to one who was of the same race as Kentigern, and, as
belonging to the tribe of the patron saint, had succeeded him as
head of the Cumbrian Church. Be this as it may, the short-lived
church of Paulinus could not have had much permanent effect in
leavening these Anglic tribes with Christianity; and the whole of the
Cumbrian and Anglic districts were speedily thrown into confusion by
the revolution which restored paganism for a time under the pagan
Anglic king Penda and the apostate Welsh king Ceadwalla. When
Christianity was again revived in Northumbria, it was in a different
form, and one more assimilated to the church of Kentigern; but the
Cumbrian kingdom fell, not long after, under the dominion of the
Angles; and during the period of their rule there was probably no
independent church there. It is to the Columban Church, established
in Northumbria by King Osuald in 635, that we must look for the
permanent conversion of the Angles who occupied the eastern
districts between the Tweed and the Forth, and for the foundation of
churches, or rather Columban monasteries, among them. The two
principal of these were founded, the one by Aidan, the first of the
Columban bishops; the second, in the time of Finan, his successor.
Bede tells us that on the arrival of Aidan, ‘the king appointed him his
episcopal see in the island of Lindisfarne, as he himself desired,’ and
that ‘churches were built in several places; the people joyfully flocked
together to hear the Word; possessions and lands were given of the
king’s bounty to build monasteries; the younger Angles were by their
Scottish masters instructed.’[380] And in another place he says that,
when Aidan was first made bishop, ‘he received twelve boys of the
Anglic nation to be instructed in Christ.’[381]
The monasteries ‘Among the monasteries so founded by him
in Lothian. was that of Mailros, situated on the banks of the
Tweed not far from the later foundation at the place, and called Old
Melrose, a peninsula nearly surrounded by the Tweed, which is
overhung on the farther side by its lofty precipitous banks, and is
strongly guarded by natural defences on every quarter except the
south, where a wall was drawn across the narrow isthmus.’[382] And
the first abbot we hear of in connection with this monastery was
Eata, one of the twelve boys whom Aidan had instructed.[383] The
other monastery was that termed by Bede Urbs Coludi, the Saxon
equivalent of which is Coldingaham, now Coldingham, built on a rock
overhanging the sea, a short way south of the promontory termed
Saint Abb’s Head. The neck of land on which it was built stretches
into the sea, having for its three sides perpendicular rocks of great
elevation. The fourth side was cut off from the mainland, and
rendered impregnable, by a high wall and deep trench.[384] This
monastery was founded by Aebba, daughter of King Aedilfrid, and
half-sister of the kings Osuald and Osuiu, who became its first
abbess.[385] It was a double monastery, and contained two distinct
communities of men and of women, who lived under her single
government. It is from her that the promontory of Saint Abb’s Head
takes its name.
Saint Cuthbert. But, if the great name in the Cumbrian Church
was that of Kentigern, that which left its greatest
impress in Lothian, and one with which the monastery of Mailros was
peculiarly connected, was that of Cudberct, popularly called Saint
Cuthbert. Several Lives of him have come down to us; but
undoubtedly the one which, from its antiquity, is most deserving of
credit, is that by the venerable Bede. In this respect Cudberct was
more fortunate even than Columba, for this Life was written within
forty years of his death. Bede, too, was born in the lifetime of the
saint whose life he records, and must have been about thirteen
years old when he died; and he tells us himself that he had
frequently shown his manuscript to ‘Herefrid the priest, as well as to
several other persons who, from having long dwelt with the man of
God, were thoroughly acquainted with his life, that they might read it
and deliberately correct or expunge what they judged advisable.’
‘Some of these amendments,’ he adds, ‘I carefully adopted at their
suggestion, as seemed good to me; and thus, all scruples having
been entirely removed, I have ventured to commit the result of this
careful research, conveyed in simple language, to these few sheets
of parchment.’[386] Bede tells us nothing of the birth and parentage of
Cudberct; and, though he relates an incident which occurred when
the saint was in his eighth year, and which he says Bishop Trumuini
of blessed memory affirmed that Cudberct had himself told him, he
does not indicate where or in what country he had passed his
boyhood. When he first connects Cudberct with any locality, he says
that ‘he was keeping watch over the flocks committed to his charge
on some remote mountains.’ These mountains, however, were the
southern slope of the Lammermoors, which surround the upper part
of the vale of the Leader, in Berwickshire; for the anonymous history
of St. Cuthbert, which, next to his Life by Bede, has the greatest
value, says that ‘he was watching over the flocks of his master in the
mountains near the river Leder.’[387] There ‘on a certain night, when
he was extending his long vigils in prayers, as was his wont,’ which
shows the bent of his mind towards a religious life, he had a vision in
which he saw the soul of Bishop Aidan of Lindisfarne being carried to
heaven by choirs of the heavenly host; and resolved in consequence
to enter a monastery and put himself under monastic discipline.
