DESIGN OF FOOD PROCESSES AND

FOOD PROCESSING PLANTS

 PROCESS DESIGN
Process design refers to the design of food processes and
manufacturing methods,including process flow sheets,design
of processing and control equipment,and economic evaluation
of the process
 PLANT DESIGN
• Plant design refers to the design of the whole processing
plant,including the processing /control equipment,the utilities,the
plant buildings and the waste treatment units.
• Both process and plant design are the basic parts of feasibility and
implementation studies of an industrial project,such as a food
processing plant
The necessary phases for realizing an industrial
project include:

1.The preliminary study

2.The feasibility study and
3.The implementation of the project
• The feasibility study includes most of the technical and economic
information obtained in process and plant design

• The implementation phase involves detailed

engineering,construction,supply of equipment,and plant erection and
start-up.
 Modern process and plant design must
reduce:
• Raw material costs
• Capital investment
• Plant energy consumption
• Inventory in the plant and
• The amount of pollutants generated
Process design includes:

• The synthesis
• Analysis
• Evaluation and
• Optimization of process alternatives
 The engineering part of a project design involves
basically:
• The development of the process flowsheet
• The material and energy balances,and
• The sizing of the process equipment
 In addition,the following essential components of the process
plant should be considered:
• Plant location
• Utilities
• Plant layout
• Buildings
• Plant operation and control
• Health and safety
• Waste disposal
• Personnel and legal requirements(restrictions)
 PROCESS FLOWSHEETS

• It represent graphically the required process equipment and the flow of

materials and utilities in an industrial plant
• The simplest diagram of a process is the Process Block
Diagram(PBD),which is used mainly for material and energy balances.
• The most important representation is the Process Flowsheet
Diagram(PFD),which is used in the preliminary design of process
equipment and processing plants.
• The Process Control Diagram(PCD),shows the automatic control of the
processing plant.
• The Piping and Instrumentation Diagram(PID),indicate the details of
piping and process instrumentation of the plant.
 TYPES OF PROCESS DESIGN
• There are several types of process and plant design,ranging from
simple estimations of low accuracy to high-accuracy detailed design.
• Simple and preliminary estimates are employed to obtain an
approximate idea of the required equipment and investment.
• While a detailed design with drawings and specifications is used for
the construction,operation,and control of the processing plant.
 TYPES OF CHEMICAL PROCESS DESIGN
DESIGN/ESTIMATE ACCURACY(%) DESIGN COST(% OF INVESTMENT)

Ratio Estimate 40 0.1

Factored Estimate 25 0.2

Preliminary Estimate 15 1.0

Definitive Estimate 10 1.5

Detailed Design 5 2.5

The Ratio or Order of Magnitude Estimate is based on data from a
similar previous process/plant.
The Factored or Study Estimate is based on known data of major equipment.
The Preliminary or Budget Authorization Estimate is based on sufficient
data to proceed with the design project.
The Definitive or Project Control Estimate is based on almost complete data
before preparing the drawings and specifications.
The Detailed Design or The Contractor’s Estimate is based on complete
data,engineering drawings,and specifications for equipment and plant site.
The accuracy of the estimation varies from 40%(ratio method) to
5%(detailed design)
• The first three estimation methods are known as Predesign
Estimates