‘And,’ says Bede, ‘although he knew that the church of Lindisfarne
possessed many holy men by whose learning and examples he
might well be instructed, yet, allured by the fame of the exalted
virtues of Boisil, a monk and priest, he chose rather to go to Mailros.
And it happened, when he arrived there, as he leaped from his horse
and was about to enter the church to pray, that he gave his horse to
an attendant, as well as the spear which he held in his hand (for he
had not as yet laid aside his secular dress), Boisil himself, who was
standing at the gate of the monastery, first saw him.’ Boisil ‘kindly
received Cudberct as he arrived; and, on his explaining the object of
his visit, viz., that he preferred a monastery to the world, he kindly
kept him near himself, for he was the provost of that same
monastery. And after a few days, on the arrival of Eata of blessed
memory, then a priest and the abbot of that monastery of Mailros,
and afterwards abbot of Lindisfarne, and likewise bishop of the
church of Lindisfarne, Boisil spoke to him of Cudberct, and, telling
him how well disposed he was, obtained permission to give him the
tonsure, and to unite him in fellowship with the rest of the
brethren;’[388] and thus Cudberct became a monk of the monastery of
Melrose. As Bishop Aidan died in the year 651, this gives us the first
certain date in his life.
Irish Life of St. The only Life which professes to give his earlier
Cuthbert. history is ‘The Book of the Nativity of Saint
Cuthbert, taken and translated from the Irish.’[389] According to this
Life, Cuthbert was born in Ireland, of royal extraction. His mother
Sabina, daughter of the king who reigned in the city called Lainestri,
was taken captive by the king of Connathe, who slew her father and
all her family. He afterwards violated her, and then sent her to his
own mother, who adopted her, and, together with her, entered a
monastery of virgins which was then under the care of a bishop.
There Sabina gave birth to the boy Cuthbert, and the bishop
baptized him, giving him the Irish name of Mullucc. He is said to
have been born in ‘Kenanus,’ or Kells, a monastery said to have
been founded by Columba on the death of the bishop who had
educated him. His mother goes with him to Britain by the usual mode
of transit in these legends, that is, by a stone which miraculously
performs the functions of a curach, and they land in ‘Galweia, in that
region called Rennii, in the harbour of Rintsnoc,’[390] no doubt
Portpatrick in the Rinns of Galloway. Then, leaving their stone
curach, they take another vessel and go to ‘a harbour called
Letherpen in Erregaithle, a land of the Scots. This harbour is situated
between Erregaithle and Incegal, near a lake called Loicafan.’ A
harbour between Argyll and the Isles must be on its west side, and
the inlet called Lochmelfort may be meant, near the head of which is
the lake called Loch Avich; or, if Loch Awe is meant, it may have
been at Crinan, near which was Dunadd, the capital of Dalriada.[391]
Here they landed, the mother and son and three men, and wishing to
warm themselves, they collect for the purpose dry branches, and
heap them up to light a fire. The place, however, was much exposed
to robbers, and the glitter of the golden armlets of the mother
attracted the notice of some, who rushed upon her with lances, and
would have slain her, but were discomfited by the prayers of the holy
boy. From that day to this, when that spot is covered with branches
or pieces of wood, they ignite of themselves, which the inhabitants
attribute to the merits of the boy.[392] Then they go to the borders of
Scotia,[393] where Columba, the first bishop of Dunkeld, receives the
boy and educates him with a girl, a native of Ireland, named Brigida,
who tells him that the Lord destines him for the Angles in the east of
this province, but reserves her for the western population of the land
of the Irish. Here he excites the envy of three southern clerics from
the region of the Angles.[394] They then go to the island which is
called Hy, or Iona, where they remain some time with the religious
men of that place. Then they visit two brothers-german of the
mother, Meldanus and Eatanus, who were bishops in the province of
the Scots, in which each had an episcopal seat; and these take the
boy and place him under the care of a certain religious man in
Lothian, while the mother goes on a pilgrimage to Rome. In this
place in Lothian a church was afterwards erected in his honour,
which is to this day called Childeschirche, and here the book of the
nativity of St. Cuthbert, taken from the Irish histories, terminates.[395]
Childeschirche is the old name of the parish now called Channelkirk,
in the upper part of the vale of the Leader; and the Irish Life thus
lands him where Bede takes him up.