• The most common cost estimates are the preliminary and detailed
designs with accuracies of 15 and 5%.
 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES
• The design of process equipment and plant utilities is based primarily on
material and energy(heat)balances
• Which are usually calculated on the process block diagram(PBD)
• Two general methods of calculations are usually applied:
1. The modular
2. The equation-oriented approach
• In the modular approach,three types of equations are solved separately:
1. The connectivity equations of the units of the flow sheet
2. The transport rate and equilibrium equations for each unit
3. The equations for the physical, thermodynamic, equilibrium, and
transport properties
• In the equation-oriented mode, all of the process equations are
combined (material/energy balances, thermodynamic and transport,
equipment performance, kinetic, and physical property) into a large ,
sparse equation set, which is solved simultaneously, usually applying
a Newton-type equation solver.
• The models for material/energy balances are simplified into linear
equations by assuming ideal solutions and saturated liquid or vapor
streams.
• The calculations of material and energy balances are usually made by
hand, or by PC computers, using simple Excel spreadsheets, or data
tables.
• For complex, nonideal processes,rigorous methods are employed,
requiring special computer algorithms.
• The physical and transport properties of the materials are obtained
from standard books or databases.
 DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT
• In preliminary estimations,the approximate size of the process
equipment is needed for economic evaluation and subsequent
detailed calculations for the processing plant
• Material and energy balances,based on the process flow sheet,are
used as a basis for the estimation of the various units
• A fixed feed rate is assumed (kg/h or tons/h)and all of the materials
and heat flows in each unit are calculated
• Transport rate equations and equilibrium relationships are
used,including mechanical transfer(pumping),heat transfer,mass
transfer,reaction rate,and phase
equilibria(vapour/liquid,liquid/liquid,and fluid/solid)
• The physical and engineering properties of the materials being
processed are needed under the actual conditions of
concentration,temperature and pressure
• Empirical data and “rules of thumb” are used to facilitate the various
design calculations,such as the design velocities(μ) in process pipes.
• The design of chemical process equipment is based on the principles
of unit operations and process engineering.
• Equipment design yields quantitative data on required
equipment,such as dimensions of pipes,power of pumps,surface area
of heat exchangers,surface area of evaporator heaters,dimensions of
distillation or extraction columns, and dimensions of dryers.
• In equipment sizing,a safety or overdesign factor of 15-20% is
normally used.
• When specialized or nonconventional equipment is needed,detailed
specifications are required which will help the fabricator to
construct the appropriate unit(eg., filters,chemical reactors,special
dryers, and distillation columns).
• Sometimes, special equipment is needed for a new process, for which
there is no industrial experience.
• In such cases,a pilot plant installation may be required, which will
supply the specifications for the desired industrial equipment.
• The utilities or auxiliary facilities,which are necessary for the
operation of the processing plants, include
energy,water,steam,electricity,compressed air,refrigeration, and waste
disposal.
• Energy in the form of heat or electricity is needed for the operation of
the plant.
• Water is supplied from the municipality or from the surrounding plant
area (drilled wells,rivers,or lakes) and is required for
process,sanitary,and safety uses.
• High-pressure steam may be used for power generation,and the
exhaust steam is utilized for process heating.
• Waste disposal involves the treatment of liquid,gas/vapour, and solid
wastes.
• The selection of the materials of construction of process equipment is very
important from the economic,operational, and maintenance points of
view.
• Corrosion-resistant materials such as stainless steels may be required in
handling and processing corrosive fluids.
• National and international construction codes are necessary for plant and
worker protection, and for standardization of the process equipment.
• Some of the codes related to chemical process equipment are:
ASME-pressure vessels
TEMA-heat exchangers
ANSI –piping and instrumentation
DIN -materials and construction
 PLANT LAYOUT AND BUILDINGS
• The layout of process and utility equipment is essential to ensure the
safety , operability , and economic viability of any process plant ,and
for planning future extensions
• A balance of many technical , operational ,and economic factors must
be achieved
• Plant layout follows the development of the PFD and the preliminary
sizing of the process equipment , and is necessary before piping,
structural, and electrical design.
• The layout of equipment should allow for a safe distance between the
units, facilitating the operation, servicing, and cleaning of each unit.
• Plant buildings are needed mainly to house the process and utilities
equipment, the storage areas, the plant offices and labs, and the
personnel common rooms (cafeterias,washrooms).
• In choosing the plant location, several factors should be considered:
Including raw materials, markets for the products, energy and
water supplies, waste disposal, labor supply, legal restrictions, and
living conditions.
• In the installation of plant equipment, special attention should be
paid to the foundations of the heavy units,considering also any
vibrations of rotating/reciprocating equipment.
• In the construction of industrial buildings, the local and federal
(national) regulations and codes should be followed, particularly
those that are related to the health and safety of the workers and the
consumers, and the protection of the natural environment.
 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS IN PROCESS/PLANT
DESIGN
(a) Fixed Capital Investment:
• Cost analysis is an important part of process and plant design.
• Fixed Capital Investment in process equipment,manufacturing costs,
and general expenses should be considered in the early stages of
design.
• The fixed capital investment in process plants consists of a number of
items,which depend on the type of plant and the manufactured
products.
 COST OF EQUIPMENT
• The most accurate cost estimation for process equipment is to obtain
a price quotation from a reliable vendor(supplier of equipment).
• Specification sheets for each process unit should be prepared for the
equipment supplier.
• The specifications should contain basic design data, materials of
construction, and special information that will help the supplier to
provide the appropriate equipment.
• Standardized equipment should be preferred because of lower cost
and faster delivery.
 ENGINEERING COST INDICES
• The cost of process equipment and processing plants changes over
the years, due to inflation and other economic factors, and there is a
constant need for updating the cost data.
• For this reason cost indices or empirical rules are used, like the M&S
Index(Marshall and Swift, formerly Marshall and Stevens).
• The M&S equipment index is the weighed average of the cost of
equipment for eight chemical process industries, including
chemicals,petroleum, and paper.
• It takes into consideration the cost of machinery and major
equipment, plus costs of installation,fixtures,tools,office furniture,
and other minor equipment.
The CE(Chemical Engineering) plant cost index, is the weighted average
of chemical plant costs(66 items, including equipment, buildings, and
engineering).
 MANUFACTURING COST AND PROFITABILITY
a. Manufacturing Cost:
• The main objective of process economics is the profit on the invested
capital, some other criteria should also be considered in designing
and building a chemical process plant.
• The plant should be operated and controlled safely for the workers,
the products should be safe and without adverse health effects to the
consumers, and the environment should not be damaged by plant
wastes.
The manufacturing cost, usually calculated in USD/year, consists of two
basic parts:

(1) The direct or variable operating cost, which includes the cost of raw
materials, labor, utilities, overhead, and the administrative costs
and
(2) The indirect or fixed charges (USD/year),consisting of the
depreciation of the fixed investment, and the taxes/insurance.
• Depreciation is usually taken as 8% of the fixed investment,ie., the
fixed capital will be recovered in 12 years.
• The product cost (USD/kg) is calculated by dividing the manufacturing
cost by the annual production rate (kg/year).
b. Profitability

• Process profitability can be estimated by the following simple economic

calculations:
1) Gross profit = gross sales – manufacturing cost
2) Gross profit before taxes = gross profit – sales etc. expenses
3) Net annual cash flow = gross profit before taxes – taxes
4) Return on investment = ACF/FI
5) Payback time = FI/(ACF + AD)
Where FI = Fixed Investment
ACF = net Annual Cash Flow
AD = Annual Depreciation
 BREAK-EVEN POINT(B.E.P)
• The processing plant should be operated so that the total income is
higher than the total product (operating) cost, and a reasonable profit
is realized.
• At low rates of production, the total income is lower than the total
product cost, because the fixed costs (eg., depreciation, maintenance)
remain constant, and a financial loss is obtained.
• The rate of production above which the operation is profitable is
called the “break-even point”.
• The B.E.P. is that point at which the organisation makes no profit and
no loss.
• At this point revenue is just sufficient to cover all costs without
resulting in either a profit or loss.
• If the volume of production exceeds this level (B.E.P. Level), there will
be profit and if the volume of production falls below this level, there
will be loss.
• The BEP is the indicator of the production level and so it is considered
as an important tool in the hands of the management.
Generalized “break-even” diagram of a processing plant.
• Here, there is an optimum operating rate of production(point M-
Maximum profit), where the net profit is maximized.
• In the diagram,the “break-even point” is at a production capacity of
about 50% of the maximum plant capacity, and the optimum
operation is at about 80% of maximum capacity.
• The optimum operating capacity may not be the maximum
production capacity.
 CLASSIFICATION OF UNIT OPERATIONS OF FOOD
PROCESSING
GROUP OF OPERATIONS TYPICAL FOOD PROCESSING OPERATIONS
Mechanical Processing Peeling, cutting, slicing, Size reduction,Sorting,
Grading, Mixing, Emulsification
Assembly Operations Agglomeration, Extrusion, Forming
Mechanical Seperations Screening, Cleaning, Washing, Filtration, Mechanical
Expression, Centrifugation
Mechanical Transport Pumping of fluids, Pneumatic Conveying, Hydraulic
Conveying, Mechanical Conveying
Heat transfer operations Heating, Blanching, Cooking, Frying, Pasteurization,
Sterilization, Evaporation, Cooling, Freezing, Thawing
Mass transfer operations Drying, Extraction, Distillation, Absorption, Adsorption,
Crystallization from solution, Ion exchange
Membrane Separations Ultrafiltration, Reverse osmosis
Fermentation Alcoholic fermentations, Lactic fermentations, Dairy
fermentations
Nonthermal preservation Irradiation, High pressure Pulsed electric Fields
 FOOD PLANT DESIGN
• The Preliminary design
• The Detailed design
• The Construction of buildings and utilities
• The installation of equipment
• The plant start-up
 Elements of Food Plant Design
a) General Aspects:
• The basic departments of a food processing facility are :
(1) delivery, (2) temporary storage of raw matrials,(3) storage of other
materials used in food processing,(4) processing, (5) product
storage,including cold rooms (6) utilities, (7) effluent treatment, (8)
laboratory and R&D, (9) offices, and (10) employee facilities room.
• Proper plant layout is essential for efficient operation, food safety,
and effective plant and equipment maintenance.
• Plant design refers either to the construction of new
processing/manufacturing plants or to the improvement or expansion
of existing/operating plants.
• In the later cases, a detailed evaluation of the existing operation is
necessary,before any commitments are made.
• The adopted solutions should be introduced into the plant as
smoothly as possible, without disturbing the existing operation.
Plant design can be divides into two general types:

1) Long-term design, applied to new manufacturing lines of the same

or new products.
• It may also be applied in a step-by-step renovation of a process or a
whole plant
2) Short-term design, which aims at meeting and solving urgent
problems, such as replacing existing processes or equipment.
• In all types of food plant design, the main goal is the achievement of
the best possible results with respect to quality requirements, high
productivity, and low cost.
 TYPICAL REQUIREMENTS OF FOOD PROCESSING
OPERATIONS AND EQUIPMENT ARE:
1. Production rate:
• Processing should be as fast as possible, in order to reduce the danger
of microbial spoilage and infection, and prevent quality degradation.
eg., vitamin loss due to prolonged heat treatment
• Production rate should keep step with the minimalrequirements of
the applied process,eg., time-temperature requirement.
2. Heat application:
• In most cases heat must be applied at the lowest possible level to
prevent quality losses.
3. Standardization:
• Standardization is applied to simplify processing and control
operations.
4. Sanitation:
• Hygienic (sanitary) conditions must cover the entire manufacturing
spectrum, from raw materials lines to final products, covering
processes, equipment, buildings, and personnel.
 NEW FOOD PLANTS
In planning a new food plant, several factors should be considered, including the
following basic requirements:
1) Location:
• The right choice of plant location is important for present and future processing
operations.
• Plants processing large quantities of raw materials (eg., sugar beets) into products
to be shipped to distant markets must be located near the agricultural production.
• Plants using large quantities of imported raw materials (eg., oilseeds) must be
located near sea harbors.
• Plants processing products of short shelf life, like fresh milk, must be located near
consumption centers.
• Other important factors, determining plant location are: land cost, transportation
facilities, climate, water supply, legislation, taxation and regional infrastructure.
2) Product/Process:
• The physical state of the raw materials and products (liquids or solids)
affects decisively plant sign.
• Thus, gravity flow of the materials can be utilized in processing liquids
and grains.
• In planning a dehydration plant, low-humidity packaging and storage
areas are needed, while high humidity is needed in packaging and
cold storage of ready-to-eat vegetables and fruit salads.
3) Food Hygiene:
• Hygiene (sanitation) is a fundamental requirement of all food plant
operations: processing, packaging, storage, buildings, and personnel.
• Microbial and nonmicrobial contamination should be prevented by
proper design and operation of all processing equipment, and the
entire plant.
4) Plant Safety:
• Safety of personnel, products, and plant facilities(hazardous
operations,HAZOP) should be considered in any plant design.
• For fire hazards, electric motors, dust explosions etc., are used
• Dust explosions are important in processing and storage of food powders.
• Moisture-proof electric motors must be used in damp environments, such
as canning.
• Explosion-proof electric motors should be used for dusty environments,
such as grain mills and powder conveyors.
• Steam boiler should be located in a separate boiler house to confine any
explosion hazard.
• Plant layout and construction should prevent accidents by the
personnel,eg., special floor coatings, and protective rails in silos.
• The noise level in the processing areas should not cause health problems in
the operators.
• Maximum noise levels,according to Directive 86/188 of the EU, should not
exceed 90 dB in 8-hour work, and 93 dB for 4-hour work near the noisy
equipment.
• In some processing areas, the noise level may be excessive, eg., 90-110 dB
in a bottling plant.
• In such cases, the operators must take protective measures such as wearing
earmuffs.
• Noise can be reduced by proper selection of equipment, better foundations
and seating of equipment with moving parts, gentle conveying, and
isolation of noisy equipment in special rooms.
5) Food Storage:
• Storage facilities are influenced by the type of raw material, process,
and product.
6) Flexibility:
• In some food plants, the processing operations must be modified
according to the nature of the raw materials.
• Adjustment of equipment and operating lines should be made
without disrupting the whole operation and losing valuable time.
• Plant design should account for periodic cleanup of processing
equipment in order to maintain efficiency and hygienic conditions.
 PLANT IMPROVEMENT
• Improvement or adjustment of existing plants is a continuous task in food manufacturing
plants.
• Plant improvements may include the following:
1) Production: Food quality and plant productivity may be improved through new and
better processing methods and equipment.
2) Conveyance: Increasing the speed of conveyance/transportation of raw material and
products will reduce losses through spoilage and mechanical injury.
3) Storage: Better storage facilities and conditions will reduce quality losses and minimize
logistic costs.
4) Energy: Reduction eg., of heat losses by insulation of equipment, and control of
electrical losses.
5) Buildings: Better use of building space, and insulation of buildings.
6) Environment: Utilization of specific environmental conditions, eg., low air temperature
in potato storage. Elimination or reduction of environmental burden of water effluents,
air pollutants, solid waste, thermal pollution, and noise
7) Management: Greater effectiveness in all fields of the enterprise.