It is certainly remarkable that Bede gives no indication of
Cudberct’s nationality. He must surely have known whether he was
of Irish descent or not. He is himself far too candid and honest a
historian not to have stated the fact if it was so, and it is difficult to
avoid the suspicion that this part of his narrative was one of those
portions which he had expunged at the instance of the critics to
whom he had submitted his manuscript. Unfortunately Bede
nowhere gives us Cudberct’s age. He elsewhere calls him at this
time a young man, and he says that his life had reached to old age.
[396]
Cudberct resigned his bishopric in 686, and died in 687. He
could hardly have been under sixty at that time, and it was probably
on his attaining that age that he withdrew from active life. This would
place his birth in the year 626, and make him twenty-five when he
joined the monastery at Mailros. The Irish Life appears to have been
recognised by the monks of Durham as early as the fourteenth
century,[397] and it is perfectly possible that these events may have
taken place before Bede takes up his history, though they are
characterised by the usual anachronisms. Dunkeld was not founded
till more than a century after his death, and, as it was dedicated to
St. Columba of Iona, he no doubt appears here as its bishop half-a-
century after his death.[398] The Brigida there mentioned is also
obviously intended for St. Bridget of Kildare, who belongs to a much
earlier period; and the Bishop Eatanus, his mother’s brother, is
surely no other than Eata, abbot of Melrose, and afterwards bishop
of Lindisfarne. The truth may possibly be that he was the son of an
Irish kinglet by an Anglic mother; and this would account for her
coming to Britain with the boy, and his being placed under a master
in the vale of the Leader.
A.D. 651-661. Bede gives us no particulars of Cudberct’s life
Cudberct’s life in in the monastery of Melrose from 651, when he
the monastery of joined it, to the year 661, when he accompanies
Melrose.
Abbot Eata to Ripon, where King Alchfrid had
given the latter a certain domain to found a monastery, which he did,
and having instituted in it the same monastic discipline which he had
previously established at Mailros, Cudberct was appointed provost of
the guest-chamber. During this period of ten years we may place the
events recorded in the chapter annexed to the Irish Life. According
to this chapter, ‘after the blessed youth Cuthbert had arrived in
Scottish land, he began to dwell in different parts of the country, and
coming to a town called Dul forsook the world, and became a
solitary.’ Not more than a mile from it there is in the woods a high
and steep mountain called by the inhabitants Doilweme, and on its
summit he began to lead a solitary life. Here he brings from the hard
rock a fountain of water which still exists. Here too he erects a large
stone cross, builds an oratory of wood, and out of a single stone, not
far from the cross, constructs a bath, in which he used to immerse
himself and spend the night in prayer, which bath still exists on the
summit of the mountain. Cuthbert remains some time in the territory
of the Picts leading a solitary life, till the daughter of the king of that
province accuses him of having violated her; but, at the prayer of the
saint, the earth opened and swallowed her up at a place still called
Corruen, and it was on this account that he never permitted a female
to enter his church—‘a custom,’ says the writer, ‘which is still rigidly
observed in the country of the Picts;[399] and churches were
everywhere dedicated in his honour.’ The saint, however, would no
longer remain in these parts, but exchanged them for another part of
the country.[400] The localities here mentioned can be easily
recognised. Dul is the village of Dull in Strathtay in Atholl, where
Adamnan, not long after Cudberct’s death, founded a monastery;
and about a mile east of Dull is the church of Weem, situated under
a high cliff called the Rock of Weem, about six hundred feet high,
and in some places so steep as to be almost perpendicular.[401] In the
year 657 Osuiu, king of Northumbria, had extended his sway not
only over the Britons and Scots, but also over the territories of the
southern Picts. The district in which these places are situated was
now under the dominion of the Angles, which may have led to
Cudberct having proceeded thither. Cudberct did not remain long at
Ripon, for Bede tells us that, ‘since the whole condition of this world
is fragile and unsteady as the sea when a sudden tempest arises,
the above-named abbot Eata, with Cudberct and the rest of the
brethren whom he had brought along with him, was driven home,
and the site of the monastery he had founded was given for a
habitation to the monks.’ This sudden tempest, as we learn from
Bede’s history, was the return of St. Wilfrid to England, when King
Alchfrid, ‘who had always followed and loved the Catholic rules of
the church,’ gave him ‘the monastery of thirty families at a place
called In Wrypum (Ripon), which place he had lately given to those
that followed the doctrine of the Scots to build a monastery upon. But
forasmuch as they afterwards, being left to their choice, would rather
quit the place than adopt the Catholic Easter and other canonical
rites according to the custom of the Roman and Apostolic Church, he
gave the same to him.’[402]
A.D. 661. Boisil having soon after died, Cudberct was
Cudberct becomes appointed prior of Mailros in his room, ‘and
prior of Melrose. performed its functions for several years with so
much spiritual zeal, as became a saint, that he gave to the whole
community not only the counsels, but also the example, of a
monastic life.’ He was also zealous in converting the surrounding
populace, ‘and frequently went out from the monastery, sometimes
on horseback, but more generally on foot, and preached the way of
truth to those who were in error, as Boisil had been also wont to do
in his time in the neighbouring villages. He was also wont to seek out
and preach in those remote villages which were situated far from the
world in wild mountain places and fearful to behold, and which, as
well by their poverty as by their distance up the country, prevented
intercourse between them and such as could instruct their
inhabitants. Abandoning himself willingly to this pious work, Cudberct
cultivated these remote districts and people with so much zeal and
learning that he often did not return to his monastery for an entire
week, sometimes for two or three, yea occasionally even for an
entire month, remaining all the time in the mountains, and calling
back to heavenly concerns these rustic people by the word of his
preaching as well as by his example of virtue.’[403] It was during this
time that we find him visiting Aebbe at Coludi or Coldingham, and
spending the greater part of the night in prayer and prolonged vigils,
‘entering the sea till the water reached to his arms and neck;’ and
that on one occasion he went to the land of the ‘Niduari Picts,’ or
Picts of Galloway, who were then under the dominion of the Angles.
He is described as quitting his monastery on some affairs that
required his presence, and embarking on board a vessel for the land
of the Picts who are called Niduari, accompanied by two of the
brethren, one of whom reported the incident. They arrived there the
day after Christmas, expecting a speedy return, for the sea was
smooth and the wind favourable; but they had no sooner reached the
land than a tempest arose, by which they were detained for several
days exposed to hunger and cold; but they were, by the prayers of
the saint, supplied with food under a cliff where he was wont to pray
during the watches of the night; and on the fourth day the tempest
ceased, and they were brought by a prosperous breeze to their own
country.[404] The traces of this visit have been left in the name of
Kirkcudbright, or Church of Cuthbert.
 664.
A.D. In the year 664 the Columban Church in
Cudberct goes to Northumbria was brought to an end by the
Lindisfarne. adverse decision of the Council of Whitby, and
Bishop Colman left the country with those of his Scottish clerics who
would not conform to Rome. Eata, the abbot, however, and his
provost, Cudberct, gave in their adhesion to the Roman party, and,
at Bishop Colman’s suggestion, the monastery of Lindisfarne was
placed under Eata’s charge, who thus became abbot both of Mailros
and of Lindisfarne. To the latter monastery Eata transferred
Cudberct, ‘there to teach the rules of monastic perfection with the
authority of a superior, and to illustrate it by becoming an example of
virtue.’ He appears to have become zealous in endeavouring to
assimilate the Scottish system to the customs of the Roman Church,
for Bede tells us that there still remained ‘in the monastery certain
monks who chose rather to follow their ancient custom than to obey
the new rule. These, nevertheless, he overcame by the modest
power of his patience, and by daily practice he brought them by little
and little to a better disposition.’[405] In the meantime Tuda, who had
been initiated and ordained bishop among the southern Scots of
Ireland, having also the coronal tonsure according to the custom of
that province, and observing the Catholic time of Easter, and had
come from thence while Colman was yet bishop, was appointed
bishop of the Northumbrians in his place. ‘He was a good and
religious man,’ says Bede, ‘but governed his church a very short
time,’ being cut off by the great pestilence of that year.[406] King
Alchfrid had sent Wilfrid to Gaul to be consecrated bishop over him
and his people, and being still absent, King Osuiu sent Ceadda,
abbot of the monastery of Laestingaeu, who had been one of Bishop
Aidan’s disciples, to Kent to be ordained bishop of the church of
York, where, as the archbishop had just died, he was consecrated
bishop by Bishop Vini of Wessex, to whom were joined two bishops
of the British nation who adhered to the Roman party.
A.D. 669-678. Wilfrid now returned from Gaul a consecrated
St. Wilfrid bishop bishop. ‘Whence it followed,’ says Bede, ‘that the
over all the Catholic institution gained strength, and all the
dominions of King
Scots that dwelt among the Angles either
Osuiu, and founds
church of Hexham, submitted to these persons or returned to their
which he own country.’ Ceadda soon gave way to Wilfrid,
dedicates to St. and was translated to the province of the
Andrew.
Mercians; while from the year 669 to 678, when
he was expelled, Wilfrid administered the bishopric of York and of all
the Northumbrians, and likewise of the Picts as far as the dominions
of King Osuiu extended. During the period of his episcopate, Wilfrid,
as we are informed by Eddi, founded the monastery of Hagustald, or
Hexham, in the valley of the Tyne, the district having been given him
by the queen Etheldreda, whose property it appears to have been;
and he dedicated it to St. Andrew,[407] in commemoration of an early
incident in his life recorded by Eddi, who tells us that, when he first
conceived the purpose of endeavouring to turn the Northumbrians
from the Columban institutions to Rome, he went in Rome to a
church dedicated to St. Andrew, and there knelt before the altar and
prayed to God, through the merits of his holy martyr Andrew, that He
would grant him the power of reading the Gospels aright, and of
preaching the eloquence of the Evangelists to the people. His prayer
was answered by the gift of persuasive eloquence; and feeling
himself peculiarly under the guidance of that apostle, he dedicated
his monastery of Hexham to him. And thus were the dedications to
St. Andrew first introduced into the northern parts of Britain.
A.D. 670. Returning to Cudberct, after he had been
Cudberct twelve years in charge of the monastery of
withdraws to the Lindisfarne, he resolved, according to the custom
Farne island.
of the time, to withdraw from the monastery and
lead a solitary life in some remote island. Bede tells us that he had
already ‘begun to learn the rudiments of a solitary life, and that he
used to withdraw into a certain place which is yet discernible on the
outside of his cell, than which it is more secluded.’ This place can
still be identified. It is a low detached portion of the basaltic line of
rock which runs in front of the ruins of the priory at the south-west
corner of the island of Lindisfarne, which becomes an islet at high-
water, while at low-water it is accessible by a ridge of stone covered
with sea-weed. It still bears his name; and here subsequently existed
a small chapel dedicated to him, which was called ‘the Chapel of St.
Cuthbert on the Sea.’[408] Bede tells us that ‘when he had for a while
learned as a recluse to contend thus with the invisible enemy by
prayer and fasting, then in course of time he ventured still higher,
and sought a place of conflict farther off and more remote from the
abode of men.’ For this purpose he retired to the solitary island of
Farne, at a greater distance from the mainland than Lindisfarne, and
then uninhabited. It is about two miles and a half from the mainland,
and presents to the land a perpendicular front of about 40 feet in
height, from which there extends a grassy plain. Here he constructed
an anchorite’s cell; and the description which Bede gives of it affords
us a good idea of what such establishments usually were. ‘How this
dwelling-place,’ says Bede, ‘was nearly circular, in measure from
wall to wall about four or five perches. The wall itself externally was
higher than the stature of a man, but inwardly, by cutting the living
rock, the pious inhabitant thereof made it much higher, in order by
this means to curb the petulance of his eyes as well as of his
thoughts, and to raise up the whole bent of his mind to heavenly
desires, since he could behold nothing from his mansion except
heaven. He constructed this wall not of hewn stone, nor of brick and
mortar, but of unwrought stones and turf, which he dug out of the
centre of the place. Of these stones, some were of such a size that it
seemed scarcely possible for four men to lift them; nevertheless it
was discovered that he had brought them from another place and
put them on the wall, assisted by heavenly aid. His dwelling-place
was divided into two parts—an oratory, namely, and another dwelling
suitable for common uses. He constructed the walls of both by
digging round, or by cutting out much of the natural earth, inside and
outwardly, but the roof was formed of rough beams and thatched
with straw. Moreover, at the landing-place of the island there was a
large house, in which the monks, when they came to see him, might
be received and rest; and not far from this there was a fountain of
water adapted for the supply of their wants.’ The remains of this
establishment can still be traced on the island, and here, ‘having
constructed the above abode and outhouses with the aid of the
brethren, Cudberct, the man of God, began now to dwell alone.’[409]
He had hardly done so two years when a discussion broke out
between Wilfrid and King Ecgfrid. Wilfred was expelled from his see,
‘and two bishops were substituted in his stead to preside over the
nation of the Northumbrians—viz., Bosa, to preside over the
province of the Deiri, and Eata, over that of the Bernicians—the
former having his episcopal chair in the city of York, the latter, in the
church of Hagustald, or Hexham, or else in that of Lindisfarne, both
of them being promoted to the episcopal dignity from a college of
monks.’ Three years afterwards the great diocese of York was still
further divided, and two other bishops were added to their number
—‘Tunberct, in the church of Hagustald, while Eata remained in that
of Lindisfarne, and Trumuini in the province of the Picts, which at that
time was subject to the Angles.’[410]
A.D. 684. Cudberct had remained eight years in his
Cudberct becomes solitude when Tunberct was for some cause
bishop of deposed from his bishopric, and, at a great synod
Lindisfarne.
assembled at Twyford on the Alne, in the year
684, in presence of King Ecgfrid, and presided over by Theodore,
archbishop of Canterbury, Cudberct by the unanimous consent of all
was elected to the bishopric of Hagustald in his place, and was
consecrated bishop at the Easter of the following year in the city of
York, and in presence of King Ecgfrid, ‘seven bishops meeting at the
consecration, among whom Theodore was primate;’ but, as he
preferred being placed over the church of Lindisfarne, in which he
had lived, it was thought fit that Eata should return to the see of the
church of Hagustald, over which he had been first ordained, and
Cudberct should take upon him the government of the church of
Lindisfarne. This was done, says the anonymous history, ‘with the
general assent of King Ecgfrid and of the archbishop and these
seven bishops and of all the magnates.’[411] Two months after his
consecration as bishop King Ecgfrid was slain in the battle of
Dunnechtain by the Picts, Trumuini fled from his diocese, and the
dominion of the Angles over the Picts, Scots and Strathclyde Britons
came to an end.
A.D. 684. Cudberct, who had accepted the bishopric with
Cudberct becomes great reluctance, after he had filled the office for
bishop of two years from his election, becoming aware that
Lindisfarne.
his end was drawing near, resolved to lay down
his pastoral office and return to his solitary life; and after making a
complete visitation not only of his diocese but also of all the other
dwellings of the faithful, in order to confirm all with the needful word
of exhortation, he, soon after Christmas in the year 686, returned to
the hermit’s life he loved so well, in his cell in the island of Farne.
And as a crowd of the brethren stood around him as he was going
abroad, one of them asked him, ‘Tell us, lord bishop, when we may
hope for your return.’ And Cudberct, who knew the truth, answered
his simple question as simply, saying, ‘When you shall bring my body
hither.’ ‘After he had passed nearly two months,’ says Bede, ‘greatly
exulting in the repose which he had regained, he was seized with a
sudden illness, and by the fire of temporal pain he began to be
prepared for the joys of everlasting happiness.’ The account which
Bede gives us of his death was, he says, narrated to him by Herefrid,
a devout and religious priest, who at that time presided over the
monastery of Lindisfarne as abbot, and was with Cudberct when he
died. It is too long for insertion, but one or two incidents recorded by
him throw light upon some points relevant to our inquiry.
A.D. 687. ‘After three weeks of continued wasting
Death of Cudberct. infirmity, Cudberct came to his end thus. He
began to be taken ill on the fourth day of the week, and in like
manner on the fourth day of the week, his sickness having been
accomplished, he departed to the Lord.’ Herefrid visited him on the
morning after he was taken ill, and when he took leave of him, and
said, ‘Give us your blessing, for it is time for us to go on board and
return home,’—‘Do as you say,’ he said; ‘go on board and return
home safe; and when God shall have taken my soul bury me in this
cell, at the south side of my oratory, opposite the east side of the
holy cross which I have erected there. Now there is at the north of
the same oratory a stone coffin, hidden by sods,[412] which formerly
the venerable abbot Cudda presented to me. Place my body in that,
and wrap it in the fine linen which you will find there.’ Herefrid was
prevented from returning by a storm which lasted five days, but,
when calm weather returned, he went back to the island and found
that Cudberct had left his monastery and was sitting in the house
built outside the enclosure for the reception of visitors, in order that
any of the brethren who came to minister to him should find him
there, and have no need to enter his cell. When Herefrid returned to
Lindisfarne, he told the brethren that their venerable father had given
orders that he should be buried in his own island; they resolved
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